DREAMS

Contents
About Dr. Breus 3

Dream Series
5

Science, the Dreaming Brain, the

Development of Dreams in Childhood 12
Nightmares and PTSD, end
of life dreams, brain injury 20
dream studies

2 Dreams
Further Reading
ABOUT DR. BREUS
Books By Dr, Breus
Michael J. Breus, Ph.D., is a Clinical Psychologist and
both a Diplomat of the American Board of Sleep
The Sleep Doctor's Medicine and a Fellow of The American Academy of
Diet Plan: Lose Sleep Medicine. He was one of the
Weight through
Better Sleep
youngest people to have passed the Board at age 31
and, with a specialty in Clinical Sleep Disorders, is one
of only 160 psychologists in the world with his
credentials and distinction.

Good Night: The Sleep In addition to his private practice, he not only treats
Doctor's 4-Week
athletes and celebrities, Dr. Breus also trains other
Program to Better
Sleep and Better sleep doctors and consults with major airlines, hotel
Health chains, mattress manufacturers and retailers to provide
the optimum sleep experience for their customers.
Also available in
Spanish & Japanese For over 14 years, Dr. Breus has served as the Sleep
Expert for WebMD which includes a monthly column
called “Sleep Matters”. Dr. Breus also writes The
Don’t Miss the PBS Insomnia Blog and is a regular contributor to The
Documentary Huffington Post, Psychology Today, MedPedia,
Organized Wisdom, and Furniture Today.

With more than a dozen appearances on The Dr. Oz

Good Night with Show, Dr. Breus has been dubbed his “Sleep Expert”
the Sleep Doctor and holds a seat on his Clinical Advisory Board.
Additionally, Dr. Breus’ audio relaxation
CD, created for Crown Plaza Hotels, helps millions of
people fall asleep each year.

Tune in for Dr. Breus’

Secrets to Sleep Success
Podcast

Secretstosleepsuccess.com
 1
DREAMS SERIES

4
Our Dreaming World
Dreaming is a fundamental, seemingly timeless part
of the human experience. For many thousands of
years, humans have contemplated, theorized about,
and given meaning to dreams. Ancient cultures paid
great attention to dreams. Among diverse ancient
cultures, dreams took on many forms of meaning and
significance. Sometimes dreams were warnings and
messages from gods or divine entities. In some
cases, dreams might be evidence of evil spirits.
Dreams were considered a vehicle for predicting the
future, a way to communicate with the dead, a means
to travel beyond the physical limits of the body.
Dreams were believed to be both powerful and
important.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, physicians
exploring the complicated emotional landscape of the
human experience gave tremendous attention and
significance to dreams. Sigmund Freud believed
dreams were the necessary expression of the
unconscious mind, a vehicle for the mind to explore
repressed emotions and desires. Carl Jung theorized
that dreams provided a means to resolve conflicts
between an individual’s conscious and unconscious
mind, conflicts that reflected the tensions of both the
individual’s internal sense of self and a sense of self
in society. By the mid-20th century, scientists were
engaged in study of the cognitive and neurological
mechanisms of dreaming, one part of a broader
scientific exploration of sleep. Today, new
technologies enable us to observe and explore
dreaming states in whole new ways.
Yet dreaming remains in many ways a deep mystery.
Despite sustained scientific exploration and attention
—and no shortage of theories—we still don’t know
the answer to the most fundamental question: Why
do we dream? For all the study and attention that
dreams have received, its rather remarkable how
much we don’t know about dreaming—not only about
its purpose, but also about the mechanics in the brain
that make dreams happen.
In this 3-part series, we’ll explore the world of
dreams, looking at the latest science has to say about
why we might dream, and the mechanics of dreaming
in the brain. We’ll examine the content of dreams,
and how dreams may both reflect and influence
waking life. We’ll look at disorders related to
dreaming, and how health conditions and some
medication can disrupt dreams.
Dreams
First up: the basics. What is a dream, exactly, and
what are the characteristics of typical dream
behavior?
At its most basic level, a dream is a collection of
images, impressions, events and emotions that we
experience during sleep. Sometimes dreams have
strong narratives, with plots and characters that could
be plucked from a movie screen. Other times dreams
are more impressionistic, with emotions or visual
imagery as the most identifiable characteristic. How
and why dreams occur is still very much up for inquiry
and debate. But there are some details about
dreaming that we do know.
Typically, a person will spend 2 hours or more a night
dreaming, experiencing somewhere in the range of
3-6 discrete dreams over the course of a night’s rest.
The length of dreams can vary significantly, but most
dreams appear to last from 5-20 minutes. The vast
majority of dreams we experience will—for most of us
—never be remembered. Memories of dreams
usually fade very quickly after we awaken. But the
degree to which we remember our dreams—or don’t
remember— is not a reflection of how much time we
actually spend dreaming.
Our individual capacity to recall dream varies widely.
Some people can regularly remember dreams, often
with great detail, while others may have only hazy
recollections of themes or subjects in their dreams—
or no recollection at all. There are a number of
possible explanations for why some people are more
or less able to remember their dreams. Studies
suggest dream recall may be linked to patterns of
activity in the brain. Other research indicates dream
recall may be influenced by interpersonal attachment
styles—the way we tend to form bonds with other
people in our lives. The fluctuations of hormone
levels throughout the night might also have a role in
dream recall. During REM sleep—a time of active
dreaming—levels of the hormone cortisol are high,
and may interfere with communication between areas
of the brain that are involved in memory
consolidation.
5
Much—but not all—dreaming appears to occur during REM sleep. This stage
of sleep is characterized by high levels of brain activity, similar to what occurs
during a state of wakefulness. Adults spend roughly 25% of their sleep time in
REM sleep, with longer periods of REM sleep occurring later in the night and
in the early morning. REM sleep is part of the normal sleep cycle that also Recent Research
includes several other stages of non-REM (NREM) sleep—stages 1-3, with
stages 1 and 2 being light sleep and stage 3 consisting of deep sleep. Scientists in Japan made a
Dreaming can occur in every stage of sleep. Research suggests that both the breakthrough in decoding the
mechanisms of dreaming in the brain and the dream experience itself are content of dreams. They used a
strikingly different in REM sleep versus NREM sleep. Dreams during REM technique called neural
sleep appear to be considerably more visually vivid, bizarre, and narratively- decoding—which involves brain
driven than dreams during other sleep stages. scans and repeated questioning
of study subjects—in order to
identify visual content in
An important characteristic of REM sleep that relates to dreaming is a
dreams. The researchers were
condition known as REM atonia, the immobilization of most of the body’s ultimately able to predict
major muscle groups and reflexes. During REM sleep, the body becomes dreams visual content based on
largely paralyzed, in what appears to be at least in part a protective response brain activity with 75-80%
to the emotionally and physically charged nature of dreaming. REM atonia accuracy.
keeps the sleeper from acting out physically in response to dreams. It’s
possible to awaken and still be in a state of sleep paralysis. This can be a Will neural decoding be the
deeply frightening experience, particularly the first time it occurs. When this future of dream content
happens, you may be unable to speak or to move for a brief period of time. studies? Perhaps. Examining
the content of dreams is one
Waking to experience sleep paralysis is a sign that your body may not
way to seek answers about the
be making smooth transitions between the stages of sleep. This can be
most fundamental question we
the result of stress, sleep deprivation, other sleep disorders including still must answer: why do we
narcolepsy, as well as a side effect of medications or over-consumption dream at all?
of drugs or alcohol.

