GRAMMAR

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 GUIDE TO EFFECTIVE GRAMMAR USAGE

Until 1905, there existed in China a particularly slow manner of execution known
as língchí, translated as “slow slicing” or “death by 1,000 cuts.” As the punishment’s
name suggests, the convicted individual was made to linger until the executioner had
fully exsanguinated him or her. Many writing professors and instructors today describe
student essays that have suffered mightily under the red pen as having “died by 1,000
cuts.” Whether or not such hyperbolic description speaks to the faculty members’ taste
for dark humor, their fairly morbid portrayal says much about the real dangers to student
writing posed by incorrect and ineffective grammar usage.
A number of thoughtful students will knowingly bring to their drafts the important
bases of critical imagination, developed argument, and sound reasoning. Student
problems with grammar, however, tend to be endemic. Thus, writing professors and
instructors often find themselves worrying about, and commenting on, the students’
sentence-level applications more than the students’ global considerations. True enough, a
lack of imagination, a rubbery argument, and infirm reasoning can doom any paper, but
when you think about it, global considerations can be remedied fairly easily. Misused
sentence-level applications, on the other hand, appear to be more common and much
more stubborn.
The following guide will help you to shed light on incorrect and ineffective
grammar usage frequent in student writing. You are to remember that while it is your job
to expose a student’s mistakes, it is squarely the student’s responsibility to apply your
advice to his or her written work. One measure of intelligence is the ability to avoid past
errors.

Active Voice

 An active-voice sentence points out a verb’s doer(s).

Correct: Angel and her cousins decided to go to the rave.

Incorrect: A decision was made to go to the rave.

 Avoid using noun forms of verbs.

Correct: The women’s decision was applied immediately.

Incorrect: The application of the women’s decision was immediate.

Adjectives and Adverbs

 Adjectives modify nouns, but adverbs modify adjectives, other

adverbs, and verbs.
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 Correct: Angel, a trifling student, talks quite scandalously.

Incorrect: Angel, a trifling student, talks quite scandalous.

 “Bad,” “good,” “near,” “real,” and “sure” are adjectives; “badly,”

“near,” “nearly,” “really,” “surely,” and “well” are adverbs.

Correct: Angel did well on her exam.

Incorrect: Angel did good on her exam.

Agreement: Subject and Verb

 A plural verb is required when “and” joins a subject with multiple nouns
or pronouns.

Correct: Angel and her cousins are at the rave.

Incorrect: Angel and her cousins is at the rave.

 Employ a singular verb if “or” or “nor” join multiple singular nouns or

pronouns.

Correct: Either the lipstick case or the switchblade is in Angel’s purse.

Incorrect: Either the lipstick case or the switchblade are in Angel’s purse.

 A verb is to agree with the subject, not with a phrase’s noun or pronoun.

Correct: Angel, as well as her cousins, is dancing.

Incorrect: Angel, as well as her cousins, are dancing.

 A verb is to agree with the portion of the subject nearest to it if “or” or

“nor” join a singular and a plural noun or pronoun in a compound
subject.

Correct: Angel or her cousins dance every day.

Incorrect: Angel or her cousins dances every day.

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 Unless “I” or “you” is employed, “don’t” is to be used only with a plural
subject. “Doesn’t,” on the other hand, is to be employed only with a
singular subject.

Correct: Angel doesn’t like large earrings.

Incorrect: Angel don’t like large earrings.

 The following words are singular and call for a singular verb:

anybody everybody no one

anyone everyone somebody

each neither someone
each one nobody

Correct: Each of Angel’s cousins dances poorly.

Incorrect: Each of Angel’s cousins dance poorly.

 Singular nouns that speak of more than one more person require a
singular verb.

Correct: Angel’s family has a lot of drama.

Incorrect: Angel’s family have a lot of drama.

 The subject follows the verb when a sentence begins with “there is” or
“there are”; however, because “there” is not the sentence’s subject, the
verb is to agree with what follows.

Correct: There are many questions in Angel’s mind.

Incorrect: There is many questions in Angel’s mind.

 Nonessential detail does not render a singular subject plural.

Correct: Angel, accompanied by Lorna, is traveling to Titusville.

Incorrect: Angel, accompanied by Lorna, are traveling to Titusville.

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 Nouns describing items made of more than one part call for plural verbs.

