Introduction

Many people get involved in the audio trade prior to experiencing technical training.
Those serious about practicing audio dig in to the books later to learn the physical
principles underlying their craft. This chapter is devoted to establishing a baseline of
information that will prove invaluable to anyone working in the audio field.

Numerous tools exist for those who work on sound systems. The most important are
the mathematical tools. Their application is independent of the type of system or its
use, plus, they are timeless and not subject to obsolescence like audio products. Of
course, one must always balance the mathematical approach with real-world
experience to gain an understanding of the shortcomings and limitations of the
formulas. Once the basics have been mastered, sound system work becomes largely
intuitive.

Audio practitioners must have a general understanding of many subjects. The

information in this chapter has been carefully selected to give the reader the big
picture of what is important in sound systems. Many of the topics are covered in
greater detail in other chapters of this book. In this initial treatment of each subject,
the language of mathematics has been kept to a minimum, opting instead for word
explanations of the theories and concepts. This provides a solid foundation for
further study of any of the subjects. Considering the almost endless number of topics
that could be included here, I selected the following based on my own experience as
a sound practitioner and instructor. They are:

1. The Decibel and Levels.

2. Frequency and Wavelength.

3. The Principle of Superposition.

4. Ohm’s Law and the Power Equation.

5. Impedance, Resistance, and Reactance.

6. Introduction to Human Hearing.

7. Monitoring Audio Program Material.

8. Sound Radiation Principles.

9. Wave Interference.

A basic understanding in these areas will provide the foundation for further study in
areas that are of particular interest to the reader. Most of the ideas and principles in
this chapter have existed for many years. While I haven’t quoted any of the
references verbatim, they get full credit for the bulk of the information presented
here.

The Decibel

Perhaps the most useful tool ever created for audio practitioners is the decibel (dB).
It allows changes in system parameters such as power, voltage, or distance to be
related to level changes heard by a listener. In short, the decibel is a way to express
“how much” in a way that is relevant to the human perception of loudness. We will
not track its long evolution or specific origins here. Like most audio tools, it has been
modified many times to stay current with the technological practices of the day.
Excellent resources are available for that information. What follows is a short study
on how to use the decibel for general audio work.

Most of us tend to consider physical variables in linear terms. For instance, twice as
much of a quantity produces twice the end result. Twice as much sand produces
twice as much concrete. Twice as much flour produces twice as much bread. This
linear relationship does not hold true for the human sense of hearing. Using that
logic, twice the amplifier power should sound twice as loud. Unfortunately, this is
not true.

Perceived changes in the loudness and frequency of sound are based on the
percentage change from some initial condition. This means that audio people are
concerned with ratios. A given ratio always produces the same result. Subjective
testing has shown that the power applied to a loudspeaker must be increased by
about 26% to produce an audible change. Thus a ratio of 1.26:1 produces the
minimum audible change, regardless of the initial power quantity. If the initial
amount of power is 1 watt, then an increase to 1.26 watts (W) will produce a “just
audible” increase. If the initial quantity is 100 W, then 126 W will be required to
produce a just audible increase. A number scale can be linear with values like 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, etc. A number scale can be proportional with values like 1, 10, 100, 1000, etc. A
scale that is calibrated proportionally is called a logarithmic scale. In fact, logarithm
means “proportional numbers.” For simplicity, base 10 logarithms are used for
audio work. Using amplifier power as an example, changes in level are determined
by finding the ratio of change in the parameter of interest (e.g. wattage) and taking
the base 10 logarithm. The resultant number is the level change between the two
wattages expressed in Bels. The base 10 logarithm is determined using a look-up
table or scientific calculator. The log conversion accomplishes two things:

1. It puts the ratio on a proportional number scale that better correlates with human
hearing.
2. It allows very large numbers to be expressed in a more compact form, Fig. 2-1.

The final step in the decibel conversion is to scale the Bel quantity by a factor of ten.
This step converts Bels to decibels and completes the conversion process,