Now that we’ve covered some of what’s understood about the mechanics of
dreaming, we’ll next look at the stuff of which dreams are made: dream
content, and the characteristics of the dreaming experience.

Dreams 6
What’s in a dream?
Not all dreaming is the same. Dreaming runs the gamut of human experience (and sometimes beyond),
incorporating a dizzying range of emotions and events, often with elements of the bizarre. Dreams can be funny,
frightening, sad and strange. Flying dreams can be euphoric, chasing dreams can be terrifying, forgot-to-study-for-
my-exam dreams can be stressful.

There are several different types of dream classifications, including nightmares, recurring dreams, wet dreams, and
lucid dreams. Let’s look briefly in detail at some distinct forms of dreaming.

Nightmares are broadly defined as frightening dreams that result in some degree of awakening from sleep. Bad
dreams are considered a less severe form of nightmare. Most people experience nightmares throughout life, usually
very rarely and, less commonly, with more regularity. A small percentage of the population—studies suggest around
5%--have nightmares as often as once a week. Nightmares can result from a number of different triggers, including
stress, emotional upheaval, and traumatic experiences. Nightmares can occur as side effects of some medications,
use and abuse of drugs and alcohol, and illness. Nightmares themselves contribute to disrupted sleep not only by
waking the sleeper, but also because they can lead to fear of falling asleep and returning to a disturbing dream.
Nightmares can have other negative sleep-related health consequences. According to research, nightmares may
contribute to insomnia, daytime fatigue, depression and anxiety.

Studies indicate that people with certain conditions may be more likely to experience nightmares, including:
Migraine, Obstructive sleep apnea, Clinical depression

The relationship of nightmares to depression is complex. Depression is linked to a greater incidence of nightmares,
and nightmares themselves may contribute to worsening depression.

Another frightening dream-like experience is what’s known as night terrors, or sleep terrors. While both are
frightening and disruptive to sleep, night terrors are not the same thing as nightmares. Night terrors are very intense
episodes of fright during dreams. These frightening episodes are often accompanied by screaming or yelling, as
well as by physical movement such as leaping out of bed or flailing in panic. Research suggests that sleep terrors
occur during non-REM sleep dreaming, while nightmares tend to happen during REM sleep. While adults do
experience night terrors, they are somewhat more common in children. Estimates suggest that as many as 6% of
children experience night terrors, most often between the ages of 3-12. Night terrors sometimes run in families.
There may be a genetic predisposition to night terrors (as well as to sleep walking and other parasomnias). There is
also evidence of a relationship among night terrors, sleep apnea, and enlarged tonsils and adenoids in children.

Other dream types include wet dreams, also called nocturnal emissions. These dreams involve ejaculation during
sleep, usually accompanied by a sexual dream. Wet dreams happen to boys during puberty, when testosterone
starts to be produced in the body. Not all boys have wet dreams, but many do, and they are a normal part of healthy
development.

Recurring dreams are dreams that re-appear with some pattern of regularity. Studies suggest that recurring
dreams may contain more threatening content than regular dreams. Research suggests there are links between
recurring dreams and psychological distress in both adults and children.

Lucid dreams are an especially fascinating form of dream. In lucid dreams, the dreamer is aware of the fact that he
or she is dreaming, and often can even manipulate or control their dream as it folds. Research links lucid dreaming
to unusually elevated levels of brain activity. Studies have found lucid dreamers displayed significantly higher brain
wave frequencies than non-lucid dreamers, as well as increased activity in parts of the frontal lobe of the brain. This
area of the brain is deeply involved with conscious awareness, a sense of self, as well as language and memory.
Studies of lucid dreams are not only shedding light on the mechanics of dreaming, but also on the neural
underpinnings of consciousness itself.

