Proper regeneration of molecular sieves in TSA processes—Part 1 Page 1 of 7

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Proper regeneration of molecular sieves in

TSA processes—Part 1
The regeneration of molecular sieves is the most crucial step in temperature swing adsorption (TSA)
processes. It determines the performance and operating cost of molecular sieves over a given
lifetime. It is well known that molecular sieves age with each regeneration cycle. The adsorption
process on the molecular sieve is a complex phenomenon and often poses challenges for the design
and operation of the units, due to a number of parameters that govern the efficiency of such
processes.

Poor design decisions and deviations from design conditions can cause a wide range of operating
issues in a molecular sieve unit. Most of the damage from these upsets or deviations from design
conditions usually occurs during the regeneration step. If not addressed properly, these upsets can
result in reduced lifetimes, increased pressure drops across beds, loss of product quality, formation of
hydrates, increased system corrosion or increased plant downtime—all of which have cost
implications. It is, therefore, important to properly design and operate the regeneration phase of
molecular sieves.

The main design principles and recommendations for the regeneration step in TSA processes are
presented here, along with ways to address key issues concerning troubleshooting, optimizing and
adapting plant operations under different constraints. Part 1 focuses on the general design philosophy
and key operating parameters, and Part 2 will concentrate on the regeneration gas and contaminants.

Industrial adsorption on zeolite molecular sieves. The principles of industrial adsorption on the
zeolite molecular sieve have been well documented in the academic and industrial worlds.1–8 Zeolites
are crystalline aluminosilicates with a uniform pore size that are extensively used in adsorption
applications. They are made of a three-dimensional succession of SiO4 and AlO4 tetrahedra (sodalite
cages) in the presence of metal ions to balance the negative charges created by the trivalency of
aluminum. This results in a final network of repeated crystals with channels and uniform size cavities
(known as porosity) that exhibit a large and electronically active surface area.

In the separation application, for an impurity to be efficiently adsorbed, the molecule of the impurity
should be polar and of an appropriate size that corresponds to the pores present in a given type of
zeolite. Two types of zeolites are widely used for separation: zeolite A (“LTA” crystal structure) and
zeolite X (“FAU” crystal structure). The diameters of the pores and cavities depend on the type of
zeolite and on the nature and size of the charge-compensating cations, which are situated around the
pores. 1D 5D 1M 3M 1Y 2Y

+ Commodity Last Change

The 4A and 13X are basic forms of zeolite based on Na , but with two different crystal structures
(types A and X, respectively). In a type A zeolite, if Na+ is partially replaced by K+, which has a larger Crude Oil WTI 46.45 +1.04
ionic radius, the result is a smaller pore opening of 3 angstrom, or Å (i.e., “3A” zeolite). When Ca2+ Natural Gas (Henry Hub) 2.975 +0.035
replaces two Na+, the result is a bigger pore opening of 5 Å (“5A” zeolite). Zeolite X pores, in the Na+
form, are of size 7.4 Å. Copyright © 2018. All market data is provided by Barchart Solutions. Futures:
at least a 10 minute delay. Information is provided 'as is' and solely for informational
The zeolite crystals are compounded with a binding clay to form beads or extrudates. Zeolites, also
purposes, not for trading purposes or advice. To see all exchange delays and terms
known as molecular sieves, are used industrially in the fixed beds to purify a gas or a liquid stream.
of use, please see disclaimer.
Depending on the application and molecules to be captured, an appropriate type of zeolite is chosen.
The adsorption capacity of a molecular sieve is governed by isotherms (function of temperature and
pressure), and once the molecular sieve is saturated with impurity molecules, the equilibrium
conditions need to be changed (either temperature or pressure or both) to desorb the impurity and
reuse the molecular sieve for adsorption. This phase is called the “regeneration” of a molecular sieve.

Adsorption with molecular sieves is usually performed in systems having at least two vertical
absorbers, one in adsorption and one in regeneration. For high flowrates, several adsorbers can be

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Proper regeneration of molecular sieves in TSA processes—Part 1 Page 2 of 7

used in parallel, as shown in Fig. 1, and up to two in regeneration. The regeneration stage features
cooling and heating in series, for the case where the regeneration gas flowrate must be reduced.

