Development in refrigeration: technical advances and

opportunities for the 1990s*

H. O. Spauschus
Georgia Technical Research Institute, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
Received 27 M a y 1987

The world-wide growth of refrigeration applications is the result of expanding markets, international
competition and improved products based on advanced technology. This plenary lecture outlines the
potential impact of technicaladvancesin solid-statemicroelectronicsand computers, new working fluidsand
space-age structural materials on refrigeration products of the 1990s. Future equipment developmentsthat
are reviewedinclude advanced compressors, solid-state drives, desiccant cooling systemsand products such
as engine-drivenand Stirling heat pumps. Environmental impact of CFCs and the recent breakthroughs in
superconductingmaterials are likelyto create both disruptions and opportunities for refrigerationin the next
decade.
(Keywords:refrigeration;developments;advancedtechnology; futuretrends)

Dbveloppement des progr s de la technique frigorifique ct

perspectives pour les ann cs 1990
Le d~veloppement mondial des applications du froid est le r~sultat de march~s en expansion, de la concurrence
internationale et de l'am~lioration des produits grace it une technologie de pointe. Cette conference pl~ni~re
indique l'impact potentiel des progr~s techniques concernant la micro-~lectronique ~ transistor et les
ordinateurs, des nouveaux fluides actifs et des mat~riaux de construction de I'~re spatiale sur les materiels
frigorifiques des armies 1990. Les d~veloppements futurs des ~quipements passes en revue comprennent les
compresseurs perfectionn~s, les commandes it transistor, les syst~mes frigorifiques ~ d~shydratant et des produits
tels que des pompes ~ chaleur fi moteur ~ gaz ou Diesel et fi cycle Stirling. Eimpact des CFC sur l'environnement
et les perches r~centes des supraconducteurs sont susceptibles de crier au cours des dix armies i~venir it la fois des
handicaps et des perspectives int~ressantes pour le froid.
(Mots cl~s:froid;d~veloppements;technologiede pointe; tendancesfutures)

At the 1983 International Refrigeration Congress in
Paris, Roger Thevenot, Honorary Director of the IIR,
presented an excellent historical perspective of the first
150 years of mechanical refrigeration 1. For almost a
century after the fundamental studies of Carnot and
Pcltier, the pace of developments in refrigeration was
largely governed by improvements in refrigerating
machines that evolved from steam engine technology and
by Carre's invention of the absorption machine, as
illustrated in Figure 1. Beginning in the 1930s, new
innovations altering the course of artificial refrigeration
include the hermetic compressor, the discovery of
halocarbon refrigerants by Midgley2, Pennington's
regenerative dehumidifier cyclea and the commercial
reversible air-to-air heat pump. More recent
developments in refrigeration have been evolutionary in
nature, directed at meeting world-wide needs for food,
comfort and health.
The refrigeration industry of today is undergoing a
period of accelerated development, fueled by growing
2. The decreasing rate of growth in the later years of this
period has been compensated for by increased growth of
manufactured products in the Far East and Europe. The
world market for refrigeration and air conditioning
products is illustrated in Table 1, showing production,
1987 market size and population for world regions 5.
Anglo America, Japan and Europe produce and purchase
almost 90% of the world refrigeration products, though
numbering less than 25 % of the world population. The
2ooo~
19807,,, ~" ???
REVERSIBLE PUMPS
1 2-POLE MOTORS
1
/ -
~ -- HEUUM LI~IFACTION

markets, international competition and the concern for lS80F~CAILLETET - - AIR L CI.JIFACII(~N

energy conservation. Market growth, as measured by

refrigeration and air conditioning product shipments for 1840 GORRIE -° AIR CYCLE MACHINE

1958 to 1983 in the United States 4 is illustrated in Figure

*Adapted from a paper to be presented at the XVIIth International Figm'e 1 Historiceventsin refrigeration
Congress of Refrigeration,Vienna,Austria,24-29 August 1987 Figure I Ev~nements historiques du froid

0140-7007/87/050263-08503.00
© 1987 Butterworth& Co (Publishers)Ltd and IIR Rev. Int. Froid 1 987 Vol 10 Septembre 263
Development in refrigeration." H. O. Spauschus
DOLLARS
(billions) microelectronics and computers; new materials and
advances in refrigerating machinery; compressors, drives
and equipment or products. These categories reflect the
author's experience and interests and thus are not
VALUE presumed to represent an all-encompassing prediction of
OF
SHIP- refrigeration developments.
MENTS