7
Dreams
Dreams appear to be influenced by our waking lives in
many ways. Theories about why we dream include those
that suggest dreaming is a means by which the brain
processes emotions, stimuli, memories, and information
that’s been absorbed throughout the waking day.
According to research, a significant percentage of the
people who appear in dreams are known to the dreamer.
One study found more than 48% of dream characters
were recognizable by name to dreamers. Another 35% of
characters were identifiable to dreamers by their generic
social role or relationship—as a friend, or a doctor or
police officer, for example. Fewer than one fifth of dream
characters—16%--were unrecognizable to dreamers.
Other research indicates that a majority of dreams
contain content that’s related to autobiographical
memories—memories about the self—as opposed to
episodic memories, which deal with events and details
such as locations and times. There’s a body of scientific
study that suggests our waking lives have great influence
over the content of our dreams. Pregnant women dream
more about pregnancy and childbirth. Hospice workers
who act as caregivers to others (whether patients or
family members) dream about the experiences of care-
giving and the people for whom they care. Musicians
dream twice as often about music as non-musicians do.
There’s also some fascinating research that
shows our capacity to dream beyond our waking
experiences, in profound ways. Dream reports of
people born paralyzed reveal that they walk, swim, and
run in their dreams as often as people without paralysis.
Dream reports of people born deaf indicate they often
hear in their dreams. These reports may lend credence
to a theory of dreaming that suggest dreams serve as
a broad, virtual-reality model of waking life—a proto-
consciousness—that instructs and supports survival
and growth.
Daily life experiences don’t always present themselves in
dreams immediately. Sometimes an experience from life
will filter through to a dream after several days, or even a
week. This delay is what’s known as dream lag. Scientists
studying the relationship of memory to dreams have
identified different types of memory that can be
incorporated into dreams. Both very short-term memories
(known as day-residue), and slightly longer-term
memories (from a period of about a week), often present
themselves in dreams. Dreaming of these events—and
the timing by which memories appear in dreams—may
actually be an important part of the memory consolidation
process. The incorporation of memories into dreams isn’t
seamless or even realistic. Rather, memories from
waking life often appear in dreams in incomplete pieces,
like shards of glass from a broken mirror.
As much as dreams may contain aspects of everyday,
routine life, dreaming is also a state in which we contend
with extraordinary experiences. Another likely function of
dreaming appears to be processing and coming to terms
with traumatic events. Grief, fear, loss, abandonment,
Dreams
even physical pain are all emotions and experiences that
often replay themselves in dreams. Studies of people
who’ve experienced loss of loved ones indicate that most
of them dream about the deceased. Grieving people
report several similar themes to these dreams, including:
Recalling past experiences when loved ones were alive
Seeing loved ones happy and at peace
Receiving messages from loved ones
The same study found that 60% of bereaved dreamers
said their dreams exerted influence over their grieving
process. Dreams during periods of grief can be difficult as
well as helpful. One study found that dreamers during the
first year of bereavement had a significantly higher
frequency of oppressive dreams, and found a link
between these dreams and symptoms of depression and
anxiety. Dreams, and especially nightmares, are deeply
associated with depression as well as other conditions
such as post-traumatic stress disorder, which we’ll look at
more closely in part three.
Examining and interpreting the content of dreams has
fascinated people since ancient times. In ancient cultures,
dream interpreters were sought-after and revered
experts. Modern science has, to some degree, shifted its
focus away from the study of dream content to
investigations—both psychological and cognitive—of the
mechanics of dreaming, and its purpose. But there are
scientists who have continued to explore the content of
dreams—and new technologies have given us the ability
to observe dream content as never before.
Most data on dream content has been gathered using
dream reports and questionnaires. Dream experiences
vary widely, but there are well-established themes that
occur among many dreamers. Some of the most common
dream subjects include:
•  School dreams: studying, taking tests
•  Being chased
•  Sexual dreams
•  Falling
•  Being late
•  Flying
•  Being attacked physically
•  Dreaming of someone dead being alive, or someone
alive being dead
A recent study of the content of nightmares found the
most common themes among disturbing dreams
included:
•  Physical aggression
•  Interpersonal conflicts
•  Experiences of failure and helplessness
Researchers found fear to be the most common emotion
in nightmares and bad dreams, though it’s often
accompanied by other emotions as well.
8
The Role of Dreams in Our Lives
Science has experienced great progress in deepening our understanding of dreaming. Still, there is no
answer to the question: why do we dream? There are, however, a great number of theories being explored.
While some scientists posit that dreaming has no direct function—but instead is a consequence of other
biological processes that occur during sleep—many scientists studying sleep and dreams believe that
dreaming serves a primary purpose. Theories of dreaming span scientific disciplines, from psychiatry and
psychology to neurobiology. Some of the current theories of the purpose of dreaming suggest that

dreaming is:
•  A component and form of memory processing, aiding in the
consolidation of learning and short-term memory to long-term
memory storage
•  An extension of waking consciousness, reflecting the
experiences of waking life
•  A means by which the mind works through difficult, complicated,
unsettling thoughts, emotions, and experiences, to achieve
psychological and emotional balance
•  The brain responding to biochemical changes and electrical
impulses that occur during sleep
•  A form of consciousness that unites past, present and future in
processing information from the first two, and preparing for the
third
•  A protective act by the brain to prepare itself to face threats,
dangers and challenges

There is not likely ever to be a simple answer, or a single theory that explains the full role of
dreaming to human life. Biological, cognitive, psychological—it’s very likely that dreaming may
serve important functions in each of these realms.

Like sleep, dreams are vulnerable to disruption from problems with mental and physical health. There are a
number of conditions (as well as medications) that may affect dreams, and that can make dreams more
difficult and disturbing.

Depression and anxiety often are accompanied by
nightmares, and the presence of nightmares may be an
indication of the severity of depression. Research has
found that among patients with Major Depressive
Disorder, the presence of frequent nightmares is
associated with suicidal tendencies. People who are
depressed or anxious are more likely to have stressful,
disturbing, or frightening dreams, sometimes in the form
of recurring dreams.
Drugs and alcohol also can affect dreaming. Alcohol
disrupts the normal, healthy sleep cycle and leads to
fragmented sleep. Consuming alcohol heavily and too
close to bedtime may alter and diminish time spent in
REM sleep. Studies show that alcohol-dependency is
linked to dreams with more negative emotional content.
Marijuana also disrupts and reduces REM sleep.
Withdrawal from marijuana and cocaine have been
shown in studies to induce strange dreams.

There’s evidence that one type of drug commonly
used to treat depression may alter dreaming. SSRI—
selective serotonin uptake inhibitors—appear to affect
dreaming in several ways. SSRI may decrease dream
recall—the ability to remember dreams. This type of
drug may intensify dreaming. SSRI may lead to the
presence of more positive emotions in dreams.
Withdrawal from SSRI, on the other hand, may lead to
nightmares and may also intensify dreaming.
Certain sleep disorders may be accompanied by altered
dreaming. Insomnia can heighten dream recall, and also
lead to more stressful and disturbing dreams.
(Depression and anxiety are also more likely in people
with insomnia.) Obstructive sleep apnea, because of its
ability to disrupt normal REM sleep, can cause disturbed
dreaming with more bizarre and negative dream content.
Narcolepsy, a disorder that involves extreme daytime
tiredness and altered sleep-wake cycles, can also lead to
more negative and bizarre dreams. Restless Leg
Syndrome, a neurological disorder and a sleep disorder,
can also be accompanied by nightmares.

Dreams 9
REM behavior disorder (RBD) is a condition where the normal paralysis that occurs during REM sleep
doesn’t take place. People with REM behavior disorder can move during this sleep phase, and often act out
physically in reaction to their dreams. This activity can be violent—thrashing, kicking, getting out of bed—and
can lead to injury to the sleeper or a bed partner. We don’t know precisely what causes RBD, but it is
associated with neurological illness and injury, as well as to withdrawal from alcohol or narcotics, or use of
some anti-depressants.

Nightmares and disturbed dreaming are a hallmark of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), as is
disrupted sleep. People who suffer PTSD often experience frequent and recurring nightmares, which may be
accompanied by acting out during dreams, with symptoms similar to REM behavior disorder. PTSD occurs in
some people who’ve experienced forms of trauma, including assault, disaster, war and combat. Soldiers
who’ve served in active combat often experience sleep problems and disordered dreaming linked to trauma
and PTSD. After years of observing a particular group of symptoms among combat soldiers, sleep scientists
are now proposing the creation of a new sleep disorder: Trauma Associated Sleep Disorder, with symptoms
that include nightmares, sleepwalking and other disruptive nighttime behaviors.