FEATURED COLUMNS
Editorial Comment
-Adrienne Blume
As discussed in the HPI Market Data 2019
report, published in November by Gas
Processing & LNG’s sister publication,
Hydrocarbon Processing, rising propane and
ethane supplies in the US have been enabled
by greater production of shale gas.
Industry Trends: Norway targets global
LNG market
-Eugene Gerden
Norway aims to become a leading player in the
global LNG market during the next several
years through the establishment of new, large-
scale LNG terminals.
Regional Focus: Challenges of scaling
up Africa’s LNG production
-Shem Oirere
Several gas projects are underway in Africa,
FIG. 1. Example of a “2+1” system with two vessels in adsorption in parallel but they continue to be constrained by
and one in regeneration with dry product. inadequate infrastructure, slow finance
mobilization, lack of security and uncertainty
During adsorption, a molecular sieve bed is modeled by a three-zone system, as illustrated in Fig. 2. over hydrocarbon regulations that are casting
Close to the inlet is the equilibrium zone (EZ), where the adsorbent is in equilibrium with the process doubt on the outcome of the continent’s drive
fluid—i.e., saturated with impurity at the partial pressure and temperature conditions. to meet its anticipated 128% gas demand
increase by 2040.

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FIG. 2. Equilibrium zone, mass transfer zone and fresh zone. focus on LNG, GTL, gas
processing technology
developments and
The EZ is followed by the mass transfer zone (MTZ), where the dynamics of adsorption take place. deployments, operations,
The MTZ shows a gradient of the impurity concentration, which decreases to a required outlet small-scale solutions,
specification and can be defined as the length required for the adsorbent to bring the impurities from transportation, trading,
their initial concentration to the final specification. distribution, safety, regulatory
affairs, business analysis and
The third area is made of fresh adsorbent that, for a given adsorption time, has not been in contact more.
with the impurities.
October 25, 2018 08:30 AM
Sieve design. A number of parameters influence the design and operation of a molecular sieve unit. CDT
The operating temperature and partial pressure of an impurity, along with the type of molecular sieve
(3A, 4A, 5A, 13X) defines the adsorption capacity of that impurity. Flowrate and pressure drop Register Now
constraints, coupled with the adsorption capacity, are important to select the appropriate flow regime,
mass transfer kinetics and, by extension, the design of vessels.

An adapted pore size of molecular sieve, along with an appropriate bed configuration (based on
adsorbent size and composed of big particles, small particles or a split bed), also influence the size of
vessels. The choice of an appropriate diameter-to-height ratio will influence the pressure drop and
flow distribution, as well as the regeneration duty requirement.

Regeneration of molecular sieves is normally performed in either the pressure swing adsorption
(PSA) processes or in the TSA processes. In the first case, the change in the adsorption equilibrium
is obtained by decreasing the pressure. PSA processes, which are usually used in non-aggressive
applications with less stringent outlet specifications (i.e., 100 ppm or more), are less sensitive to
process deviations during operation and usually give long lifetimes.

In the second case, the change in the adsorption equilibrium is obtained by increasing the
temperature with the help of a hot gas (180°C–300°C). TSA processes, usually used in applications
with stringent outlet specifications (0.1 ppm–1 ppm), are more sensitive to process deviations during
operation.

A majority of natural gas, petrochemical and refinery units are TSA based. The design for these units
is provided by molecular sieve suppliers specializing in the know-how of these applications. The PSA
process is usually designed by technology licensors, and the molecular sieve supplier role provides
appropriate product and as-needed operational assistance, so that a unit is less susceptible to
deviations or problems. TSA-based regeneration processes are discussed here.

Regeneration phase design. It is well known that molecular sieves age over time and with each
regeneration cycle. The speed and the way the sieves age determine the lifetime of a unit. Therefore,
it is important to properly design and operate the regeneration phase. An incorrect pressure change

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rate can lead to sub-zero temperatures, resulting in ice formation that will damage molecular sieve
structure. Channeling or lifting of the bed can occur if an appropriate pressure drop per length is not
respected.