Correct: Angel’s pants are made of Lycra.

Incorrect: Angel’s pants is made of Lycra.

 Some nouns that end with an “s” require singular verbs.

Correct: “Rabies is devastating,” thought Angel.

Incorrect: “Rabies are devastating,” thought Angel.

Article, Definite

 The definite article, an adjective, is written before a specific singular or

plural noun.

For example: The car that struck Lorna sped away.

Articles, Indefinite

 Indefinite articles are also adjectives, but they are written before a
general singular or plural noun.

For example: A cat jumped on Angel’s lap.

 “A” is used before most words that begin with consonants.

Correct: Angel bought a silver lighter.

Incorrect: Angel bought an silver lighter.

 However, “an” is used before words starting with an “unsounded h.”

Correct: Angel made an honest mistake.

Incorrect: Angel made a honest mistake.

 “An” is used before most words that begin with vowels.

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Correct: Angel would not have otherwise bought an apricot.

Incorrect: Angel would not have otherwise bought a apricot.

 However, “a” is used if a “u” sounds like “y,” or “o” sounds like “w.”

Correct: Angel’s boyfriend, a one-legged man, gave Lorna his phone

number on a used napkin.

Incorrect: Angel’s boyfriend, an one-legged man, gave Lorna his phone

number on an used napkin.

 Indefinite articles cannot be used with noncount nouns.

Correct: Angel spilled the milk on the floor accidentally.

Incorrect: Angel spilled a milk on the floor accidentally.

Capitalization

 Academic degrees are lowercase when written fully:

baccalaureate degree master’s degree doctoral degree

bachelor’s degree master of arts doctorate
bachelor of arts master of science doctor of philosophy
bachelor of science master’s degrees doctoral degrees
bachelor’s degrees

 Academic degrees are abbreviated with periods:

B.A M.A. Ph.D. D.Ed.’s

B.S. M.S. D.Ed. M.D.’s
B.A.’s M.A.’s M.D.
B.S.’S M.S.’s Ph.D.’s

 Names of majors, minors, concentrations, and programs are lowercase,

except for names pertaining to specific languages (e.g. English, German).

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  For unit names, capitalize the first reference and lower case the second.

For example: College of Veterinary Medicine; the college

Department of Biology; the department
Baron-Forness Library; the library
McComb Fieldhouse; the fieldhouse

The exception: Edinboro University of Pennsylvania; the University

 Other academic and seasonal designations include:

fall semester freshman winter

spring semester sophomore spring
summer session junior summer
Fall 2007 semester senior fall

 For titles, use lowercase except when preceding a name or when used in a
mailing address.

For example: President Luca Brasi

Luca Brasi, president of Edinboro University of Pennsylvania
Assistant Professor Iona Trailer
Iona Trailer, assistant professor of sociology
the assistant professor

 Lowercase “e-mail” and “fax” in text; uppercase when either precede the
number.

For example: send e-mail to itrailer@ediboro.edu

E-mail: itrailer@edinboro.edu
814-867-5306 is the fax number
Fax: 814-867-5306

 Proper names of regions are to be capitalized, but general compass directions

are to be lowercased.

For example: The Northwest eastern

The West Coast northwestern Pennsylvania
West Texas ten miles south of here

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 When used as proper names, familial titles are to be capitalized.

For example: Angel gave candy to her Aunt Jane, but not to her other aunts.
Here is a present I bought for Mother.
Did you buy a present for your mother?

 Capitalize the names of Gods, religious figures, and holy books, but do not
capitalize non-specific use of the word “god.”

For example: God the father the Torah

Adoni the Talmud
Moses the Koran
Zeus the Bible
The Greek gods the Virgin Mary

 Capitalize the proper names of ethnic groups, but lowercase colloquial names of
ethnic groups.

For example: African American black

Caucasian white

 Capitalize eras and events, but not centuries.

For example: Victorian Era

Great Depression
sixteenth century

Clauses: Dependent, Independent, Introductory, and Subordinate

 The most common example of an “incomplete sentence,” a dependent clause has

a subject and a verb, but does represent a complete thought on its own.

For example: When Angel dyed her hair seafoam green.

Correction: When Angel dyed her hair seafoam green, gentlemen callers arrived.