Emerging developments:microelectronics and computers

Technological advances, commercial availability and low
58 62 66 70 74 78 83 cost of solid-state electronic devices are revolutionizing
YEAR the refrigeration industry. The dramatic decrease in the
REFERENCE: STATISTICAL PROFILE OF THE AIR CONDITIONING, REFRIGERATION AND HEATING
INDUSTRY, ARI, KOLDFAX, JULY 1986 cost of 64 kilobytes of random access memory, dropping
Figure 2 Growth of US refrigeration markets from US$80 to US$10 in a three year period, is shown in
Figure 2 D~veloppement des march~.s du froid aux Etats-Unis Figure 4 as an example 6. Low cost and availability of a
wide variety of microelectronic components and
computers are having a major impact on refrigeration in
Table 1 World markets for refrigeration and air conditioning= important areas encompassing research and develop-
Tableau 1 March~s mondiaux du froid et du conditionnement d'air ment, engineering, manufacturing and as integral com-
ponents of commercial products.
1987 Computer modelling and simulation of refrigerant
Market Population cycles, initiated in the 1960s, is now widely used to study
size (% of
Market area Production index world) equilibrium and transient performance of components
and systems. Computer programs have been developed
Anglo America 33 ~o 63 % 8% to address a wide range of calculations for single compo-
Japan 31% 17 % 4% nent refrigerants and mixtures, detailed compressor
Europe 26% 13% 10%
Latin America 6% 2% 9%
performance studies and advanced cycle and system
Southeast Asia, analyses. Software programs are continually being
Australia, New Zealand < 5% < 5% 10 % refined to improve their ease of use, to generalize their
Mid East, Africa, applicability and to reduce computer requirements 7.
China, India, USSR < 5% < 5% 59 % Parallel processing, a recent innovation in the modelling
= At saturation level of Anglo America, world market for refrigeration
and air conditioning products can grow to eight times the present size
SHIPMENT-WEIGHTED SEASONAL ENERGYEFFICIENCYRATIOS OF
UNITARY AIR CONDITIONERS
potential for market growth in developing countries in EER/
SEER
refrigerated food and climate control is enormous and 9,0
will surely parallel economic improvements in those 8.8
f
regions. In mature market areas, opportunities exist for
replacement products as old equipment becomes
8.6
8.4 J
J
inefficient, obsolete or unreliable. The transport vehicle
market, including passenger cars, buses, aircraft and
refrigerated trucks, rail cars and ships all contribute to
8.2
8.0
7.8
/
new refrigeration product opportunities. 7.6
I
J
7.4
Another stimulus to the vigorous growth of the
7.2
refrigeration market is the quest for improved energy
7.0 f
utilization. Figure 3 illustrated the improvement in
YEAR 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85
seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER) for USA
manufactured unitary air conditioners of less than 19 kW REFERENCE: STATISTICAL PROFILE OF THE AIR CONDITIONING, REFRIGERATION AND HEATING
INDUSTRY, ARI, KOLDFAX, JULY 1986

capacity for the period 1976 to 19854 . These dramatic Figure 3 Energy efficiency improvements
improvements were achieved after the 1974 oil embargo Figure 3 Ameliorations du rendement ~nergbtique
focussed attention on the opportunity to save precious
natural resources by improving refrigeration product DOLLARS
efficiency. Since space heating, air conditioning and 90
central refrigeration of buildings is the second largest
consumer of energy in the USA, the total energy savings
that have been realized are large indeed. The projected
80'
70
60
\
PER 64
KILOBYTES 50,
increasing cost of energy will assure continuing OF 40.
J
application of technology to achieve additional RAM
30
improvements in efficiency. 20
With a healthy and expanding refrigeration industry, 10
international in scope and highly competitive in nature, 0
JAN
JAN JUL JAN JUL JAN JUL JAN JUL
new and improved products can be anticipated. These 83 83 84 84 85 85 86 86 87
developments, many already well underway, will be SIX MONTH PERIODS
highlighted in this presentation. Three emerging, Figure 4 Cost of computer memory
technology-based developments will be discussed: Figure 4 Co(~t des m~raoires d'ordinateur