Altered dreaming is also linked to degenerative neurological conditions, including Parkinson’s disease and
some forms of dementia. Violent and aggressive dreams, along with RBD—physically acting out during
dreams—are frequent symptoms of neurological degeneration. These dream-related symptoms also have
been identified as a strong predictor of future development of degenerative neurological disease. Studies
show that REM behavior disorder (RBD) is a strong predictor for both some types of dementia and Parkinson’s
disease.

What about dreaming’s influence over our waking lives? Dreaming is a universal, enduring aspect of being
human (though not limited to humans, since animals dream as well). Dreaming is something we do daily from
the time we are very young to very old. Are dreams more than a nightly de-cluttering of the mind? Are there
ways that dreams might help us live better? There is a long-held view of dreams as a creative portal—and
scientific study may be giving that belief some credence. Evidence suggests that dreams may assist in
daytime function and performance, especially as they relate to creativity and problem solving.

More broadly, dreams provide us with insight about what’s preoccupying us, troubling us, engaging our
thoughts and emotions. Often healing, often mysterious, always fascinating, dreams can both shape us and
show us who we are.

Both testimonies from creative people and contemporary

scientific research suggest that dreams are a creative
landscape for the mind. One study of musicians’ dreams
found that not only did they dream frequently of music, but
nearly half of the music they recalled from their dreams was
unfamiliar and novel to them, an indication that composing
is possible in dreams. Paul McCartney famously credited the
composition of The Beatles song “ Yesterday” to a dream. Other
artists, from the poet William Blake to the filmmaker Ingmar
Bergman, have claimed to rely on dreams for creative
inspiration and guidance. The golfer Jack Nicklaus solved a
nagging problem with his golf swing after sorting out the
problem in a dream.
 
Recent research examined the role of dreams in problem
solving, using a group of lucid dreamers. They found that
lucid dreamers could use their dreams effectively to solve
creative problems (in the case of the study, the creative
problem was crafting a metaphor as directed by researchers).
Studies like this one suggest dreams may be fertile territory
for influencing and enhancing our waking frame of mind.
Dreams 10
 News You Can Use

Dreams 11
 2
Science, the Dreaming Brain, the Development
of Dreams in Childhood

12
Thanks to advanced and digital
technologies, a close study of the
dreaming brain is possible. Dream
researchers use neural-imaging tools
range from EEG to PET scan to MRI
to observe the brain’s activity while
dreaming. In addition to observing
healthy brain activity, scientists also
use cases of brain injury and illness
as a way to learn about the brain
mechanics of dreaming.
This approach—of learning about the
functions of the brain through
abnormalities, injury, or illness—is by
no means just confined to the study
of dreams. A great deal of what we
know about the mechanics of the
brain in general has come from
observing what happens to human
function when the brain has suffered
damage. Changes to dreams—their
frequency, their characteristics—are
one sometime consequence of
neurological illness and injury. Some
of the earliest studies of the
neurological underpinnings of
dreaming used cases of brain injury
gain insight about the areas of the
brain involved with dreams.
Dreams
How do scientists study dreams?
Dreams are among the most personal and mysterious human
experiences. They’re also one of the most ephemeral. Memories
of our dreams are often incomplete and fleeting. You may wake
from sleep with sharp and vivid recollections of a dream and
strong residual emotions, only to lose those memories quickly,
often within just a few minutes. Much of the experience of
dreaming goes unremembered and unrecorded, seemingly
beyond our grasp.
It’s fascinating to learn about dreaming, to discover patterns and
themes that appear in dreams across cultures and ages, and to
speculate about the purpose of dreams in our lives. Have you
ever wondered how scientists actually go about studying
dreams? It’s a challenging endeavor, one that has evolved over
many generations of scientific inquiry. Today, our ability to collect
and interpret scientific information about dreams is growing in
exciting directions, as technology opens up new opportunities to
observe the dreaming brain.
We can think about the scientific study of dreams in different
ways. One approach to dream investigation involves the study of
dream content—the themes, emotions, images, and events that
occur and unfold within dreams themselves. Another aspect of
dream research looks at the activity of the brain and body while
dreaming occurs. These two broad avenues often intersect
overlap, with scientific inquiries that examine both dream
content and dream mechanics. Some of the latest and most
illuminating advances in dream research do just that. Both ways
of investigating dreams can shed light on the nature and
purpose behind our very complicated and compelling ability to
dream.
13
Throughout human history, people Dreams of falling, being chased, of flow, and fMRI allows scientists to
have sought to analyze, interpret, and flying, and of being unprepared for a identify areas of the brain that are
decode dreams. Ancient cultures often test or exam are some of the most soaking up oxygen while dreaming is
regarded dreams as mystical and common dream events that occur taking place.
divine communications, and dream among people of diverse cultures,
interpreters were relied upon as sage backgrounds, and experiences. Dream Research using brain-imaging
practitioners and translators of the reports have allowed scientists to track techniques has allowed scientists to
meanings and messages of dreams. the human capacity to dream as it explore a wide range of theories about
Classical scholars including Plato and develops throughout childhood. Dream the purpose and function of dreaming.
Aristotle developed a framework for reports have enabled scientists to Among others, scientists are actively
interpreting dreams as expressions of compare dream content across investigating ideas that dreams are an
unconscious desires. The 19th an 20th cultures, to highlight differences in the extension of waking consciousness,
century studies of psychoanalysis ways that men and women tend to that dreams are a kind of rehearsal
delved deeply into dream dream, and to explore associations and space for the mind to play out
interpretation, building in different ways connections between dreaming and potentially threatening or difficult
on the idea that dreams were a terrain waking life. Research using dream waking-life situations, and that dreams
in which to grapple with unfulfilled and reports has provided detailed are the brain’s way of stitching together
unconscious drives. Scientists in the information about characteristics of a narrative from the electrical impulses
20th century implemented new and nightmares, and how these dreams it generates during sleep. Brain
rigorous scientific standards to the may relate to waking-life experiences imaging is enabling scientists to
study of dreams, analyzing dream of stress, trauma, and fear. explore the possible role of dreams in
content in carefully designed and memory making, as well as dreams’
controlled experiments using statistical Scientists have for several decades possible function in processing
and empirical methods. Across this been able to rely on methods beyond emotions. Recent studies using brain-
vast span of historical inquiry, there’s dream reports to investigate questions imaging techniques have provided
something that all of these approaches about dreams. Studies of sleep using scientists with new details about the
have in common: the dream report. A electroencephalography (EEG) in the characteristics of lucid dreaming, a
great majority of scientific inquiry into 1950s revealed for the first time form of dreaming in which the dreamer
dreaming has relied upon gathering detailed data about the activity of the possesses awareness of being in a
details about dreams from dreamers sleeping brain. Scientists began to be dream, and can manipulate and control
themselves. Dream reports and dream able to “see” the brain active and their dreams.
journals have been collected in working during sleep—and while
countless numbers, and have formed dreaming. EEG studies led to the Some of the latest dream research
the basis for groundbreaking and identification of the different stages of combines brain imaging with dream
important discoveries about dreams. sleep, including REM sleep, with its reporting to examine both neural
highly active and variable brain activity. activity and dream content. Some
This method of using dream reports Research of REM sleep using EEG dream researchers are using a
and dream journals as a basis for enabled scientists to make the first technique called neural decoding to
scientific investigation is still actively in associations between REM sleep and both decipher and even predict visual
use today. Dream reports are collected dreaming. EEG remains the most imagery in dreams, based on
in sleep laboratories under controlled common tool that scientists in observations of brain activity.
conditions, often waking sleepers at laboratory use to observe the brain
specific intervals in order to retrieve during sleep. Cells within the brain Dreams are a compelling area of
dream information. Among other has communicate with electrical impulses, research for scientists, in part because
allowed scientists to make associations and EEG measures this electrical there’s still so much to learn about
between characteristics of dreams and activity. In studying dreaming, this how, and why, we dream. For all the
certain phases of sleep—both REM allows scientists to observe what areas scientific attention paid to dreaming,
sleep and non-REM sleep—and to link and networks of the brain are active many of the most fundamental and
dreaming experiences with specific and communicating during dreaming. important questions about dreaming
neurological activity. Scientists also remain unanswered. For scientists,
use dream reports that have been Brain imaging tools, including fMRI, are dreams are—at least for now—an
created by people sleeping at home, in also now used regularly to capture data endlessly tantalizing mystery.
their natural sleep settings. about the neural activity associated
with sleep and dreaming. Functional
Through research that relies on dream magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI),
reports, scientists have accumulated a works by recording blood oxygen levels
rich body of information about the and blood flow throughout the brain.
themes and emotions contained in Higher levels of activity in the brain
dreams, and about dream narratives. require more oxygen and greater blood