 A “dependant marker word” denotes a dependent clause. Some dependant

marker words are:

after as if even if in order to unless whenever

although because even though since until whether
as before if though when while
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 A coordinating conjunction or “connecting word” is used to join a dependent
and an independent clause. Coordinating conjunctions may also be used to join two
independent clauses. If a sentence’s second independent clause begins with a coordinating
conjunction, place a comma before it. Some coordinating conjunctions are:

and nor
but so
for yet
or

For example: Angel dyed her hair seafoam green, but doing so failed to gain her
Lorna’s attention.

 Another “connecting word,” the independent marker word, joins sentences that
can stand alone. If a sentence’s second independent clause begins with an independent
marker word, place a semicolon before it. Some coordinating conjunctions are:

also moreover
consequently nevertheless
furthermore therefore
however

For example: Angel’s seafoam green hair had attracted the attention of gentlemen
callers; however, she remained miserable as Lorna had yet to pay her
the attention she had craved.

 An independent clause or “sentence” holds a subject and a verb and represents a

complete thought.

For example: Lorna attended Aladdin Beauty School.

 An introductory clause, which by itself is a dependent clause, establishes the

context for an independent clause. Not surprisingly, introductory clauses employ
dependant marker words.

For example: If she wants to win Lorna’s attention, Angel will have to do
something with her hair.

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 Another name for a dependent clause, the “subordinate clause” will create
confusion if it interrupts the independent clause.

Correct: Future job opportunities are lacking because of Aladdin Beauty School’s
closure.

Incorrect: Future job opportunities, because of Aladdin Beauty School’s

closure, are lacking.

Commas

 A comma links dependent and independent clauses. A comma can also link two
independent clauses, but only when a coordinating conjunction is placed between them.

Correct: Angel went home quickly, and she intended to stay there.

Incorrect: Angel went home quickly, she intended to stay there.

 Most introductory words and phrases are to be followed with commas.

For example: Meanwhile, Angel sat in the closet nearest to her phone stand as she
waited for Lorna to call.

 Do not use a comma to separate subject from predicate.

Correct: Organizing and giving her apology to Lorna for evaluation and possible
publication was one of the most difficult tasks Angel had ever attempted.

Incorrect: Organizing and giving her apology to Lorna for evaluation and possible
publication, was one of the most difficult tasks Angel had ever attempted.

Commas and Nonessential Elements

 Use commas to separate nonessential clauses, phrases, and words from a

sentence.

Correct: Angel, who is 6’5” tall, found work at the local coffee shop.

Incorrect: Angel who is 6’5” tall found work at the local coffee shop.

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Comma Splices
 A “comma splice” occurs when a comma is placed between two independent
clauses.

Correct: Angel disliked her work at the coffee shop. It was very demeaning.

Incorrect: Angel disliked her work at the coffee shop, it was very demeaning.

Dangling Modifiers

 A “dangling modifier” explains or illustrates a word of phrase not stated clearly

in a sentence.

Correct: Angel failed her experiment, not having studied human nature
carefully.

Incorrect: The experiment was a failure, not having studied human nature
carefully.

Fused Sentences

 Like a “run-on,” a “fused sentence” occurs when no connecting word or

punctuation separates two independent clauses.

Correct: Angel stole the library’s only copy of The Story of O. Each librarian now
considers her a sneak thief.

Incorrect: Angel stole the library’s only copy of The Story of O each librarian now
considers her a sneak thief.

Hyphen Use

 Words coming together to act as a single adjective or “compound modifiers” are

to be hyphenated.

For example: one-way street

vinegar-glazed onions
well-known author

 Nevertheless, a compound modifier placed after a noun is not hyphenated.

For example: Angel’s onions were vinegar glazed.

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 Compound numbers spelled out require hyphens.
 For example: thirty-six
thirty-six years old

 Hyphens are used with most prefixes.

For example: anti-German mid-1830s self-assured

ex-boyfriend pre-Second World War T-shirt
mid-July senator-elect

Numbers

 Use numerals to express numbers 10 and above, and use words to express
numbers below 10.

For example: Angel did not mind wearing boots that made her appear five-
inches taller than she was.

 Use numerals to express all numbers when you are discussing a comparison, if
they appear in the same paragraph.

For example: Among the Angel’s 12 gentlemen callers, 4 were eliminated

from her cell phone’s contact list by the second week of her
social experiment.