264 Int. J. Refrig. 1987 Vol 10 September


of thermal cycless'9, is currently under evaluation for
refrigerant cycle analysis t°. If successful, this new
analytical tool has the potential to significantly improve
simulation of cycle dynamics and to reduce computer size
and run time required for analysis.
In addition to the fundamental studies outlined above,
computers are now widely used by manufacturers of
refrigeration products as engineering I-computer-aided
design (CAD)] and manufacturing Icomputer-aided
manufacturing (CAM)] tools. Examples of applications
include finite element and finite difference methods for
design of structural parts and computers to control
sophisticated manufacturing machinery. The interface
between the design engineer and manufacturing
operations is rapidly disappearing as development and
implementation of computers and robotics lead the way
to highly automated manufacturing plants.
Perhaps the most important impact of computers and
microprocessors on the refrigeration industry will be in
advanced automatic control developments 11. Appli-
cations range from improved environmental control
featuring comfort and energy conservation to the
application of specially designed microprocessor chips as
the intelligence of the control system installed in
refrigerators, air conditioners and heat pumps. Potential
benefits include improved human comfort and better
storage of perishable food products. The development
and availability of 'smart' controls is driving other
advances such as improved sensors, more efficient motors
and compressors that offer continuous modulation;
developments that are altering the products of this
industry.
Emerging developments: new materials
Research and development in advanced materials,
primarily directed at the needs of space, defence and
energy-related programmes, is coming to fruition. A
common feature of many of these developments is the
synthesis and formulation of material systems, tailored to
survive and function reliably in applications where
conventional materials are marginal or inadequate.
Advanced materials and the technology associated with
their development will provide new opportunities for
refrigeration engineers to improve reliability, decrease
weight and improve efficiency. Selected material
Table 2 New refrigerants for vapour compressionsystems
Tableau 2 Nouveaux frigoriobnes pour les systbmes h compression de vapeur
Refrigerant developments
Improved performance (COP, capacity)
Heat transfer coefficient
Capacity modulation
Broader application limits
Exhaust air heat recovery
Environmental acceptability
Development in refrigeration: H. O. Spauschus
opportunities in new working fluids and advanced
ceramic and polymeric materials for future refrigeration
system applications will be outlined.
Working fluids: refrigerants and lubricants
Thermodynamic properties are the primary con-
sideration in the selection of a refrigerant although other
requirements including stability, non-toxicity, non-
flammability and availability must also be met. Once the
refrigerant is selected for a particular system, other
criteria and design considerations become dependent
variables with fewer degrees of freedom lz. Ammonia
(NH3) and halocarbons (also called CFCs) are presently
the refrigerants of choice for vapour compression systems
in well over 90% of the non-industrial process
applications. Two working fluids dominate absorption
refrigeration; water with ammonia as the refrigerant and
lithium bromide with water as the refrigerant. These two
fluids prevail in spite of extensive investigations to find
superior combinations 13,14.
Excluding mixtures, the most widely used halocarbons
for vapour compression refrigeration are R11, R12, R22
and R113, which have proven to be highly satisfactory in
millions of operating systems of many different designs.
Beginning about the mid 1970s with the oil crisis, interest
developed in identifying new refrigerants to meet special
requirements such as higher capacity for given volumetric
displacement, capacity modulation, high temperature
operation and environmental acceptability. Examples of
recent studies of alternate refrigerants are given in Table
215-24 and it is evident that non-azeotropic mixtures, also
called zeotropes, have received a great deal of attention.
Results of system tests with refrigerant mixtures have
generally been disappointing in meeting predicted
improvements in performance and capacity modulation.
On the positive side, it has been demonstrated that
broader application limits can be realized through the use
of mixed refrigerants.
For the 1990s, renewed attention to alternate
refrigerants will be stimulated by concerns for ozone
depletion and the 'greenhouse effect'. R134a has been
identified as a leading candidate to replace R12 since it
has similar vapour pressure properties but contains no
chlorine, the proposed catalyst in stratospheric ozone
depletion. Unfortunately, commercial chemical processes
for manufacturing R134a in the required quantities are
Examples
RI3BI/R152a Cooper and Borchardt, 1979
Connon and Drew, 1981
Muiroy and Didion, 1986
R22/RI3B1 Matsunaga et al., 1982
R114/R13B1 Kuever and Kruse, 1986
R12/R114 Stoecker, 1984
R12/RlI4 Kruse, 1980
R22/R114 Vakil, 1983
R22/R23/R114 Vakil, 1983
R22/RI14 Kruse, 1980
R13B1/RI52a Gromoll and Gutbier, 1985
R22/RI13 Gromoll and Gutbier, 1985
RI2/R13B1 Aittom~iki, 1980
R134a
Rev. Int. Froid 1987 Vol 10 Septembre 265
Development in refrigeration., H. O. Spauschus