The heating step during regeneration is critical for several reasons: The gas must be clean enough to
avoid side effects (which are usually exacerbated at high temperature), and it must carefully address
the required regeneration energy duty (i.e., temperature, flowrate, duration) requirement. Correct
temperature ramps should be provided to avoid damage of the molecular sieves by thermal stress.

An intermediate heating step is often recommended in the drying applications to avoid the
phenomenon of hydrothermal damaging of the molecular sieve. An appropriate temperature profile
that is adapted to the specific type of molecular sieve should be provided, along with sufficient
heating time, to attain a stable outlet temperature plateau to mark the completion of regeneration. The
type of regeneration gas (e.g., contaminants content and physical properties), flowrate and flow
directions are equally important for efficient regeneration. After heating, a cooling phase is needed
before switching back to adsorption; this helps avoid a temperature peak that might disturb the
downstream process.

A wide range of operating issues in the molecular sieve units can be caused by poor design
decisions, as well as deviations from the design conditions like change of process conditions,
presence of contaminants,2,9 emergency shutdowns, etc. A major part of the damage from these
upsets usually happens during the regeneration step at high temperatures. If not addressed properly,
these upsets can result in reduced lifetime, increased pressure drop across beds, loss of product
quality, hydrate formation, increased system corrosion or increased plant downtime—all of which
have cost implications. Therefore, it is important to properly design and operate the regeneration
phase.

Over the course of this two-part article, recommendations for the design of the regeneration step in
TSA processes will be presented, along with how these recommendations can be adapted for several
key issues that industrial operators may face while operating a molecular sieves unit, and which EPC
companies may face when designing a new unit.

Regeneration of molecular sieve. The equilibrium adsorption capacity of an impurity on a given

molecular sieve is determined by using isotherms. As an example, Fig. 3 illustrates the isotherms that
give the equilibrium adsorption capacity of water on a 4A molecular sieve as functions of temperature
and partial pressure of water. At the end of the adsorption phase, the molecular sieve is saturated
and no more impurity can be adsorbed.

FIG. 3. Water adsorption isotherms for 4A molecular sieves.

However, the adsorption is reversible. The adsorbed impurity can be desorbed and eliminated from
the molecular sieve by shifting the adsorption equilibrium and modifying the operating conditions—or,
more commonly, by increasing the temperature, by decreasing the pressure, or by doing both. At the
end of regeneration, the molecular sieve can recover most of its original adsorption capacity—i.e., it is
“regenerated.”

Thermal regeneration is a widely used method in the oil and gas industry. To regenerate the
molecular sieve, several steps are generally involved:

• Depressurization
• Draining (in liquid application only)
• Purge
• Heating (temperature ramp-ups; intermediate heating step, if applicable; main heating step)
• Cooling
• Repressurization
• Standby.

The regeneration stage often starts with a depressurization step. The depressurization is required if
the regeneration is performed at a pressure lower than that of the adsorption phase. This may arise
for different reasons, as the regeneration gas is not the product gas, but rather another gas available
at a lower pressure, such as N2, H2, CH4 and fuel gas. The lower pressure can also be chosen to
optimize the regeneration energy requirement.

In liquid applications, the depressurization step can be followed by a draining step. During the
draining step, all liquid must be evacuated from the adsorber before the introduction of a heating gas.
The liquid is generally drained by gravity flow. At the end of the draining step, almost all of the liquid is
drained, except for a very small portion that is trapped in the molecular sieve and on the surface of
the adsorber vessel. This liquid is removed during the purging step, where cold regeneration gas is
introduced for 1 hr–2 hr to strip off this remaining liquid.

