Attitude 3

Exploring the Gap Between Consumers' Green Rhetoric and Purchasing Behaviour
Author(s): Micael-Lee Johnstone and Lay Peng Tan

Source: Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 132, No. 2 (December 2015), pp. 311-328
Published by: Springer
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/24703542
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J Bus Ethics (2015) 132:311-328
DOI 10.1007/s 10551 -014-2316-3 CrossMark
Exploring the Gap Between Consumer

and Purchasing Behaviour
Micael-Lee Johnstone • Lay Peng Tan
Received: 3 January 2014/Accepted: 30 July 2014/Published online: 15 Augu

© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
Introduction
Abstract Why do consumers who profess to be con
cerned about the environment choose not to buy greener
products more regularly or even at all? concern
Environmental This isstudy explores
indisputably an important topic
how consumers' perceptions towards green
for both marketing products,
practitioners and policycon
makers today.
sumers and consumption practices
Not only
(termed
because there are
green
heightened
percep
concerns about the
tions) contribute to our understanding of
impact consumers' the
buying anddiscrepancy
consumption behaviours are
having on the environment
between green attitudes and behaviour. This study (Johnson et al. 2008), but
identi
fied several barriers to ethical consumption
because behaviour
businesses are facing increased pressure to incor
within a green consumption context. Three
porate environmental key
and social themes
responsibilities into their
emerged from the study, 'it is too hard
corporate toInbe
strategies. fact,green', 'green
corporate social responsibility
is deemed
stigma' and 'green reservations'. There to beis
"a base requirement ofaoperating
currently per in the
21st century that
ception, based on a number of factors, and is not
itanis
option"
too(Charter
hardetto
al. 2002,
be green, which creates a barrier to purchasing
p. 8). As Nielsen's (2014) Global Online green
Environment and
products. Furthermore, some consumers were
Sustainability study revealedreluctant or
(it surveyed 30,000 respon
resistant to participate in greendents
consumption
in 60 countries), 55 % practices due
of their respondents stated that
to their unfavourable perceptions of be
they would green consumers
"willing to and
pay more for products and ser
green messages. This article suggests that
vices provided from green
companies percep
that are committed to
tions may influence consumers' positive
intention to purchase
social and environmental impact". green
Therefore, it is
not surprising
products. Accordingly, it discusses with statistics such as these
the implications, and that many
suggests avenues for future research.
companies have begun offering environmentally friendly
product options. However, consumers' uptake of green
Key words Green attitude-behaviour gap
products has not kept pace•with
Green
their growing concerns for
perceptions • Environmentally the
conscious behaviour
environment. For • survey a quarter
instance, in a recent
Theory of planned behaviour of UK consumers said they would be willing to pay more
for ethical, organic and greener cleaning products (Butler
2013). Yet, the home care market in the UK continued to
M.-L. Johnstone (CE3) be dominated by conventional brands (brands that are not
School of Marketing & Internationalpromoted
Business, Victoria
as environmentally friendly) between 2008 and
University of Wellington, PO Box 600, Wellington 6140,
New Zealand
2013 (Euromonitor International 2013). Likewise in Aus
e-mail: micael-lee.johnstone@vuw.ac.nz tralia, Nature's Organics, the first and largest local player
to market its home care products based on green image
L. P. Tan
held only a 3 % value share in the overall Australian home
Department of Marketing and Management, Faculty of Business
care market in 2011 (Euromonitor International 2012b, c).
and Economics, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109,
Australia Therefore, despite consumers' positive attitudes about the
e-mail: laypeng.tan@mq.edu.au environment, and their growing environmental
Springe
312 M.-L. Johnstone, L. P. Tan
consciousness (e.g. CEAP 2007