refrigeration lubricants are severely limited in safe

PRODUCT ???~??? application temperatures and suggests that new synthetic
DEVELOPMENTS ~ TECHNICAL fluids with improved viscosity-temperature coefficients
"TAJLORED"
LUSRCANT~7/ DEVELOPMENTS are required for high temperature compressor
COMMERCIALAVAILABILfI"YOF MINERAL
OIL/SYNTHETICBLENDS applications.
RESSOR LUBRICATIONFUNDAMENTALS
COMMERCIALINTRODUCTIONO F " ~ (KRUSE,SANVOROENKER,HUTTENLOCHER)
SYNTHETIC L U B R I ~
Structural materials: ceramics and polymers
ADDITIVES TO ENHANCESTABILITYTABIUTY-J~
AND LUBRICITY ~ " CHEMICALPROPERTIESOF OIR SOLUTIONS
.EIOEJ The primary structural materials for refrigeration
SPECIALLY REFINEDOILS
(LOW FLOC; STABILITY)~P~SICAL-- PROPERTIESOF OIR SOLUTIONS components and systems historically have been based on
J (ALBRIGHT,LOFFLER,WALKER,SPAUSCHUS,MEL'TSER) metals; steel; aluminium and copper. Weight and
M'NE~L LUBSJCA~--p'T"F~..MOO~.CZ"+~.SR~S ~OIR SO'U~ONS
,NOO,LE '19SU rSAMSAC,,MARne,JAEGER,SPAUSC,US) strength-to-weight considerations have been of lesser
Figure 5 Historic events in refrigeration lubricants importance in the design of refrigeration products than
Figure 5 El~raents historiques des lubrifiants frigorifiques they have been in aircraft, automobile and space
products, which have in recent times undergone
revolutionary changes favouring lighter and stronger
not available now and are unlikely in the near future.
materials. In these industries new ceramics, polymers and
Because of the importance of this issue to the refrigeration
composites now comprise as much as 2 5 ~ of the
industry, the IIR Scientific Council has appointed a
structural materials and this percentage is forecast to
special Task Group under Professor A. L. Stolk to
continue to increase in the foreseeable future. Availability
prepare guidelines for an IIR Position Statement
of these advanced materials and the associated material
reviewing the possible effects of CFCs on the environment
fabrication technology are expected to penetrate
and to recommend safeguards. Professor Stolk is
refrigeration industry products in applications where
presenting a progress report in another plenary lecture at
performance, durability or cost benefits can be derived.
the Vienna Congress. Suffice to say that the identification
Table 3 lists desirable properties of ceramic and ceramic
and application of novel refrigerants will continue as an
active field of development in the foreseeable future.
Important events in the evolution of refrigeration
lubricants are shown in Figure 5. The mineral lubricating 5000
oils initially used in the 1950s were replaced by fluids O%R

specially treated or refined to meet the needs of the

growing refrigerant oil market. Low temperature 500

properties, refrigerant solubility and chemical stability

were among the early requirements that received
consideration. During the 1950 to t970 time period,
fundamental studies of oil-refrigerant solution properties
were undertaken, especially in F R G and the United
~ 50
30%R12
I1 O%R