Following this step, the heating step is started by introducing hot regeneration gas into the vessel.
The temperature is slowly increased to the heating temperature to avoid thermal stress. The energy
needed to obtain suitable regeneration is achieved through the sum of four components:

1. Energy needed to heat the molecular sieve bed to its desired temperature:
Q1 = m1 × Cp1 (T2 – T1)
2. Energy needed to heat the adsorber:
Q2 = m2 × Cp2 × k (T2 – T1) (Note: Depends on whether the insulation is external or internal)
3. Energy needed to heat and desorb the adsorbate mass retained in the bed: Q3 = m3 × L
4. Energy losses.

In this summary, the following definitions are used:

m1 = Mass of the molecular sieve to be heated

m2 = Mass of the steel to be heated

m3 = Mass of the total water (or other impurity) adsorbed during adsorption phase

Cp1 = Heating capacity of the molecular sieve

Cp2 = Heating capacity of the steel

k = Correction factor that depends on whether the insulation is internal or external

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T1 = Initial bed temperature

T2 = Final bed temperature

L = Enthalpy of desorption of the impurity.

A hot gas with a certain flowrate, a specific temperature and a given flow time supplies the heating
energy necessary for the regeneration.

As can be seen from the isotherms, the temperature rise causes a decrease of the impurity loading
on the molecular sieve. Passing a hot gas stream has two effects: first, desorption of the impurity due
to the temperature rise, and second, transport of the desorbed impurity out of the bed. This means
that a certain quantity of heat at a minimum temperature should be brought into the adsorber to
desorb the impurity.

Furthermore, if the regeneration gas flowrate (or duration) is too small, then an accumulation will
occur on the top layers of the molecular sieves due to a lack of desorption energy. In the case of
laminar flow or channeling, the gas does not pass through the entire bed due to the preferential path
of the flow, but rather through only part of the bed. This may lead to localized accumulation in the
bed.

At the end of the heating step, the molecular sieve is regenerated. However, the impurities are not
completely desorbed. A certain residual content of impurity always remains in the molecular sieve,
corresponding to the equilibrium conditions at the end of heating and the thermal profile observed by
the molecular sieve.

For example, a new sieve is activated at 500°C–600°C at the end of a manufacturing process and
has very low residual water content (< 0.5%). The value of this residual impurity content depends on
the quality of regeneration (i.e., temperature, time, flowrate and other process parameters) and the
age of the molecular sieve. The result is a reduced adsorption time for the next adsorption cycle.

Molecular sieve suppliers often design the unit based on the end of lifetime adsorption time. This
means that, initially, the adsorption time (and, therefore, the adsorption capacity) of the molecular
sieve is higher when the molecular sieve is fresh. Throughout its lifetime, this adsorption time
decreases due to aging. These factors mean that the molecular sieve unit can be operated in two
ways:

• Some units are operated on a “fixed” cycle time—i.e., the cycles always have the same
duration. At the beginning of the lifetime, when the adsorbent is new, there is still fresh,
unused molecular sieve in the vessel. For these units, the design is optimized when, at the
end of the last adsorption phase of the foreseen product lifetime, the third zone (fresh sieve) is
close to zero and the MTZ nearly reaches the limit of the bed.
• Other units are operated under “breakthrough” conditions—i.e., the end of the adsorption time
is defined when impurities are detected at the outlet of the bed. In that case, the adsorption
time decreases slowly throughout the product lifetime.

After heating, a cooling phase is needed before switching back to the adsorption; this helps avoid a
temperature peak that would usually cause significant disturbance to the downstream process. The
energy needed to obtain suitable cooling is the sum of three components:

• Energy needed to cool the molecular sieve bed to its desired temperature:
Q1 = m1 × Cp1 (T5 – T4)
• Energy needed to cool the adsorber:
Q2 = m2 Cp2 k (T5 – T4) (Note: Depends on whether the insulation is external or internal)
• Energy losses.

In this summary, the following definitions are used:

m1 = Mass of the molecular sieve to be cooled

m2 = Mass of the steel to be cooled

Cp1 = Heating capacity of the molecular sieve

Cp2 = Heating capacity of the steel

k = Correction factor that depends on whether the insulation is internal or external

T5 = Initial bed temperature

T4 = Final bed temperature.

A cool gas with a certain flowrate, a specific temperature and a given flow time supplies the energy
necessary for cooling.