several studies have revealed a
green attitudes and behaviour (
2001; Chatzidakis et al. 2004; Pi
2008). As Carrington et al. (2010
many consumers do not alwa
instance, some consumers contin
hazardous products regardless o
alternatives (e.g. Strong 1996). purchasing environmentally friendly products, recycling,
Over the past few decades, numerous theoretical protecting waterways and so on. Green consumption has
frameworks have been developed to explain this attitude- been viewed as a subset of ethical consumption (Carrington
behaviour discrepancy but no definitive explanation has yet et al. 2010). The key difference between the two is that
been found (Kollmuss and Agyeman 2002). The gap green consumption focuses on the environment and green
between consumers' positive attitudes towards green issues issues only, whereas ethical consumption also includes
and their inconsistent and often conflicting consumption society at large, such as workers' rights, arms trade and fair
behaviour remains a concern for social marketers and trade (Shaw and Shiu 2002), which is expressed through
policymakers (Moraes et al. 2012) because the current one's consumption or purchase behaviour,
levels of consumption and consumers' consumption choi- Our article begins with a brief overview of the green
ces are not environmentally sustainable. Research, such as attitude-behaviour literature. We then discuss the qualita
tiv 2006 European Environmental Impact of Products five methods that were used to explore this phenomenon,
(EIPRO) project, highlights the impact that consumers can followed by a discussion of the key findings. We conclude
have on the environment, as it revealed that housing, the article with suggestions for future research,
transport and food are responsible for 70 % of the envi
ronmental impacts in most categories (Tukker and Jansen
2006). Although as Lebel and Lorek (2008, p. 242) stress, How Predictable is Green Consumption Behaviour?
the pursuit of sustainability in a location, sector, or life can
often unravel at the edges because efforts to tackle envi- Demographic and Motivational Factors
ronmental problems in one place can shift somewhere else.
Hence, one needs to look at the issue of sustainability from To gain a greater understanding of green consumption
a production-consumption systems perspective, i.e. look at practices many researchers in the past have tried to define
production and consumption jointly (Lebel and Lorek the green consumer. Indeed, a substantial amount of effort
2008). Likewise, as Moraes et al. (2012, p. 124) state, "if has gone into defining and profiling green consumer seg
we are to succeed in promoting sustainability, we need to ments, primarily in socio-demographic terms (e.g. Kinnear
recognise that sustainable development is a social et al. 1974; Laroche et al. 2001; Robert and James 1999;
proposition". van Liere and Dunlap 1981), and psychographic terms (e.g.
Whilst past research reveals that factors such as price, Shrum et al. 1995). Howe
perceived performance and trust are some of the reasons erated inconsistent thus
why consumers choose not to buy greener products (e.g. several researchers to con
Gleim et al. 2013; Gupta and Ogden 2009; Pickett-Baker in the use of socio-demo
and Ozaki 2008), we still have an incomplete understand- trying to understand gr
ing of the gap between consumers' green rhetoric and amantopoulos et al. 2003; R
purchasing behaviour. Why do consumers who profess to consumption behaviour
be concerned about the environment choose not to buy teristics of the consumer
greener products regularly or at all? This study proposes Accordingly, some studi
that exploring consumers' perceptions towards green con- segment green consu
sumption practices, green products, green consumers and sumption behaviours. Fo
green communications (termed green perceptions) may motivational drivers foun
offer new insights into the green attitude-behaviour gap affect (e.g. Chan 2001); p
because at the heart of consumer perceptions are perceptual 1996), e.g. allergies
interpretations and perceptual judgements; and this is what example, living close to na
shapes consumers' attitudes and behaviours. In doing so, natural environment (e.g
our study aims to gain further insights into why there is a affinity towards natu
green attitude-behaviour gap. green consumption behaviour. At the same time, other
<£) Springer
Consumers' Green Rhetoric and Purchasing Behaviour 313
studies have revealed that some people use ethics to align beh
themselves to a cause, such as adopting green consumption
practices, e.g. recycling, purchasing green products and so in
on (e.g. McDonald et al. 2012; Newholm and Shaw 2007). socia
(Regis 1990 as cited in Kollmuss
Environmental Knowledge and Awareness However, the relationship between green attitudes and
behaviour has been a contentious one. In a recent global
Researchers have also looked at environmental knowledge survey by Euromonitor, 53 % of the total 15,933 respon
when exploring green attitudes and behaviour. This is dents from eight markets (Brazil, China, France, Germany,
because environmental knowledge is frequently assumed to India, Japan, UK and US) cited "green/environmentally"
drive green consumption behaviour (e.g. Bartkus et al. to be an important consideration when purchasing a prod
1999; Schlegelmilch et al. 1996) based on a linear pro- uct or service (Euromonitor International 2012a). With
gression model that knowledge leads to environmental such high levels of environmental concern, one would
awareness and concern, which in turn is thought to con- expect environmentally friendly products to be highly
tribute to pro-environmental behaviour (Kollmuss and sought after. But they are not. That is, consumers' positive
Agyeman 2002). However, the empirical evidence for this attitudes about the environment do not necessarily translate
relationship is far from clear (Chan 2001). A meta-analysis into actual purchase behaviour (e.g. Carrigan and Attalla
of 128 studies by Hines and colleagues (1987) found that 2001; Chatzidakis et al. 2004; Gupta and Ogden 2009;
there was only an average correlation of r = 0.299 Pickett-Baker and Ozaki 2008). This phenomenon is gen
between environmental knowledge and behaviour amongst erally known as the "attitude-behaviour gap" or the
the 17 studies that dealt with cognitive variables. As "green gap".
Kollmuss and Agyeman (2002, p. 241) stressed, "envi- Given the documented weak linkages between attitudes
ronmental knowledge per se is not a prerequisite for pro- and behaviour in the ethical consumption, environmental
environmental behaviour", as most people have insuffi- and social marketing literature (e.g. Bray et al. 2011;
cient knowledge about environmental issues to act envi- Moraes et al. 2012; Pickett-Baker and Ozaki 2008), the
ronmentally responsibly. And yet, as Kollmuss and discrepancy between pro-environmental attitudes and
Agyeman's (2002) review also revealed, consumers' pro- actual purchase behaviour is not necessarily surprising,
environmental behaviours did not necessarily increase Perhaps, this is because consumers are not as ethically
when they were provided with very detailed technical minded as we would like to believe. As Carrigan and At
information; as they discussed, early rationalist models talla's (2001) study revealed, ethical considerations are not
assumed people would engage in more pro-environmental necessarily factored into purchase decisions,
behaviours if they were educated about environmental Conversely, other researchers, such as Auger and De
issues. This perspective, which was proven wrong, sur- vinney (2007), suggest that traditional survey methods used
prised Kollmuss and Agyeman (2002, p. 241) because in ethical consumption studies have overstated the impor
"common sense tells us that changing behaviour is very tance of ethical issues and its influence on purchase
difficult". Perhaps, the biggest assumption underpinning intention. Likewise, consumers may have also over repor
the role of environmental knowledge is that consumers are ted their attitudinal preferences and purchase intentions
objective and always rational in their consumption choices towards socially responsible behaviour when responding to
and behaviour (Peattie 2010). This assumption may not environmental issues (McGougall 1983 as cited in Chan
hold in practice. For example, as Chan (2001) found, 2001). This is because social desirability bias to some
intuitive and emotional factors can exert a greater influence degree distorts the findings. Alternatively, maximising self
on attitudes towards green purchases. These mixed results interest has also been found to outweigh the cost of
may also suggest a more complex relationship between cooperating (e.g. there is uncertainty with collective social
environmental knowledge and behaviour (Chan 1999). gains), regardless of how positive many consumers' atti
tudes are towards the environment (Gupta and Ogden
Green Attitude and Behaviour 2009). Still, whilst Carrington et al. (2010) accept these
arguments, they also think consumers are hampered by
Attitudes are recognised in cognitive psychology as being other constraints and competing demands, such
one of the major factors that guides human behaviour physical surroundings of a store, consumers' mood
(Bredahl 2001). In multi-attribute models, such as the time of day, and so on. Whereas, Bray et al. (2011)
theory of reasoned action (TRA) (Fishbein and Ajzen that other factors such as quality perceptions, a la
1975) and theory of planned behaviour (TPB) (Ajzen 1985, information and cynicism can also affect eth
1991), attitude is theorised to affect intentions to perform sumption decisions.
Ê Springer
In sum, whilst green consum