O%R

States. These investigations of thermodynamic, physical O 25%R22

II
and chemical properties of oil-refrigerant solutions laid :>
the groundwork for compressor lubricant selection and
provided guidelines to the lubricant supplier industry. In 30%R12
the period 1970 to the present time, synthetic lubricants z
:~ 5.0.
and blends of synthetic lubricants and mineral oils were
introduced commercially in response to stringent
requirements imposed by new compressor designs and
broader application limits. Today it is recognized that
refrigeration compressor lubricants play a critical role in
J
determining system performance and equipment life. 50 100
Increasingly, future refrigeration lubricants will be TEMPERATURE, DEGREES CELSIUS
tailored products, formulated and blended from selected Figure 6 Viscosities for selected oil/refrigerant mixtures
fluid components on a scientific basis to meet defined Figure 6 Viscositk de certains mklanges d'huile/frigorigbne
application requirements.
Figure 6 provides a summary of viscosity data for TabLe 3 Properties of ceramics and ceramic composites
selected refrigeration oils and oil-refrigerant mixtures to Tableau 3 Proprilttks des cbramiques et des composks de ckramique
assess their adequacy as hydrodynamic lubricants 25'26. Light-weight compared to steel
The data confirm that oil-refrigerant mixture viscosities Toughness and high strength=
are substantially lower than those of the oil alone and that Wear resistance=
this viscosity reduction is significantly greater for R22
Chemical stability
than for R12, when the comparison is on an equal weight
Dimensional stability=
composition basis. Based on fundamental lubrication
studies, a viscosity of 5 cP* is recommended as the Low thermal conductivity
minimum viscosity to assure reliable bearing Excellent surface finish=
performance 27. Translation of this criterion to the Near net shape parts
viscosity data in Figure 6 reveals that conventional Examples: fused silica, mullite, stabilized ZrO2, TiB2, Si3N +

* 1P=10 -1Pas " Recent improvements

266 Int. J. Refrig. 1987 Vol 10 September

 Development in refrigeration: H. O. Spauschus
composite materials and identifies important properties Equally important to these developments in ceramics
recently improved by technical advances. Although and ceramic composites are the advances in ceramic
ceramics are well known for their ability to withstand coat;ng technology, illustrated by the examples in Table 4.
high temperature and corrosive environments, inherent The surface properties of metals, alloys, composites and
brittleness has often limited their applicability. New ceramic matrices can be modified by ceramic coatings,
materials featuring outstanding toughness and high applied by any one of a number of deposition methods 29.
strength are now becoming available. Most important in Tailored ceramic coatings of new refractory materials for
considering future introduction of ceramics are the recent turbine blades of gas and jet engines are an example of one
process developments, such as infiltration with sol-gels area of intensive development which could prove
followed by sintering, that can lead to net shape parts important for refrigeration applications.
requiring minimal or no post-forming operations 2a. A number of applications of ceramics and ceramic
coatings in future refrigeration products can be
visualized. Light weight, low wear, dimensional stability
Table 4 Ceramiccoatings and resistance to very high temperatures suggest the use
Tableau 4 Rev~tements de c~ramique of these materials in compressors as vanes, vane tips,
cylinders, rollers and so forth. A long-term goal is the
Deposition method Material Property
oil-less, all-ceramic compressor, designed to operate over
Plasma s p r a y ZrO2(Y203) Thermal barrier a wide temperature range, not feasible with present
Oxidation-corrosion structural materials.
Protection Polymeric materials, including plastics, elastomers and
Chemicalvapour SiC/TiSi2 Enhanced toughness composites, although limited in thermal properties when
deposition SiaN4/AIN Improved lubricity compared to ceramics, will also continue to be used more
Ion plating TiN Good adherenceto widely in refrigeration products. Typical applications are
TiC substrate given in Table 5. Outstanding opportunities exist for
Sol-gel Alkoxides Applicable to complex technical advances based on improved materials for
shapes flexible hoses for automotive air conditioners 3°. This
application for special elastomers with low permeability
to refrigerants and moisture is particularly important at
this time since new refrigerants and lubricants may
Table 5 Polymericmaterials for refrigerationsystems be involved in the answer to environmental threats to the
Tableau 5 Matbriaux polymbres pour les syst~mes frigorifiques
atmosphere.
Application Polymerclass Other potential applications of 'engineered' plastics in
refrigeration systems offer challenges for the future.
Hermetic motor insulation Complex functional parts such as those required by scroll
Slot and phase insulation Plastics
Wire insulation Enamels, varnishes compressors may one day be fabricated by advanced
processing of speciality polymeric materials.
Compressor components
Rotary compressorvanes Thermosets, composites
Valve components Thermosets, composites Emerging developments: refrigerating equipment
Motor mounts Elastomers
Automotiveair conditioning Compressors
Flexible hoses Thermoplastic and cross- Many programmes to develop new compressors, drives
linked elastomers and refrigerating equipment are underway. Products
Main compressor parts (future) resulting from the successful developments should be
Scrolls Thermosets, composites available for production in the 1990s, aided by the new
Screws technologies already reviewed. Important advances in
Rollers
refrigeration compressors are summarized in Table 6.