At the end of the cooling step, the vessel is repressurized to the adsorption pressure, and also refilled
with liquid in case of liquid applications, and then put on standby before switching to the adsorption
phase of the next cycle.

he major parameters involved in the design of regeneration are depressurization/repressurization

rates, heating temperature, heating time, temperature ramp-ups, cooling time, regeneration gas
flowrate, regeneration gas type (composition, temperature and pressure) and flow direction, and the
presence of poisons or deviations. The standard recommendations for several of these parameters,
and how they can be adapted in the case of process deviations, will be presented in Part 2.

Temperature and time. The standard regeneration temperature usually depends on the type of
molecular sieve used. This temperature can be further adjusted depending on the particular
application and, in some cases, where poisons or process deviations are present.

The typical molecular sieve types used in the oil and gas industry are 3A, 4A, 5A and 13X. The
standard regeneration temperatures for these molecular sieves are outlined in Table 1.

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A typical regeneration temperature profile is illustrated in Fig. 4. The heating temperature is slowly
increased through the application of a heating ramp-up step. Once the heating temperature is
reached, it is maintained for a few hours to gradually desorb the impurity. The heating is completed
when a plateau is reached at the outlet temperature for approximately 45 min–60 min when the
temperature either increases very slowly or remains constant, depending on vessel size.

FIG. 4. Typical regeneration temperature profile.

The heating is efficient if, at the end of the process, the difference between the inlet and outlet
temperatures is less than 15°C–20°C, depending on the quality of vessel insulation. At this point, only
the heat losses through the wall make the temperature difference, but no more impurities are
desorbed.

The time allocated for the different regeneration steps is another important parameter for efficient
regeneration. The heating time and cooling time are calculated based on duty requirement and the
temperature and flowrate of the regeneration gas. The heating time should be a minimum of 2 hr;
below this value, the regeneration is often incomplete, as the molecular sieve bed is not fully heated
to the regeneration temperature.

As previously stated, the outlet temperature stabilization (45 min–60 min) is a good sign that the
regeneration is completed. The heating ramp-up is typically 5°C/min–10°C/min. Beyond 10°C/min, if
the heating is too fast, it can result in thermal stress in the molecular sieve—or, in drying applications,
it may lead to retrocondensation (to be discussed in Part 2), resulting in quick aging of the molecular
sieve.

In some cases where an intermediate heating step at 120°C is applied to prevent retrocondensation,
a minimum of 30 min should be allocated to this step. The depressurization/pressurization rate should
be 1 bar/min–3 bar/min, and should not exceed 3 bar/min. In liquid applications, where draining and
refilling is required, the typical time allocated for these steps is 1 hr–2 hr. These steps are followed by
a cold purge step (i.e., cold regeneration gas purging to remove trapped liquid), usually for around 1
hr.

Fig. 5 illustrates two bad examples of the regeneration temperature profiles to be avoided. On the left
side, a temperature stabilization is not reached for about 45 min–60 min, meaning that the
regeneration is not complete. The outlet temperature should stabilize at 15°C–20°C under the inlet
temperature. Here, the water is only partially removed and accumulates throughout the cycles,
leading to a reduced working capacity and to early breakthrough.

FIG. 5. Examples of inefficient regeneration temperature profile.

On the right side of Fig. 5, even though a temperature stabilization appears to have been reached,
the difference between inlet and outlet temperature is approximately 40°C. At such a level of
difference, the regeneration is not complete. This difference is frequently due to an inefficient

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insulation leading to high wall losses. It can also be due to severe channeling (e.g., arising due to the
presence of aggregates) that may reduce efficiency of heating by the regeneration gas.

In some cases, the heating duty supplied is at an insufficient level (either flowrate or time), leading to
a very slow increase in temperature at the end. The result of this considerable difference between the
inlet and the outlet temperatures is a high amount of residual water in the molecular sieve bed at the
end of the regeneration. Both cases can impact the performance and the lifetime of the molecular
sieve. For such cases, regeneration time, regeneration temperature and/or regeneration gas flowrate
should be increased.