extent can be predicted using
graphic profiles, motivationa
knowledge, and attitudes, m
influence green consumption
are situational factors such as e
choice and availability (e.g. Gl
Wolfing Kast 2003) that can c
sumption practices, as well as
cles such as one's sense of res
and social pressures (e.g. Chan
2011; Welsch and Kühling 200
much complexity surrounding
iour. As Kollmuss and Agyem
environmental behaviour is su
cannot expect to explore it u
Consumers' attitude and beha
often shaped by their percept
ceptual judgments. Accordingly
looked at perceptions and it
behaviour, from price percep
2010; Shiv quali et al. 2005); to
1993); risk perceptions (e.g. E
perceptions of sales promotio
2012), and so on. Within gree
trust, perceived risk, perceiv
price, perceived quality and pr
have also been explored (e.g.
Chang 2013b; Zabkar and Hosta
consumption behaviour. Howe
knowledge with regards to co
What are consumers' perception
keting messages, consumers an
Do these perceptions influenc
behaviour? We suggest that e
have pro-environmental attitud
may influence their green co
green consumptio
the environment
Method sumers who were not overtly 'green' with regards to their
green consumption practices but who expressed
This study aims to understand why consumers who profess were concerned about the env
to be concerned about the environment choose not to buy reporting bias, we made it
greener products regularly, or at all. It suggests that one screening process (a brief
needs to explore consumers' green perceptions in order to were interested in consum
gain a greater understanding of the green gap. An inter- tally friendly household pr
pretive approach is therefore appropriate for this study as it not. As past research h
is interested in "culturally derived and historically situated report their attitudinal pref
interpretations of the social life-world" (Crotty 1998, towards socially responsible
p. 67). environmental issues (McDougall 1993 as cited in Chan
Since this study was interested in how individuals 2001). Thus, social des
interpret their own actions and construct meaning, quali- distort findings,
tative methods were adopted. The advantage of using crepancy between p
<£) Springer
and actual behaviour. Within quantitative research, social A stru

desirability bias has been particularly challenging (de Jong which
et al. 2010; Randall and Fernandes 1991; Wouters et al. ranging
2014), but it can also be problematic in interview situations prod
when researching consumer ethics (Hiller 2010). Since we convent
stressed that we were also interested in recruiting people environme
who did not purchase green products, we were confident products, d
that our participants reflected the typical consumer who objecti
states that he or she is concerned about the environment perce
(attitudes) but does not necessarily behave accordingly behaviou
(behaviour). Throughout the focus group discussions, we NV
reinforced our neutral stance on green consumption prac- transcript
tices so participants felt comfortable discussing their con- which inv
sumption behaviours. At the start of each focus group, we gorisin
also reminded participants that we were interested in and Clar
understanding why consumers did not purchase green analysis i
products, and why they did. Some projective techniques categori
were used to help participants respond more openly. For other te
example, we would ask questions such as 'why do you writes, the
think some consumers choose not to buy green products?' appear
This tactic was useful because projection techniques texts. More
"provides participants with the facility to project their tools tha
thoughts and feelings on to another person or object... [and] feelings
can enable research participants to express feelings and social re
thoughts they would otherwise find difficult to articulate" Util
(Ramsey et al. 2006, p. 554), or in this case, share with three ste
others. theorising. First, comprehension, or having some under
The screening process used behavioural and attitudinal- standing of the pheno
based questions and items from established scales that researcher is to understa
measured ecological concern (Bohlen et al. 1993). We synthesising, or "mergin
asked questions such as, "the media focuses too much on thematic analysis in order t
the environment" and "personally, I cannot help to slow individuals' experien
down environmental deterioration" as well as "Do you theorising takes place up
recycle?", "What types of household cleaning brands do Whilst applying these
you purchase/use?", "What kinds of environmentally initially involved reading
friendly products do you buy?", "How often do you take identifying themes wi
your own reusable bags to the store when you shop?". We phase of this process invol
also asked a qualifying question, "Do you participate in the and looking for commona
household shopping activities?" because we were inter- focus groups, and cate
ested in why consumers did or did not purchase green Once these themes were i
household products, thus participants needed to be house- looking for further simila
hold shoppers. Demographic information was also col- ing themes where necessa
lected. During the screening process, we did not discuss Using an adapted herm
compensation. However, once we selected a participant, continuous part-to-who
they were informed that they would receive a $40 super- iterative approach ena
market voucher at the end of the focus group. the consumption meanings as
Respondent homogeneity, in terms of social-demo- as well as the patterns a
graphics, was a key consideration when compiling the apparent across the foc
focus groups because participants are more likely to open In seeking to establis
up to people they identify with (Krueger 1994). Hence, we five study, Lincoln a
grouped people from similar demographic backgrounds in five or naturalistic inquiry
each focus group, using age and occupation as a starting those inherited from tradit
point. research. Hence, a variety of techniques were used, such as
Ô Springer
"descriptive validity" (Wolcot

validity" (Maxwell 1992) and "
Descriptive validity is concern
researcher accurately recorde
This is important because one
analyse the texts if the inter
accurately represent what was
foundation upon which qualit
(Wolcott 1990, p. 27). To ad
researchers compared the recor
ensure each transcript was ac
Interpretive validity, as Max
"is inherently a matter of inf
accounts of participants in th
words, did the researcher inter
rately? We adopted a continuou
to-part process (the hermeneu
consumption meanings were not
and adopted a systematic proc
earlier. the terms.
Finally, to ensure that the find
"trustworthy" (Patton 2002),
was maintained across the focus g
questions, using a structured m
tion, two coders were used to
conclusions were reasonable an
independently coded the data.
analysis with each other, and onl
I think at the en
that they both agreed upon.
lazy. And if it's
(F40s, FG1F4).
Findings and Discussion: Con

Perceptions friendly takes time, effort, and money; these findings
mirror Bray et al.'s (2011) study, which explore
The purpose of our study was to understand why con- that impede ethical consumpti
sumers who claim they are concerned about the environ- one also needs to be knowled
ment choose not to buy green products regularly or at all. have self-discipline and b
Whilst, research has revealed that price, perceived perfor- sacrifices if one wants to
mance and trust are some of the reasons why this occurs perception that it is very
(Gleim et al. 2013; Gupta and Ogden 2009; Pickett-Baker friendly. Under the 'It is too
and Ozaki 2008), we were interested in exploring con- identified two sub-themes: 'I'
sumers' green perceptions. What are consumers' percep- 'Others are not making gre
tions of green products, marketing messages, consumers
and consumption practices? More importantly, how does 'I'm Not Ready to be Gre
this contribute to our understanding of the green attitude
behaviour gap? Many studies have explored perceptions The participants in this stud
from price (e.g. Lowe and Alpert 2010; Shiv et al. 2005); to cerned for the environment bu
quality (e.g. Bridges 1993); risk (e.g. Eggert 2006); sales green. Income, environmen
promotions (e.g. Lowe and Barnes 2012), and so on. time and self-discipline were v
However, we have limited knowledge with regards to obstacles to being green; a c
consumers' green perceptions (e.g. Borin et al. 2013; Chen said, only some green consu
and Chang 2013b; Zabkar and Hosta 2013), and how this in. Therefore, green is not fo
may directly or indirectly influence consumers' green who are ready. When we ex
£) Springer
green consumers, each focus group identified similar traits. Part