Dreams 14

The Dreaming Brain
Dreams have fascinated humans for ages. But it’s only been
relatively recently—since EEG technology was first used to
monitor sleep in the early 1950s— that scientists have been
able to observe the activity of the brain during sleep and
dreaming. Since then, different and increasingly more
advanced forms of neural imaging have enabled scientists
to see how the brain behaves during dreaming, and to
identify specific areas of the brain that are active—or
inactive—during the dreaming state.
So, what does the dreaming brain look like? How is it similar
to—or different from—the brain activity that occurs during
wakefulness?
There are some fundamental ways in which the dreaming
brain and the waking brain appear to operate similarly. Think
about the landscape of your dreams, the environments and
situations, the characters and events that transpire within
them. Even accounting for the bizarre and extraordinary
facets of dreams, our dreams tend to look and unfold in
ways that resemble what we see and experience during
waking consciousness. This suggests that during dreams,
our brains organize and analyze information during
dreaming in ways that are similar to the way we organize
and analyze information when we’re awake.
As a result of studies exploring the developmental trajectory
of dreams throughout childhood, we know that dreams
appear to grow in complexity in sync with waking cognitive
development. Studies show that children’s dreams become
more vivid, dynamic, and emotional, and incorporate more
of waking-life memories, as they age and develop greater
overall cognitive abilities. We also know that during REM
sleep—a sleep stage during which dreaming often occurs—
the brain’s overall activity levels, including the energy it
requires to function—are similar to waking activity levels.
Dreams
In 2004, Swiss scientists shared the
results of a study of a 73-year-old woman
who lost all of her capacity to dream after
experiencing a stroke that affected parts
of her occipital lobe, located at the back
of the brain. This part of the brain is
deeply involved in processing visual
information, including perception, color,
spatial awareness, and movement
detection. Not surprisingly, the woman
experienced problems with her vision in
the aftermath of her stroke. More
unexpectedly, however, she also
experienced a complete cessation of
dreams. She’d previously been able to
recall dreaming regularly, but after her
stroke she had no recollection of any
dreams at all. Her vision issues improved
after several days, but her dreaming
remained suspended. Scientists used
MRI to identify the areas of the occipital
lobe that had been affected by her
stroke, including structures that are
responsible for processing complex and
emotional visual images and memories.
Scientists also spent 6 weeks observing
the woman’s brain activity during sleep.
Their results helped pinpoint areas of the
brain—specifically those involved in
processing complicated visual
information—as likely playing a role in
dreaming. Other studies of brain injury
and brain illness have also implicated this
same region of the brain in the dreaming
process.
Their findings also helped to shed light
on the relationship between REM sleep
and dreaming. Even as the woman’s
dreaming was interrupted, she continued
to move normally through nightly sleep
cycles and the individual stages of sleep,
including REM sleep. REM sleep has
long been closely associated with
dreaming. While it is clear that REM is an
active time for dreams, and dreams that
occur during REM may have particular—
and particularly vivid—characteristics,
sleep and dream scientists are now
aware that the brain mechanisms of REM
sleep and dreams are distinct, not one
and the same. This particular study was
one piece of research that contributed to
a growing body of understanding about
the independent mechanisms of REM
sleep and dreaming.
15
 But there are stark differences in the
way that the dreaming brain operates,
compared to the waking brain. Some
parts of the brain that are very active
during waking life become
significantly dormant during
dreaming, while other areas of the
brain experience intense activity:
Executive functions. During our
waking lives, we’re constantly making
decisions, judgments, choices, and
plans. We use forethought, rely on
logic, and apply self-awareness to our
actions and behaviors. These
cognitive processes are sometimes
referred to as executive functions, or
cognitive control. One hallmark of the
dreaming brain is the temporary,
overall diminishing of cognitive
control. Our “thinking” brain—the
logical, reasoning brain that’s also
self-aware and reflective—is
significantly dormant while dreaming
occurs. Regions of the brain that are
largely responsible for executive
functions, including areas of the
prefrontal cortex, dramatically reduce
their activity during dreaming. This
inactivity can help to explain both the
deeply immersive experience of
dreaming and lack of self-awareness
we exhibit during dreams. We often
wake with surprise and even relief
from dreams, a sign of the brain’s
return to waking consciousness, with
its self-reflection and perspective.
The quieting of cognitive control also
may help to explain the bizarre, even
socially inappropriate circumstances
and events that occur within dreams,
since these areas that control our
complicated cognitive functions also
help to regulate behavior. Largely
unencumbered by this reasoning,
reflective, consequence-considering
brain, the dreaming brain may be
more free to roam into the realms of
the fantastic, the disturbing, and the
bizarre.
Memory. Memory operates very
differently during sleep and in dreams
than during waking life. Scientific
evidence strongly suggests that sleep
—and perhaps dreams themselves—
are essential to the ongoing healthy
function of memory. During sleep and
while dreaming, the human brain
ceases in its ability to create new
memories. This is why we so often
wake with no memory, or very little
recollection, of the dreams we’ve
16 experienced while sleeping. We
spend our waking moments
constantly taking in and storing
information of all types—visual and
other sensory information, facts and
observations about the world around
us, personal details about our own
experiences. Before any of these
memories can become long-term
memory in the brain—and not all of
them do—they exist as short-term
memory, or working memory. Areas of
the brain responsible for managing
working memory—including sections
of the prefrontal lobe—are largely
inactive during dreaming.
Regions of the brain involved in
processing memories, on the other
hand, become very active during
most dreaming. The brains limbic
system, which is involved in
processing and consolidating
memories, including emotional
memories, display intense activity
during dreaming. Both the amygdala
and the hippocampus, located within
the limbic brain, play critical roles in
processing memories, and are highly
active during dreaming. A
phenomenon known as “dream lag”
involves the appearance of recently
acquired memories in some dreams
within several days of the memories’
initial acquisition. You may not dream
about an event or episode that occurs
within hours of sleep—but that same
event may appear in some form in
your dreams the next night, or several
nights later. The transfer of working
memory to the hippocampus for long-
term storage, and the activity of the
hippocampus during dreaming, may
help to explain the dream-lag timeline
by which some recent memories
infiltrate dreams.
Emotions. The limbic system is
sometimes referred to as the
“emotional center” of the brain. The
limbic system contains several
structures that play critical roles in
regulating emotions and behavior,
including the amygdala. The
amygdala governs a broad range of
emotions and emotional responses,
including fear, anxiety, aggression,
and the perception of and response
to threats. During our waking lives,
the limbic system and the parts of the
brain that govern reason, logic, and
self-control are both at work, in a kind
of balancing act that keeps us aware
of our emotions and alert to possible
threats, but also able to employ
decision-making, self-reflection, and
impulse control to guide our thoughts
and actions. While much of the
brain’s cognitive control centers
become less active during dreaming,
the limbic brain—and the amygdala in
particular—become more intensely
active. The intense emotional content
of some dreams—and the near-
universality of highly emotional
themes and events in dreams, across
cultures and generations—may be
the result of the active limbic brain
during much of dreaming.
Sensory experiences. We spend our
waking lives attuned to sensory
information and to external,
environmental stimulation. We see,
hear, smell, touch and taste, and the
waking brain is constantly processing
that information. During sleep and
dreaming, areas of the brain that
process sensory information
significantly diminish their activity.
The sensory cortex, including the
primary visual cortex, which
processes visual information during
waking life, becomes largely inactive
during dreams. But other brain
structures related to sensory
processing become more active
during dreaming. Areas of the brain
that are involved in analyzing
complex visual information, in
particular the extrastriate visual
cortex, demonstrate increased activity
during dreaming. This may explain
our experience of dreams as
intensely visual experiences, with
imagery connected to emotions,
associations, and memories, and our
ability to recognize familiar people
and places in our dreams. In addition,
sections of the brain that govern
spatial awareness and orientation are
also active, which enables us to have
a sense of space—and being “in” our
bodies—when engaged in a dream.
By learning about the distinct ways
that the brain functions during sleep
and in dreaming, scientists are
building evidence-based theories for
the mechanisms, function, and
purpose of dreaming. There is no
single theory that holds sway about
why we dream—the answer to that
question remains stubbornly elusive.
But observing the brain at work in a
dreaming state offers important clues