For the cooling step, a temperature ramp-down is not required. If the duration of cooling is too short,
the result will be a temperature peak of the gas during adsorption after switching from regeneration to
adsorption. This may impact the downstream process. For the cooling, low flowrate (laminar flow) can
also lead to a horizontal temperature gradient (higher temperature at the wall, lower temperature in
the middle), resulting in a temperature peak during the adsorption phase. Sufficient cooling time and
flowrate should be allocated to prevent this phenomenon.

Retrocondensation. In applications such as natural gas drying, cracked gas drying and olefins
drying, retrocondensation is a recurring operational issue that happens during the regeneration
phase, leading to hydrothermal damaging of the molecular sieve. This phenomenon is well known
and is widely discussed in the literature.2,8,10,11

By heating too fast at a high temperature, water rapidly desorbs from the lower layers, while the bed
experiences an important temperature gradient—i.e., its bottom is already hot, but its upper section is
still at the adsorption temperature. When reaching these colder parts of the bed, the regeneration gas
gets oversaturated, and water “retrocondenses” on the top layers, especially near the vessel wall.

This phenomenon can be seen on the outlet temperature curve of the regeneration gas that shows an
inflexion (typical of a change of physical state), as illustrated in Fig. 6. As the temperature increases,
it results in boiling water in the molecular sieve bed. This phenomenon is enhanced at high pressures
and low regeneration flowrates. The consequence of water condensation is the weakening of both the
binder and the zeolite structure. The binding clay is leached from the molecular sieve structure and
disaggregates to powder. Eventually, it also rearranges to form agglomerates around the vessel.

Hydrothermal damaging can be significantly reduced, and sometimes stopped, by performing a

suitable heating and regeneration procedure. A heating ramp-up of a few degrees per minute,
together with a preliminary heating step of 30 min to 1 hr at 100°C–120°C is the most effective
solution, as illustrated in Fig. 7.

The benefit of a gentle heating step is to control water desorption while delivering a more even
movement of initial heat through the bed. This scenario is preferable to a situation where the hot,
saturated gas arrives at the colder parts of the vessel to condense.

Another good practice may be to increase the regeneration gas flowrate to strip more water out of the
bed and heat the upper section faster, or to lower the regeneration pressure.

Pressure. Like temperature and time, pressure is another important parameter for the design of the
regeneration phase. The lower the pressure, the easier it is to desorb, as is evident from adsorption
isotherms. The regeneration phase pressure can be the same as that of the adsorption phase (if
product or inlet gas is used as regeneration gas) or different from the adsorption phase pressure (if
another gas, which can be supplied at a different pressure, is used for regeneration). Furthermore, it
is important to note that a larger flowrate of regeneration gas is needed if the regeneration pressure is
high.

Two operating scenarios can be present, depending on the pressure range:

• Low pressure—heating limited: The regeneration gas must bring in the energy for heating
and desorption (i.e., the boiling temperature of water at the regeneration pressure is below the
regeneration temperature, so there is no limitation for evaporation)
• High pressure—stripping limited: The regeneration gas must strip off (push out) the
desorbed water, in addition to bringing in the energy for heating and desorption.

The limit between both scenarios is approximately 30 bar–35 bar. For instance, a regeneration at 60
bar may require up to 25% more regeneration gas quantity. A correction factor is often applied,
depending on the regeneration pressure to the gas flowrate.

The pressure drop across the molecular sieve bed depends on the flowrate, viscosity, density,
packing, size and shape of the molecular sieve. The start-of-life pressure drop is usually calculated
using the Ergun equation. The pressure drop across the bed increases over the lifetime, and its
evolution depends on how the unit is operated and whether any process deviations (e.g., liquid
carryover, retrocondensation, coking or other type of damage) occurs on the molecular sieve. Under
standard conditions, as a rule of thumb, the end-of-life pressure drop is usually double the pressure
drop at the start of life.