Green consumers are not age or gender specific. Instead, selves
they tend to be people who are "reasonably price insensi- sumer
five...would go to the trouble and have more time, or use regular
their time differently" (F40s, FG1F7); they recycle, car- those
pool, walk or ride to work; have more money; read a lot activities
and they tend to "make an informed decision about which have been
product [they] are going to compromise on" (F50s, consumer
FG4F3). These perceptions of green consumers support James 1
prior research that has focused on green consumers' con- 1995).
sumption behaviour (e.g. Peattie 2010; Young et al. 2010). consump
Interestingly, some participants stated that where one elusive green
lived made it difficult to be green. For instance the senti- because so
ment, "I think urban living is kind of a big barrier [to being is e
green]" (F20s, FG7F3), may give some consumers a reason couture, no
not to participate in green consumption practices. Living because
close to nature has been found to be a motivational driver green and
to engaging in green consumption behaviour (e.g. Solér even tho
1996). Our finding shows that, urban living might be a de- the envir
motivating factor instead. This is because some participants ticipate i
did not view 'cities' as green zones.
...you can make token gestures but it's not u
Equally important, was the perception that green con
can afford to be paying for all the produc
sumption activities are unattainable. That is, there is a
when you can really be environmentally-f
perception that participating in green activities is some
(F20s, FG7F3).
thing that is beyond some people's reach due to time and
money. Convenience and cost is certainly a recurring Being
theme in the literature (e.g. Bray et al. 2011; Gleim et al. synonymou
2013). of what it means to be environmentally friendly, some are
not convinced that they can be wholly envir
Well if you're struggling to pay the bills you're not
friendly. As a result, some consumers belie
going to worry about it [buying green products]
something one can only commit to once they
(F40s, FG6F4).
be green', that is, when they have the ability
Alternative products are quite expensive. My children This reinforces the perception
have grown up...But there was a time where I had For some consumers, th
four little children...I couldn't afford those things. attitudes and green behavi
We were saving for a house (F50-54, FG6F5). some consumers have an 'al
_ , , . , illustrated below.
Depending on how and where you are, it tak
whole lot more effort. Even if you look a
fair trade coffee, and green products..., it ta
effort than just grabbing what you can s
shelf (M20s, FG6M). friendly you kind of have to commit yourself to it.
And I don't feel like I can do that as a student, but
We suggest that when green is perceived as something that
feel like when I'm older and got a bit money I will
is unattainable, some consumers may feel a sense of
like commit myself really more to the cause kind
powerlessness, thus reinforcing the idea that it is too hard
thing (M20s, FG7M1).
to be green. As a result, they may opt to do nothing and/or
they ignore green communications. As the self-efficacy Following the framework proposed
literature states, if people do not believe they have the (2006, 2012), the consumer above coul
ability to perform a behaviour, they are less likely to "grey consumer". However, the 'all o
attempt it (Bandura 1991). Likewise, if consumers do not contradicts their framework in that,
believe in the power of individuals they are less likely to there is not a continuum of "gre
participate in green consumption behaviour (e.g. Balder- dichotomy between "grey" (nothin
jahn 1988). (all). That is, until they can fully commit to being green,
£) Springer
some believe there is no point i

view is somewhat extreme and c
definitely be worthwhile to in
view to see how widespread it is. were okay and which weren't (F41-54, FG4F2).
Other studies have also revealed that poorly communicated

'Others Are Not Making Green Easy For Me'
marketing messages can create barriers to green product
adoption and ethical consumption (e.g. Bray et al. 2011;
Some participants found that it was too hard to be green
Gleim et al. 2013). However, whilst many of the partic
because of others, that is, others are not making green easy
ipants in our study appear to blame marketers for poor
for them. 'Others' refers to external factors, such as people
packaging information, they also state that the government
that consumers live with, marketers, and the government.
should take more responsibility when it comes to the
For instance, some participants commented that it was hard
environment by providing regulations or standards. As one
to be green because of one's living circumstances. As one
participant said "If the Ministry for the Environment has
participant describes, "I think it's a bit of a battle some
given out awards, then maybe they need to do a little bit
times, especially if you are living with someone else, or
about educating people about what's okay and what's not
flatting" (F30s, FG3F2). In this case, the participant will use
okay. What's environmentally sustainable" (F50s, FG4F3).
the non-green products her partner buys. That is, her partner,
Essentially, consumers need reassurances that environmen
an external factor, has made it harder for her to be green.
tally friendly products are legitimate. This is especially
In my flat I flick off the lights and only fill up the important as consumers often found the product in
kettle about half way and my flatmates they'll be like, tion confusing, as the quote below suggests.
what are you doing that for? They're throwing out „ T . ,
, . ... .. , , . .. Because I would prefer to be able to use green pro
bottles and things like this and you re just making . ., . , T, . ,
,. r rr j . . ■ , , , ducts.. .with food, I m quite good at label reading and
this sort of effort and you just think, what s the T . , , , , ., , _ , ,
■ oI , I do always read labels with that. But to be honest,
point?! (M20s, FG7M1). ^ ^ ^ ^ deaning products, ,
The quote above also ties in with the concept of perceived really don't understand what the labels mean
self-efficacy, which refers to "people's beliefs about their perhaps the people who are putting these thing
capabilities to exercise control over their own level of need to find a way like a green tick set u
functioning and other events that affect their lives" something like that, that actually will tell people
(Bandura 1991, p. 257). Within this context, if individuals aren't of a scientific bent, exactly what's going
believe they cannot control their environment because of Because those words like ionic... (F55-59, FG4
others, their commitment to perform green-related behav
We would suggest that due to some consumers' past
iours may be weak. It may then lead to a situation where
experiences, whether it was a direct experience or an
the individual blames others for their inaction, that is, 'if no
indirect experience, there is a perception that one must give
one else bothers why should I?' It also reinforces the
up things, sacrifice things, if one wants to be green as
perception that it is too hard to be green because of others.
illustrated by the quote below. Direct experience can be
As studies have shown, people are more willing to
defined as consumers who have participated in green
cooperate if they think other people are cooperating (e.g.
consumption behaviours, and indirect experiences include
Wiener and Doescher 1994) because concern, alone, may
observing other consumers, reading media reports, word
be insufficient to encourage pro-environmental behaviour.
of-mouth (WOM) communication and so on.
If people do not believe that others are also making an
effort, they are less likely to make an effort. Similarly, if No, I don't see myself as one [green] I think I'
consumers do not believe, or stop believing that they as too self-indulgent...I'd like to be but I really d
'individuals' can make a difference, it may become have the moral discipline to be one (F70+, FG2
difficult to encourage them to participate in green con
Within the marketing literature, perceived sacrifice has
sumption practices.
been defined in terms of what a consumer feels they have to
Likewise, confusing information also contributes
give up when they purchase a product or service (e.g.
towards the perception that it is too hard to be green, as the
Shukla 2010; Zeithaml 1988). It has been explored from a
quotes below indicate.
variety of perspectives from price, convenience, time and
One of the issues with a lot of this packaging is, it's effort, and performance (e.g. Murphy and Enis 198
not always easy to read, and you can't always 2005). Our study reveals that there is another asp
understand what they're saying (F55-59, FG3F4). perceived sacrifice and that is comfort. That is, to be
£) Springer
one must be ready to give up some of life's comforts. As terms (