that deepen our understanding of the
work of dreams.
16
How dreaming develops in children
Do you remember, as a child,
waking from a particularly vivid or
memorable dream? Maybe you
woke feeling frightened, or laughing
out loud to yourself at the strange
world in which you’d been
immersed. As a parent, perhaps
you’ve heard your children talk
about their dreams, or comforted
them at night after they’ve
experienced a nightmare. Childhood
dreams can seem especially
intense, perhaps, because—as with
so many things—during childhood
the dreaming experience is fresh
and new.
What do we know about how
dreams develop throughout
childhood? The developmental
trajectory of dreams is fascinating
as one aspect of cognitive
development and also for the
insights it can provide about the
nature of dreaming itself. As with all
aspects of dreaming, there’s a great
deal we don’t know and understand
about the course of dreams’
development in children—but
research into childhood dreaming
has provided some clues about the
brain mechanisms that are required
for dreams to take place.
When does dreaming begin? The
truth is, we don’t know for sure.
Dreams in very early childhood are
difficult to assess. Even with
advanced technology, so much of
dream research still relies on
communication with the dreamer for
acknowledgment that dreams have
occurred, and insights into the
content of dreams. REM sleep—the
stage of sleep most closely
associated with dreaming—is
present in infants from their earliest
days and weeks of life. Babies
actually spend a great deal of time
in REM sleep—about 50% of their
total daily and nightly sleep time,
compared to about 20% of overall
sleep time for adults. But REM sleep
in infants and babies does not
appear to be
accompanied by dreaming. Rather,
the abundance of REM sleep that
occurs in babies appears to be
devoted to the development of the semi-wakefulness, perhaps in
brain’s communication transition between sleep stages,
infrastructure, aiding the creation rather than in a dreaming state.
networks and pathways that will Night terrors tend to happen early in
support cognitive development— the night. Children experiencing
including the eventual ability to night terrors may be disoriented and
dream. have trouble understanding where
they are and what’s around them.
Research indicates that dreaming They may scream and cry, or jump
does occur in children of pre-school from bed, afraid. In their distress
age, starting at about 3-4 years and disorientation, it may take a
old. Based on dream reports and while for them to be able to be
laboratory sleep studies, research comforted by the presence of mom
suggests that these young children’s or dad. There is evidence that pre-
dreams are simple and rudimentary school age children may also
compared to the dreams of older experience nightmares, but
children and adults. Young nightmares in children this young
children’s dreams appear to be brief appear to be infrequent.
and matter of fact, without much
emotional content. They also appear Overall, the development of dreams
to be static rather than dynamic, in children seems to occur broadly
without characters interacting or in sync with children’s overall
much action unfolding. By the age of cognitive development. The
5-6, dreams in children begin development of certain cognitive
happen more often and grow more skills appears to be especially
complex, as themes, emotions, and critical to the early development of
events begin to appear. Around the dreams—and it might not be the
ages 7-8, young dreamers begin to skills you’d guess. We think of
have a sense of themselves as dreams often as stories that unfold
characters in their dreams, in our sleeping mind, and when we
according to research. By this time, think of stories we may think of
children also are able to consistently language, and linguistic thinking
distinguish what they see and skills. However, research suggests
experience in dreams from waking that dreaming ability may be most
reality. It appears to take until early closely linked to developments in
adolescence for dreams to reach visual and mental imagery,
the complexity and emotional especially visuo-spatial skills. The
content that’s similar to adult development of these visual
dreaming. cognitive skills appears to be
necessary for dreaming to occur.
But wait, you might be saying—what Verbal and linguistic skills, on the
about my pre-school age child who other hand, are not a prerequisite
wakes screaming and afraid at for dreaming.
night? That seems like a dream with
characters (monsters, ghosts) and The ability to dream develops over
emotions (very real fear). Young time throughout the first 12 or so
children can experience what are years of life, with dreams becoming
known as night terrors, which are a gradually more frequent and
sleep phenomenon that’s distinct complex, more emotional, and
from nightmares or bad dreams. diverse, with more evidence of
Night terrors occur when a child autobiographical memory and
wakes from a non-REM (NREM) individual personality and
sleep—as opposed to waking from perspective. Learning about how
REM sleep, when much of the most children dream is one important
vivid and emotional dreaming aspect of understanding cognitive
occurs. Night terrors appear to development, and a window
17 into
occur in a state of disoriented how the experience of human
consciousness unfolds.
Have you ever considered how
your digital life—all the ways you
engage with digital media and
technology—might affect your
dreams? For most people, this
isn’t a question they’ve likely given
much thought. For scientists
studying sleep and dreams, the
exploration of the influence of the
digital world on human dreaming is
a big, sprawling, fascinating
question.
In today’s world, it’s stating the
obvious to say that digital
technology is pervasive. From
texting and emailing to social
media applications like Twitter and
Instagram, digital access to music,
movies and television as well as to
the world of gaming, digital life is a
constant and growing part of daily
life for most people. The PEW
Research Center’s Internet and
American Life Project estimates
that 74% of Internet users
currently engage with social
media, and more than half of
people with cell phones are using
smartphones, which allow for
constant digital media access.
Digital media is often deeply
immersive and is increasingly
interactive. Video games create
complex, stimulating, highly
interactive alternative realities.
Social media provides numerous
platforms for interaction, offering
very specific virtual worlds that
people can move and out of
almost constantly. Scientists who
study dreaming have a lot of
questions about how all this
exposure and interaction might
affect our dreaming lives. How
deeply might digital media
exposure influence the content of
our dreams? Does the daily
immersion in alternate, virtual
realities influence the mechanics
of dreaming, including the ability to
control or manipulate dreams
through lucid dreaming?
Dreams
Underlying these questions is a
theory of dreaming known as the
continuity hypothesis, which posits
that the experiences of our waking
lives are reflected in our dreams.
This theory likely does not provide
a complete understanding of how
and why dreams occur, but studies
give support to the idea that our
waking experiences have
influence over our dreaming lives.
The investigation of the potential
influence of digital life over dreams
is relatively new, driven by the
explosion of digital media that has
become so accessible—and so
widely and regularly consumed—
over the past couple of decades.
Early attention has focused on the
study of video games, and how
they might affect dreams. There
are a couple of reasons that video-
game play is particularly
interesting to dream researchers.
One is =the deeply immersive
nature of gaming and another is
the high level of interaction
between players and the virtual
world of games. This research has
returned some fascinating
findings. For one, regular gamers
may be more adept at lucid
dreaming, a form of dreaming
where the dreamer is aware of
being in a dream and can exert
influence and control within the
dream. Studies have shown that
people who regularly play video
games are more likely to
experience lucid dreams. The
theory behind this link is that
video-game players are getting
experience in controlling the
alternate realities within games,
and therefore may be better able
to exert control over the alternate
realities of their dream worlds.
Studies have also investigated the
influence of gaming over dream
content, including nightmares. You
might think that video gamers,
exposed to violence within the
game worlds, might be more prone
to aggressive dreams and
nightmares. Actually, the opposite
appears to be the case. Research
has found that video game users
experience fewer nightmares and
aggressive dreams, compared to
non-gamers. When aggression
does appear in video-game users
dreams, however, it tends to be
more extreme than in the dreams
of non-gamers. Scientists suggest
that engaging with video games
may offer people an alternate
reality in which to practice dealing
with threatening situations—one
suggested purpose of dreaming.
The result may be a reduced need
to play out threats in the alternate
reality of dreams.
What about people who use digital
media frequently but don’t play
video games? How are their
dreams affected by digital
exposure? Scientists who’ve been
at the forefront of study the effects
of gaming on dreams have
focused their attention on non-
gaming computer use in a recent
study. Researchers at Canada’s
Grant MacEwan University
investigated the influence of non-
gaming digital technology on
dreams. Researchers asked a
group of more than 500 male and
female university students to
complete a survey on technology
use and dreams. Participants
answered questions about their
daily digital media activity,
including their history of video
game play. They were also asked
to recall their most recent dreams,
including the emotions associated
with the dream and any degree of
lucidity—self-awareness of
dreaming—that was present.
18
Using
 the
 recalled
 dream
 as
 a
 star0ng
 point,
 researchers
 then
 