Table 6 Advancesin refrigerationcompressors

Tableau 6 Progritsconcernant les compresseurs frigorifiques
Type Status Advantages Challenges
Rolling piston-stationaryvane Established Few parts Reduce vibration in large sizes
Low cost Reduce vane friction/wear
Readily manufactured Improve lubrication
Screw Established Mechanicalsimplicity Difficult/costlyto manufacture
(10hp and above) Low vibration and noise Minimizeleakage
Development Small number movingparts
(< 10bp) No valves
Scroll Development Simple design Difficult/costlyto manufacture
Low vibration and noise Minimize leakage
Small size
Low weight
Trochoidal Development Balanced operation Difficult/costlyto manufacture
Smooth torque curve Positive seals to reduce leakage
Competitive efficiency

Rev. Int. Froid 1987 Vol 10 Septembre 267

Development in refrigeration: H. O. Spauschus
New designs, such as the scroll compressor, and new
applications, such as the screw compressor for the residen-
tial air conditioning market, am creating high interest
as evidenced by the large number of papers reported at
meetings such as the Purdue International Compressor
Engineering Conference. General discussions have
recently been presented by Kruse 31 for open type
compressors and by Matsubara, Suefuji and Kuno 32 for
heat pump compressors. Regardless of the application,
future compressor designs will be characterized by
common goals of high efficiency, high reliability, low
vibration and noise, mechanical simplicity and low cost.
Drives
As stated in the introduction to this lecture, developments
in power semiconductors are expected to have major
impact on drives for air conditioners, heat pumps and
central refrigerating systems. Significant energy savings
will result from the application of variable speed drives
to compressors, fans and pumps for circulating secondary
thermal fluids. Figure 7, based on a 1981 study by the
Electric Power Research Institute 33, shows market
penetration of variable speed drives in air conditioning
equipment, projected to the year 2000. The penetration
trends reflect the excellent payback anticipated from
energy savings, especially for equipment rated above
19 kW. Annual energy savings in the United States alone,
achieved by application of semiconductor variable speed
drives in air conditioners, heat pumps and central air
conditioning are estimated to exceed 34 billion kWh of
% gases, vibration and noise. Shaft seals and refrigerant
MARKET
PENETRATION
40
electrical power by year 2000. In addition to energy
conservation, variable speed drives can improve comfort
levels of indoor conditioned space through capacity
modulation of the equipment; another factor that will
accelerate the widespread introduction of power
semiconductors for refrigeration machinery.
Equipment
Equipment developments are underway that could have
major impact on refrigeration products in the 1990s,
including desiccant cycle systems, gas and diesel engine
driven heat pumps and Starling engine heat pumps. The
forecast for solid desiccant cooling systems shown in
Table 7 is from a recent publication by Penney and
Maclaine-Cross of the Solar Energy Research Institute 34.
These desiccant cooling systems are particularly
attractive for applications in environments where high
humidity prevails 35. Commercial success will depend in
large measure on the development of stable desiccants,
well-matched to cycle operating requirements and
applied in systems designed for optimum heat and mass
transfer.
A summary of advantages and technical problems
related to gas and diesel engine driven heat pumps is given
in Table 8. Large commercial gas engine heat pumps are
operating successfully 36 and much attention in Japan and
the United States is now directed at developing smaller
systems for the residential and commercial market. Major
energy savings can be realized when these thermally
driven systems are designed to also provide hot water for
domestic use. The primary technical problems are
associated with the internal combustion engine; emission
16,0 containment become increasingly challenging with the
/