the participant above states, "I'm far too self-indulgent", that 'i
hence the perception that 'being green' requires one to personal
forgo life's comforts may further hinder green adoption. rect e
Seemingly, for others, there is a perception that one has to consume
do more, i.e. participate in many green activities, if one This a
wants to make a difference because some consumers encounter.
believe small actions alone do not make a difference. task o
What makes the 'perceived sacrifice' finding particu- behaviour
larly interesting is the fact that some of these perceptions comm
appear to be shaped by indirect experiences, as we can (1993) obs
infer that many of our participants do not regularly par- in a so
ticipate in many different types of green consumption involves
behaviours. Within consumer research, studies have or individua
explored consumers' indirect (e.g. reads product reviews, to be
media reports, listens to hearsay) and direct experiences willing
(e.g. uses the product) with regards to products, decision- One c
making, product appeals and satisfaction (e.g. Hamilton consume
and Thompson 2007; Kardes et al. 2006; Spassova and Lee because t
2013). As research has found, product evaluations can for some
differ whether it is based on direct or indirect experience, dista
although direct experience was more effective. enjoy immediat
We suggest that direct/indirect experience is also relevant later gai
within other contexts, such as the adoption of green con- see the
sumption behaviour. If one wants to change consumers' cation (G
perceptions of green, one may need to provide opportunities for envir
for more direct experiences. As Hamilton and Thompson (Gattig
(2007) found, providing more product information before In sum, th
purchase did not lead to more concrete mental représenta- is th
tions of the product; instead providing opportunities for perception
more experiential contact with the product did. towards g
Construal level theory (CLT) may offer some insights suggest t
into this phenomenon as CLT's main premise is the idea provides
that "the more psychologically distant an event is, the more and rat
it will be represented at higher levels of abstraction" contradict
(Trope et al. 2007, p. 84). Construal is how people interpret may furt
the world around them, and guides how one thinks, feels contribute
and acts (Oishi 2014). So when we experience something
directly, we tend to think of it in concrete and contextua- The G
lised terms, whereas when we experience something indi
rectly, we may think of it in more abstract terms (Hamilton Interes
and Thompson 2007), especially when the psychological attached
distance is great. Psychological distance includes temporal, were n
spatial, hypothetical or social distance; the more distant the inev
object or event appears to be the more abstract consumers' consumpt
thinking might be in relation to that object or event. For
I don't mind doing the odd thing an
example, within the context of this study, it is difficult for
environment...but I don't want to g
consumers to understand what the negative impact of using
that big "we're hippies and we danc
non-EF products might be. Likewise, objects or events
hands around XX Street and stuff
situated in the future, for example environmental benefits,
tend to be thought of in abstract terms, whereas those sit- Anot
uated in the near future, for example perceived costs and m
sacrifices, are thought of in more concrete, contextualised FG7
£) Springe
I wouldn't want people to