culled
 the
 group
 to
 focus
 their
 analysis
 on
 the
 effects
 of
 non-­‐
video
 came
 computer
 use
 on
 dreams.
 They
 selected
 users
 who
  News You Can Use
reported
 high
 levels
 of
 computer
 use—5
 hours
 or
 more—on
 the
 
days
 before
 their
 recalled
 dreams.
 They
 created
 another
 group
 
of
 users
 who
 had
 spent
 very
 li@le
 0me
 accessing
 digital
 media—1
 
hour
 or
 less—on
 the
 days
 before
 their
 reported
 dreams.
 In
 their
 
analysis,
 researchers
 controlled
 for
 any
 video
 game
 use
 that
 
occurred
 among
 par0cipants
 in
 either
 group
 before
 the
 reported
 
dreams.
 Their
 results
 show
 some
 similar
 effects
 on
 dreams
 
among
 these
 non-­‐gaming
 computer
 users
 as
 for
 gamers,
 as
 well
 
as
 some
 differences:
 
 
 

 
Significant
 computer
 use
 the
 day
 before
 recalled
 dreams
 was
 
associated
 with
 higher
 levels
 of
 confidence
 for
 controlling
 their
 
dreams
 among
 women.
 Women
 who
 consumed
 lots
 of
 digital
 
media
 reported
 the
 highest
 confidence
 in
 their
 ability
 to
 control
 
their
 dreams,
 an
 indica0on
 of
 dream
 lucidity.
 