Table 8 Gas and diesel engine-driven heat pumps

Tableau 8 Pompes it chaleur it moteur it #az et it moteur Diesel

Advantages Challenges
2O
• 8.0 hp Multi-fuel capability Vibration and noisecontrol
Peak shaving Emission
,o
Reduces dependency on Durable, long-lifeengine
electricity
--~3.3 ho
0 Provides heating, cooling, Efficient,low cost compressor
1980 1990 2000 hot water
SOURCE: EPRI - - IMPACT OF ADVANCED ROWER SEMICONDUCTOR SYSTEMS ON UTILITIES Utilizes waste heat for Shaft seals;refrigerant
AND INDUSTRY EM-2112, NOVEMBER 1981,
improved capacity containment
Figure 7 Projected use of variable speed drives in air conditioning Efficient energy use Maintenance-freeignitionand
Figure 7 Utilisation prbvue de commandes it vitesse variable dans le a.c. starters
conditionnement d'air

Table 7 Solid desiccant cooling: status and projectionsa

Tableau 7 Refroidissement par dkshydratant solide. Etat actuel et prkvisions

Component/system Current status Five year goals Long-term goals

Dehumidifier Coefficient b of performance 1.1 1.3 2.0-3.0

Cost US$1200- US$1000 ton- t US$500 ton -
US$1800 ton - t (projected) (projected)
Life 10 years 10 years 15 years
System Coefficientb of performance 1.0 1.2 2.0
Cost US$3500 ton-1 US$2000 ton- ~ US$1500 ton-
(estimate) (projected) (projected)
Life 10 years 10 years 15 years
= Reference: Peuey, T. R., Maclaine-Cross, i. Promising advances in desiccant cooling, Solar Energy Research Institute, TP-252-2683 (May 1985)
b At ARI standard conditions

268 Int. J. Refrig. 1987 Vol 10 September


higher pressure refrigerants that offer thermodynamic
advantages.
Stirring engines also are under development for
adaptation as prime movers for air conditioners and heat
pumps aT'3s. Advantages of the Stirring external
combustion engine included their high efficiency (COP
cooling 0.9-1.1; COP heating 1.5-1.6), multi-fuel
capacity, low mechanical vibration and noise and easier
control of combustion emissions as compared to internal
combustion engine exhaust. Technical challenges that
are being addressed include problems associated with the
containment of high pressure helium or hydrogen
working gas, reduction of parasitic electrical loads and
costs associated with maintenance and service.
Conclusions
This forecast o f refrigeration d e v e l o p m e n t s l o o k i n g
t o w a r d s the 1990s has been limited in scope. O t h e r
i m p o r t a n t fields o f I I R interest such as a b s o r p t i o n
refrigeration, thermoelectric heat p u m p s , t h e r m a l
s t o r a g e a n d o p t i m i z e d food p r e s e r v a t i o n have n o t been
a d d r e s s e d d u e to t i m e a n d space limitations. The recent
b r e a k t h r o u g h s in s u p e r c o n d u c t i n g m a t e r i a l s , c l a i m e d to
function at 100 K a n d m o r e recently at t e m p e r a t u r e s as
high as 2 4 0 K a9 c o u l d have a m a j o r i m p a c t o n the
refrigeration industry. M e c h a n i c a l refrigeration, r a t h e r
t h a n m o r e costly cryogenic cooling, m a y suffice to
p r o v i d e the t h e r m a l e n v i r o n m e n t for new s u p e r c o n -
d u c t o r s , thus o p e n i n g u p vast new o p p o r t u n i t i e s . A p a r t
from this m o r e s p e c t a c u l a r d e v e l o p m e n t , the following
generalizations a r e p r o p o s e d :
1. refrigeration a n d air c o n d i t i o n i n g p r o d u c t s a n d
m a r k e t s will experience vigorous, t e c h n o l o g y - d r i v e n
g r o w t h in the 1990s;
2. microelectronics, c o m p u t e r s a n d a d v a n c e d m a t e r i a l s
will p l a y m a j o r roles in new p r o d u c t d e v e l o p m e n t s ;
3. new c o m p r e s s o r s a n d v a r i a b l e speed drives will
b e c o m e established in selected segments of the
refrigeration a n d air c o n d i t i o n i n g m a r k e t ; a n d
4. p r o d u c t d e v e l o p m e n t s m a t u r i n g in the 1990s include
desiccant c o o l i n g cycles, i n t e r n a l c o m b u s t i o n engine
driven heat p u m p s a n d Stirring engine heat p u m p s .
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