(F20s, FG7F2). message because they believe their individual liberties are
at risk, due to their negative perceptions of the sou
A little bit of a nutcase sometimes (F65+, FG2F3).
the message.
This unfavourable perception is important to acknowledge
...when someone says environmentally-friendly
because individuals purposely strive to maintain a positive
automatically feel like someone is going to try an
social identity (Tajfel and Turner 1986). For example, in
shove something down my throat and I do not lik
order to avoid a negative self-concept, individuals will
that feeling...I'm a little bit resistant towards
distance themselves from people or products that might
(M20s, FG7M2).
threaten their self-esteem and self-identity (Banister and
Hogg 2004). Thus, a green stereotype may create addi- These negative perceptions may in
tional barriers to participating in green consumption receptiveness to green marketing c
practices, and in some situations it may even generate thus slow down the green adoption p
resistance towards some green consumption behaviours. As message needs to be communicat
one participant comments, "Green consumers inherently participants suggest, green comm
think that they are better than everyone else because of "normal looking people" (F20s, FG
what they do" (M20s, FG7M2). Likewise, other partici- can relate to, as opposed to so
pants also perceive green consumers to be serious individ- everything in their house" (M2
uals who are out to do a bit of policing (F50s, FG6F5) and certainly help to reduce the green
green recruiting (F20s, FG7F3). Consequently, one could
argue that some consumers will use these unfavourable
Green Reservations
perceptions to rationalise their non-green consumption
behaviours because they either want to avoid being
Another theme to emerge from the study is the notion that
'preached to', or they want to avoid feeling guilty for not
some consumers do not perceive 'green' as a pressing
participating in green consumption practices. They will,
matter because they either cannot see the negative effects
therefore, protect or maintain their self-esteem by distanc
of using products that are not promoted as environmentally
ing themselves from people or messages that might
friendly, have not experienced first-hand the negative
threaten their self-concept due to the unfavourable percep
consequences of using non-EF products, or do not perceive
tions that they have of these groups or messages.
a significant difference between products that are promoted
Likewise, one may avoid participating in green con
as green and those that are not.
sumption activities if they feel they are being pressured to
do so. This may be particularly prevalent amongst indi- They haven't actually ever proven
viduals who have strong attitudes about freedom, as from using Brand X [a well-know
research has shown that consumers with strong attitudes are that is not marketed as an environm
more resistant to attitude change (e.g. Ahluwalia 2000; product] (F60s, FG5F6).
Petty et al. 1991). As Silvia (2005, p. 277) reports, when
1 guess a laundry detergent is a laundry detergent at
people feel their sense of freedom is under threat, they may
the end of the day. And I think if they put XXX [a
try to restore their freedom; and they may experience
well-known brand that is not marketed as environ
reactance. Reactance theory states that individuals believe
mentally-friendly] in that box [an environmentally
they have behavioural freedoms but when that freedom is
friendly brand] I probably still wouldn't be able to
threatened, reactance is aroused; it is "a motivational state
tell the difference at the end of the day. And that's the
that is directed towards the restoration of whatever freedom
, , , , , ... reality I hate to say it (F30s, FG6F3).
has been threatened or eliminated (Brehm and Mann
1975, p. 816). Within consumer research, reactance theory In view
has explored promotional influence, product unavailability, actions
pricing strategies, political behaviour, loyalty programs benefit the
and environmental protection (cf. Clee and Wicklund 1980; behavio
Lessne and Venkatesan 1989; Wendlandt and Schräder sumers have
2007); although, environmental protection research has consequ
been somewhat limited. consumers not to adopt green consumption behaviours on
Within the context of green consumption behaviour, the basis that they cannot see the negative eff
reactance theory is something that should be explored actions. It may also be difficult for consumers
further. Consumers may be concerned about the hend what the long-term effects are, when they
Springer
occur, or how their actions could negatively impact the certain

environment. mainstream, consumers were less likely to consider
adopting it. Hence, even though some consumers may state
You don't actually feel the effects if you buy...
that they are concerned about the environment, they may
[products that do not use environmentally-friendly
avoid participating in behaviours that are not considered
processes], you don't feel the effects on a daily basis
mainstream.
(F41-54, FG1F7).
At the same time, there is a perception of cynicism and

Summary of Key Findings
resistance that exists in the market place towards various
marketing activities (e.g. Carlson et al. 1993; Shrum et al.
A central issue in this study is the concept that consumers'
1995).
green perceptions shape consumers' green consumption
I just don't trust something that says rainforest I just behaviours. As Fig. 1 illustrates, consumers' perceptions
don't believe that (F40s, FG6F4). are shaped by consumers' characteristics, such as age,
t ,i • , 1 ■ ■ c -n. , i income, gender, ethnicity, values and so on. However, the
I think this is a faux green anyway. That always „ ,. , : , IT . ,
u , L.L . r 1 • -, /T-„n findings can be divided into three areas: (1) It is too hard
worries me about, oh they re faking it (F40s, FG5F3). , 6 :
to be green —consumers perceptions of external
Consumers have become more cynical in recent years due makes it difficult for some c
to the growth of greenwashing (Delmas and Burbano 2011; consumption practices; (2) 'G
Lyon and Montgomery 2013; Polonsky et al. 2010). some consumers' less than fa
Greenwashing occurs when consumers are misled to 'green' consumers and 'green
believe that a company is participating in green practices, reservations' reflect some c
or that the product has environmental benefits (Crane 2000; uncertainty that greener consu
Gillespie 2008). Hence, one could suggest that greenwash- difference to the environmen
ing is contributing to these negative perceptions, because indicate that consumers' gree
greenwashing makes it difficult for consumers to identify ally exclusive. For instance,
legitimate green products. Therefore, consumers may have negative perceptions of gree
reservations towards green products and practices because marketers for confusing m
they are cynical about the 'green' message. As one Finally, the overall premise of th
participant states, (F50s, FG1F5): "I don't trust people green perceptions may influen
who are using the word.. .everything is organic and green sumption behaviour.
in this and that. It's just a marketing ploy". As Chen and
Chang (2013a) found, greenwash is negatively related to
green trust. If companies continue to participate in Conclusions, Contribution a
greenwash activities, they will erode consumer trust in Directions
green products, and hinder sustainability progress. As our
findings reveal, due to a lack of regulation and recognisable Notwithstanding its limitations,
green accreditation schemes, as well as some companies consumers' green perceptions m
jumping onto the 'green' bandwagon, consumer mistrust of consumption behaviours. Wh
green marketing highlights why some consumers avoid about the environment, and agr
purchasing green products. As one participant states, be done, consumers' unfavoura
"green is sort of slightly suspect now" (F70+, FG6F7). ceptions of green consumers,
One could also suggest 'being green' is not yet per- iours, green products, and/or gr
ceived as a social norm. As Peattie (2010, p. 211) suggests, to explain the green attitude-
social norms can play a large role in influencing green As the findings revealed, there
consumption practices because social norms are what we too hard to be green' due to
perceive to be common practice and what "behaviours we knowledge and perceived sacrif
perceive to be morally right or what ought to be done". something everyone can commit to,
Hence, if the green social norm is not strong enough, must be ready for, e.g. one mu
consumers will probably experience minimal to no disso- Accordingly, we have coined
nance if there is a discrepancy between their attitudes and couture, not ready-to-wear
behaviour. This also reflects the concept of social nor- other green consumer practic
malisation. As Rettie et al. (2014, p. 13) discovered, when sumers as exclusive, and/or ex
<£) Springer
Fig.Fig.
1 Summary of key 1 Summary of key
findings
findings
of consumers' Green of Consumer's Green Perceptions
consumers' Green
O
perceptions Consumer's
perceptions Consumer's o
3
characteristics B
> c
Influence 3
<D
to
(Q
a
TO
S
3
O
—* i
Influence c
3
•D
T3
o'
3
or
S
3"
5
<
5"
e
can truly be green. At the same time, some participants A growing cynicism towards green marketing initiatives
stated that external factors made it difficult to be green can also hinder the adoption of green products and contribute
such as where they live, the people they live with, con- to negative green perceptions. This study highlights the
fusing packaging information, and the lack of easy-to- difficulties marketers face in terms of communicating the
understand regulatory or green accreditation schemes, value of their green products. For instance, some consumers
which has further heightened the perception that it is too did not perceive a significant difference between the pro
hard to be green. ducts that were promoted as environmentally friendly and
Furthermore, for some consumers the relationship those products that were not, as there was
between green attitudes and behaviour was a dichotomous that non-EF products were more harm
one. Until one can fully commit to being green, which in environmentally friendly products. Not bein
part is driven by the perception that it is too hard to be immediate impact of one's actions enabl
green, there is a sense of powerlessness. Some believed to ignore the long-term problem. So, one
that there was no point in making an effort to participate in marketers and policy makers face, is m
green consumption behaviours because their small actions social dilemmas, such as the environme
would not make a difference to the environment. consumers today. As this study highlights,
Another contribution that this study makes is the recog- norms are weak. Likewise, some consumer
nition that some consumers may not be open to adopting identifying how and why it is necessary to
greener consumption practices due to their unfavourable since they cannot see the effects of their ac
perceptions of green consumers. Some green consumers The mounting interest in pro-environm
were viewed as serious individuals, who like to monitor but the intriguing phenomenon of 'Why
people's green consumption habits, and impose their beliefs profess to be concerned about the environ
onto others. Consequently, some consumers may avoid to buy greener products at all or more
adopting greener consumption behaviours because they heightened the need for alternative fram
want to avoid being 'preached to' or controlled, or because this attitude-behaviour discrepancy.
they want to maintain their self-identity and a positive self- lights, there is a need to explore green
esteem. This is an interesting finding but it needs to be extensively in order to address the barr
explored further due to the exploratory nature of this study. chase behaviour. We therefore propose
However, if a small percentage of the population are fruitful avenue to include a green percept
deterred from participating in certain green consumption frameworks such as the TPB. In particular,
practices because of their perceptions of green consumers, consumers' current green perceptions
this is something that marketers would need to address. consumers, consumption practices and
<£j Springer
communication, termed 'green perceptions', may influence non-