 Figures may take on the following appearances:

5% after 30 days only $19.95 a 1.35 GPA

five percent $4 billion 2.5 gallons two 5-question tests

 Days and years can be expressed as follows:

April 23, 1971 the seventies

23 April 1971 the 1970s (APA)
in 1971 the 1970’s

 Addresses are written like this:

10 Tenth Street 2016 West 42 Street

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 There are a number of ways to record time of day:
 7:55 A.M. six o’clock in the morning
7:55 P.M. 11 o’clock at night
7:55 a.m. half-past five in the afternoon
7:55 p.m. 15 minutes to 3 p.m.

 Use numerals to express identification numbers, like so:

Channel 200 Interstate 79

chapter 6 page 100
Henry IV Room 5

 Numbers in series and statistics need to be consistent.

For example: two turntables and one microphone

10 feet by 20 feet
10’ x 20’
30 to 6
30-6

 Do not begin a sentence with a number.

Correct: Giant Eagle sold 12 dozen apples today.

Incorrect: 12 dozen apples were sold at Giant Eagle today.

Run-on Sentences

 Like a “fused sentence,” a “run-on” occurs when no connecting word or

punctuation separates two independent clauses.

Correct: Angel was not misunderstood; the others knew she was pathological.

Incorrect: Angel was not misunderstood the others knew she was pathological.

Semicolons

 Semicolons link two independent clauses without connecting words.

For example: Lorna did not see herself as Angel’s artistic muse; she posed because
she needed the money.
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Sentence Fragments
 A “sentence fragment” occurs when an incomplete thought is believed to be a
complete sentence.

Correct: Because Angel confused the state of being misunderstood with the state
of being an artist, she went about speaking incoherently.

Incorrect: Because Angel confused the state of being misunderstood with the state
of being an artist.

Sentence Punctuation Patterns

 Pattern One: Simple Sentence

Independent clause [.]

For example: Angel was concerned about the evolution of German feminism.

 Pattern Two: Compound Sentence

Independent clause [,] coordinating conjunction independent clause [.]

For example: Angel was concerned about the evolution of German feminism, but
she did not know exactly why.

 Pattern Three: Compound Sentence

Independent clause [;] independent clause [.]

For example: Angel was concerned about the evolution of German feminism; she
was unsure of the nature of her interest.

 Pattern Four: Compound Sentence

Independent clause [;] independent marker [,] independent clause [.]

For example: Angel was concerned about the evolution of German feminism;
therefore, she decided to visit Berlin.

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 Pattern Five: Complex Sentence

 Dependent marker dependent clause [,] independent clause [.]

For example: Because Angel was concerned about the evolution of German
feminism, she decided to visit Berlin.

 Pattern Six: Complex Sentence

Independent clause dependent marker dependent clause [.]

For example: Angel was concerned about the evolution of German

feminism because it was fashionable in some circles to be so.

 Pattern Seven: Complex Sentence

First part of an independent clause [,] nonessential clause or phrase [,] rest of the
independent clause [.]

For example: Many young women, including Angel and her cousins, were
concerned about the evolution of German feminism.

 Pattern Eight: Complex Sentence

First part of an independent clause essential clause or phrase rest of the independent clause [.]

For Example: Many young women who were concerned about the evolution of
German feminism decided to visit Berlin.

The Pennsylvania Exception

 The phrase, “to be” is not to be excluded from a sentence unnecessarily.

Correct: Angel’s lawn needs to be mowed.

Incorrect: Angel’s lawn needs mowed.

Vagueness

 Avoid forming ambiguous sentences.

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Correct: Although Angel’s bicycle hit the tree, the bicycle was not damaged.
 Incorrect: Although Angel’s bicycle hit the tree, it was not damaged.

Verb Tenses

 Six basic verb tenses allow the student to recreate the reality of time in his
or her writing. The six are:

Simple Present

For example: Angel walks to Lorna’s ranch.

Present Perfect

For example: Angel has walked to Lorna’s ranch.

Simple Past

For example: Angel walked to Lorna’s ranch.

Past Perfect

For example: Angel had walked to Lorna’s ranch.

Future

For example: Angel will walk to Lorna’ ranch.

Future Perfect

For example: Angel will have walked to Lorna’s ranch.

Adapted from the Purdue Online Writing Lab (Owl).

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