In cases where the regeneration phase and adsorption phase pressures are different,
depressurization and repressurization steps are required in the beginning and at the end of
regeneration, respectively. The pressure change rate is very crucial and should be between 1 bar/min
and a maximum of 3 bar/min. A high depressurization rate can result in a sudden temperature
decrease and sometimes sub-zero temperatures (temperature well), as illustrated in Fig. 8. At this
temperature, the water present in the molecular sieve can form ice. As the volume of ice is greater
than the volume of water, this can potentially damage the molecular sieve. Furthermore, when the
heating starts, ice vaporizes and damages the crystal structure when leaving, creating dust and
breakage.

The temperature decrease can be explained by two phenomena. In some cases, the Joule–Thomson
effect12,13 may provide an explanation. For a given pressure, a gas has an inversion temperature. If
the gas is initially above this temperature, then the temperature will further increase if the pressure
decreases, and vice versa:

• If Tinitial > Tinversion, then a decrease in pressure will result in an increase in temperature
• If Tinitial < Tinversion, then a decrease in pressure will result in a decrease in temperature.

The extent of the Joule–Thomson effect depends on the type of gas. Normally, this phenomenon is
uncommon in natural gas, but common in cracked gas applications. In some cases, the phenomenon
of liquids evaporation (at a given T and P) and desorption (endothermic) can also lead to a decrease
in temperature.

Fig. 9 demonstrates an example from propane drying, where sub-zero temperature may occur during
trips. In the first case, the initial pressure drop from 19 bar to 6 bar was too fast and resulted in a
temperature decrease to –15°C. In the second case, the pressure change rate was decreased, and a
sub-zero temperature was avoided.

Part 2. In Part 2, the type of regeneration gas and flow and the presence of olefins, oxygen,
methanol, hydrocarbon retrograde condensation, carbonyl sulfide formation and other contaminants
will be discussed. GP

Literature cited

1. Trent, R., “Dehydration with molecular sieves,” 51st Laurance Reid Gas Conditioning
Conference, Norman, Oklahoma, February 2001.
2. Terrigeol, A., “Molecular sieves contaminants: Effects, consequences and mitigation,” GPA
Europe Annual Conference, Berlin, May 2012.

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Proper regeneration of molecular sieves in TSA processes—Part 1 Page 7 of 7

3. Eguren, R. R., “Molecular sieves operational challenges,” 62nd Laurance Reid Gas
Conditioning Conference, Norman, Oklahoma, February 2012.
4. Meyer, P., “Molecular sieves troubleshooting,” GPA Europe Annual Conference, Lisbon,
Portugal, September 2010.
5. Keller, J. U. and R. Staudt, “Gas adsorption equilibria: Experimental methods and adsorptive
isotherms,” Springer Science & Business Media, Berlin, Germany, 2005.
6. Sun, L.-M. and F. Meunier, “Adsorption—Aspects théoriques—Techniques de l’ingénieur,”
Génie des procédés, Vol. 1, J2730, March 10, 2003.
7. Yang, R. T., Gas Separation by Adsorption Processes, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, UK,
2013.
8. Jain, S., T. Boucheres, L. Gomes and A. Ghoussoub, “Use of CFD modeling to optimize
capital and operational costs of molecular sieve units,” GPA Europe Annual Conference,
Athens, Greece, May 2016.
9. Grace Davison, “Effects of contaminants on molecular sieves,” online: http://www.offenbar-
energy.com/pdf/EFFECTS%20OF%20CONTAMINENTS.pdf
10. Meyer, P. B. C., “Hydrothermal damaging of molecular sieves and how to prevent it,” GPA
Europe, Paris, France, February 2003.
11. Suckow, M., W. Lutz, J. Kornatowski, M. Rozwadowksi and M. Wark, “Calculation of the
hydrothermal long-term stability of zeolites in gas-desulphurization and gas-drying processes,”
Gas Separation & Purification, Vol. 6, No. 2, 1992.
12. Zemansky, M. W., Heat and Thermodynamics, McGraw-Hill, New York, New York, 1968.
13. Schroeder, D. V., Thermal Physics, Addison Wesley Longman, Boston, Massachusetts, 2000.

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