consumers' intentions to purchase green products. That is, mun
consumers' green perceptions may influence one's attitudes FG7
towards green products, as well as whether one believes Further wo
they can perform that behaviour, i.e. purchase green pro- effo
ducts. For instance, if consumers perceive green products main
to be too expensive, too time-consuming (in terms of sumers
acquiring knowledge or locating the products), or too dif- that they
ficult to acquire, e.g. due to their living arrangements, this Wh
will influence whether they believe they can perform the consume
behaviour. Alternatively, if a person holds unfavourable experie
perceptions of consumers who typically consume green talking
products, and/or are cynical about green marketing com- result in
munications, this may also influence their green-purchase green co
behaviour regardless of whether they are concerned for the looked
environment. Alternatively, if one believes small actions product in
alone will not make a difference to the environment unless concrete
everyone one commits to it, one may not participate in should
green consumption practices, e.g. in this case, avoid pur- such
chasing green products even if one believes he or she can consumer
perform the behaviour. Or if one believes that green con- sprea
sumption behaviours are only performed by minority good beh
groups, green norms may take time to change, and thus the tinue p
adoption of green consumption practices may be slow. To date
products have focused heavily on th
efits of these products, e.g. it reduc
Implications & Limitations provides cleaner waterways, and so on when promoting
these products. However, it would appear that promoting
It is important to understand how and why unfavourable green products based on their environmental benef
green perceptions are formed in order to identify ways to has not been overly fruitful as evidenced
overcome these obstacles. This study identifies several key uptake of these products. We suggest that this is
obstacles that practitioners need to be aware of. Since environmental benefits are hard to comprehe
consumers' perceptions are formed on the basis of how uncertainty, and require delayed gratificatio
they interpret the stimuli that they are exposed to, it is thus sumers do not immediately see any environment
fair to argue that the extant green perceptions held by And whilst using an environmentally friendly produ
consumers are to some extent shaped by the information deliver a social good benefit (environmental g
that has been disseminated by marketers, the government, benefit that is hard to grasp because it does not i
green activists, and the media. We therefore suggest that benefit the consumer. What is more, cynicism
the 'green hard sell' approach has created a barrier to being and a lack of knowledge contributes to this uncer
green, and contributed to some consumers' unfavourable Thus, we support the findings from Grimmer
perceptions of green products and other green consumption ley's (2014) experiment that suggests that
practices because the concept of 'green' has either been should focus on personal benefits, e.g. emotion
placed on a pedestal, or has negative connotations. As a cation (such as focusing on family well-being o
result, some consumers may opt to do nothing, become well-being) if marketers want to see a greater
resistant, or they may start to justify their non-green con- green products. As Grimmer and Woolley (2014)
sumption behaviours and blame others for their inaction. consumers with a lower level of environmen
Likewise, if people do not believe they have the ability to responded better to green appeals that focused on p
perform an action, they are less likely to attempt it. benefits rather than pure environmental appeals
There is currently a perception that 'it is too hard to be Likewise, marketers need to focus on reduci
green'. These perceived barriers were to some extent ere- ers' cynicism, which goes hand in hand with
ated by marketers. It is perhaps time for practitioners to mentation of some form of government regulation
consider an alternative course of action. Efforts should be accreditation scheme, as consumers want reassuran
concerted to making green appear easy, attainable, and environmentally friendly product claims are va
Ô Springer
From a policy making perspectiv

Code Gender Age Occupation
regulation is required, i.e. compa
more stringentFG1F5
green
F 40-54 standards,
Medical anthropologist
time to change. And
FG1F6 F as
40-54 the
Self-employed findin
study reveals, green
FG1F7 F 40-54reservations
Housewife
powerlessness influences
FG1M M 40-49 green
Trade union organiser
Therefore, the role
Focus group two of policy mak
if one wants to
FG2F1 see
F 40-54change
Early childhood relief teacherin t
Nyborg (2003, p.F
FG2F2 273)
45-49 suggests,
Homemaker
vation are important
FG2F3 F 65+ determinant
Retired scientist
which can over time
FG2F4 F 70+ can
Retired be shape
vention. For instance,
FG2F5 F 70+ past
Retired resear
policy, such as
FG2M1 banning
M 55-59 House painter
smoki
reduce smoking in
FG2M2 M the
55-64 IT home (Ny
Finally, there are several issues t
Focus group three
mind when reading
FG3F1 F
the
23-29 results of t
Policy analyst
took place in a metropolitan
FG3F2 F 30-39 Accountant
city
participants may be very differen
FG3F3 F 55-64 Unemployed—previously vet nurse
rural centres. Second, we
Administrator
would l
FFG3F4 55-59
income earners were underreprese
FG3F5 F 65+ Retired librarian
it would be worthwhile to expl
FG3F6 F 70+ Retired teacher
perceptions of green products,
FG3M M 40-49 Homemaker (previously engineer)
consumption and gree practices
Focus group four
according to one's socio-econom
FG4F1 F 40-49 Receptionist
tion, more male participants w
FG4F2 F 40-54 Office support
Out of the 51 respondents, only
FG4F3 F 50-54 Auditor
the strong female presence in
FG4F4 F 55-59 Nurse
expected as women have generally
FG4F5 F 55-59 Contract teacher
conscience than men in relation to environmental issues
FG4F6 F 55-59 Homemaker
(Euromonitor International 2012a). Furthermore, since the
FG4F7 F 65-69 Retired insurance analyst
advertisement stated that we were interested in household
products (such as detergents), it may have discouraged Focus SrouP five

males from applying. Finally, this study was primarily
FG5F2 F 40-49 Research MAF
concerned with household products, which can typically be
FG5F3 F 40-49 Unemployed—previously admin
classified as a low-involvement purchase decision. So, it
FG5F4 F 40-49 Tour guide
would be desirable to research other product categories in
FG5F5 F 60-64 Receptionist
order to identify consumers' perceptions of products that
require more involvement during the decision-making FG5F6 F 60-64 Administrator
process. FG5F7 F 65+ Retired administrator
Focus group six

FG6F1 F 23-29 Finance
Appendix
Appendix1 1 FG6F2 F 23-29 Policy analyst
FG6F3 F 31-40 Procurement specialist
Focus
FocusGroup
GroupParticipants
Participants FG6F4 F 40-49 Policy advisor
FG6F5 F 50-59 Communications advisor
FG6F6 F 60-64 Tutor

Code
Code Gender Age
Gender Age Occupation
Occupation
FG6F7 F 70+ Retired researcher
Focus group
group one
one FG6M M 23-29 Postgraduate student
FG1F1
F 23-30 Homemaker Focus group seven
FG1F2 F 30-34 Engineer FG7F1 F 20-23 Undergraduate student
FG1F3 F 40-54 Public policy analyst FG7F2 F 20-23 Undergraduate student
FG1F4 F 40-54 Artist FG7F3 F 20-23 Postgraduate student
Ô Springer
What does being "environmentally friendly" mean?

Code Gender
Age Occupation
• Does it mean the same thing as "green"?
FG7F4 F 20-23 Undergraduate student • Being environmentally friendly/green.
FG7F5 F 20-23 Undergraduate student
• How easy/difficult?
FG7M1 M 20-23 Undergraduate student
• What makes it easy/difficult?
FG7M2 M 20-23 Postgraduate student
• Probe: perceptions—how are these being
shaped? Past experience?
• Green consumers: [draw person on whiteboard]...

Appendix 2
• Describe characteristics, traits, consumption
behaviour.
Moderator's Guide: Broad Outline and Structure
• What would encourage people to become more
1. Introduction
environmentally friendly?
2. Warm-up/ice-breaker exercises
5. Discussion part three: What are the perceptions of
Define household products
product packaging?
• Exercise #1
• Exercise #3
• Which of these products do you usually
purchase? • Pass around the table a variety of household
• Provide samples of environmentally friendly dishwashing detergents.
(EF) and conventional (non-EF) laundry deter • On answer sheets: Write some key factors along
gent and stacks of cards with brand names. each product.
3. Discussion part one: What encourages or discourages• Which ones do you consider to be environmentally
consumers from purchasing environmentally friendly friendly?
household products?
• What factors helped you to decide this?
• Why do you purchase these brands (Exercise #1)? • Why do you think these are more/less environ
mentally friendly?
• Probe: experiences, perceptions.
• Why do you think other people use/do not use these

Probes: Terminology, packaging, familiarity.
products?
• What would encourage you/other people to buy • What are your impressions of these products?
environmentally friendly household products?
• Probe: easy to understand, performance
4. Discussion part two: What are consumers' perceptions perceptions.
of being green? What are consumers' perceptions of
• What factors make household products environ
the terms "green"/environmentally friendly?
mentally friendly?
• Exercise #2
• Probe level of greenness.
• Hand out some samples of soaps (EF and non
6. Debriefing & closing
EF) and answer sheets.
• If this brand was a person, what type of person
would he/she be?
• What type of characteristics would they have?

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Ô Springer
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Exploring the Gap Between Consumers' Green Rhetoric and Purchasing Behaviour

Author(s): Micael-Lee Johnstone and Lay Peng Tan

Exploring the Gap Between Consumer

Micael-Lee Johnstone • Lay Peng Tan

Received: 3 January 2014/Accepted: 30 July 2014/Published online: 15 Augu

consciousness (e.g. CEAP 2007

In sum, whilst green consum

and actual behaviour. Within quantitative research, social A stru

"descriptive validity" (Wolcot

Findings and Discussion: Con

green consumers, each focus group identified similar traits. Part

some believe there is no point i

Other studies have also revealed that poorly communicated

one must be ready to give up some of life's comforts. As terms (

I wouldn't want people to

occur, or how their actions could negatively impact the certain

At the same time, there is a perception of cynicism and

communication, termed 'green perceptions', may influence non-

From a policy making perspectiv

products (such as detergents), it may have discouraged Focus SrouP five

process. FG5F7 F 65+ Retired administrator

Focus group six

FG6F6 F 60-64 Tutor

What does being "environmentally friendly" mean?

• Green consumers: [draw person on whiteboard]...

• Why do you think other people use/do not use these

• What type of characteristics would they have?

• Focus on EF products: Ahluwalia, R. (2000). Examination of psychological processes

Ajzen, I. (1991). Chan,

Polonsky, M. J., Grau,

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