 
High
 levels
 of
 computer
 use
 were
 also
 slightly
 associated
 with
 
more
 posi0ve
 dream
 experiences.
 The
 heaviest
 users
 also
 
reported
 the
 lowest
 levels
 of
 bizarreness
 in
 their
 dreams,
 
whereas
 low
 computer
 use
 was
 associated
 with
 more
 bizarre
 
dream
 aspects.
 
 
Nightmares
 were
 not
 affected
 by
 the
 previous-­‐day
 computer
 
use.
 
 

 
 
The
 study
 didn’t
 solicit
 detailed
 informa0on
 on
 what
 type
 of
 
digital
 media
 par0cipants
 consumed,
 or
 what
 their
 computer
 use
 
entailed.
 So
 we
 don’t
 know
 from
 these
 results
 how
 specific
 types
 
of
 digital
 media
 might
 affect
 dreams.
 S0ll,
 we
 can
 see
 some
 
similar
 effects
 on
 dreams
 from
 high
 levels
 of
 general
 computer
 
use
 as
 seen
 in
 previous
 studies
 on
 video
 game
 use—indica0ons
 
of
 greater
 ap0tude
 for
 lucid
 dreaming,
 and
 a
 possible
 tendency
 
toward
 fewer
 “bad”
 dreams.
 
 

 
 
There’s
 a
 great
 deal
 to
 be
 learned
 about
 the
 impact
 of
 digital
 
media
 on
 sleep
 in
 general
 and
 dreams
 in
 par0cular.
 Our
 
collec0ve
 appe0te
 for
 digital
 media
 isn’t
 likely
 to
 shrink,
 nor
 are
 
the
 digital
 media
 op0ons
 available
 to
 us.
 Study
 of
 the
 influence
 
of
 digital
 life
 on
 dream
 life
 is
 one
 way
 to
 understand
 just
 how
 
deeply
 our
 new
 digital
 world
 is
 affec0ng
 us.
 

Dreams 19
 3
Nightmares and PTSD, end of life dreams, brain
injury dream studies

20 Dreams
Finding relief from nightmares and post-
traumatic stress Scientists from a number of French
universities investigated the effects
to dreaming of injury to parts of the
Occasional nightmares are common in the general population. Nearly all brain’s limbic system. The limbic
of us have, or will, experience a nightmare at some point in our lives. system is deeply involved with
For a much smaller group of people—roughly 5% of adults—nightmares emotion, memory, imagination, and
occur regularly or chronically. Frequent and recurring nightmares can be some of our most basic and powerful
motivations and drives, including
especially upsetting, both because of how often they intrude on
appetite and sex. The 13 people
nighttime rest, and because their subject matter can be especially included in this study had all suffered
frightening and disturbing. damage to parts of the limbic system
—specifically the basal ganglia—
Frequent nightmares often go hand-in-hand with psychological stress of which resulted in a neurological
some form. For people who suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder disorder known as auto-activation
(PTSD), nightmares are a common experience. deficit, or AAD.

After a traumatic event, most people will experience some after-effects, People with AAD experience extreme
which can include stress, fear, anxiety, difficulty with daily functioning, as apathy, and a striking lack of mental
well as problems with sleep—including nightmares. In the aftermath of activity and processing. In essence,
this condition is one of a blank and
exposure to trauma, it’s common for people to relieve the events, empty mind, one that does not
playing them over and again in their minds. This can happen in dreams engage in spontaneous thought or
as well as during waking hours, making nightmares in the aftermath of imagination. Scientists investigated
trauma especially upsetting and disturbing. how this neurological condition might
affect dreams. They observed
Not everyone who suffers trauma will go on to develop PTSD. It’s a patients sleeping, and awakened
condition that reveals itself over time among some people who’ve been them during REM sleep to have the
through traumatic experiences. PTSD is often spoken of in connection report on any dream activity. Roughly
with war and combat. Military personnel do suffer PTSD in numbers a third of AAD patients reported
some dreaming. Dreaming among
significantly higher than the general population. Clear estimates on the
AAD patients was dramatically less
prevalence of PTSD have been difficult to attain, but studies suggest common than in neurologically
that as many as 17% or more of recent combat veterans may healthy subjects, more than 90% of
experience PTSD, compared to roughly 7-8% of the general public. But whom reported dreams. AAD
combat is far from the only form of trauma that can lead to PTSD. An patients’ dream were also
experience that arouses deep fear, or exposes a person to deep significantly less vivid, colorful, and
suffering, can bring about trauma. Abuse and violence, sexual assault, complicated. People with this
accidents, and natural disasters are all experiences that lead to trauma condition dreamed briefly, often of
and, for some, result in post-traumatic stress. very simple, basic actions and
21 circumstances.
Dreams
Disrupted sleep and nightmares are two hallmark symptoms of PTSD. As many as three-quarters or more of people
with PTSD may suffer frequent nightmares, according to research. For people with post-traumatic stress, nightmares
may relate overtly to the trauma they’ve experienced, with recognizable elements of those experiences embedded in
their dreams. They may, in nightmares, replay the event as it occurred. They may also have deeply scary dreams that
don’t include images or events that directly mirror their trauma, but share a sense of terror, fear, and helplessness
with the traumatic events that occurred in their lives.

For people with PTSD, frequent nightmares make sleep not only difficult and disrupted, but also frightening and
stressful. The prospect of sleeping and contending with upsetting dreams engenders its own anxiety. Instead of being
a period of safe and quiet rest, nighttime becomes something to fear.

Studies show the nightmares associated with trauma and post-traumatic stress may be more intense, and may deal
more often with violence and threats to life than nightmares not linked to trauma. Research also indicates that the
brain mechanics of nightmares linked to trauma may be different from other nightmares. Trauma-related nightmares
may occur earlier in the night than other nightmares, in stages of sleep other than REM, which is typically when the
bulk of active dreaming happens.

Treating sleep and finding relief from frequent and recurring nightmares are important avenues toward healing and
recovery for people with PTSD. New research examines the effectiveness of two treatments that are currently used to
treat nightmares connected to post-traumatic stress. Scientists conducted an analysis of existing research in order to
compare the effects of the drug prazosin to a form of treatment known as Image-Rehearsal Therapy. Prazosin is a
medication that was designed to treat high blood pressure. In addition to being used to control blood pressure,
prazosin is also used to treat people with PTSD and nightmares. It works by minimizing the effects of excess
adrenaline in the body, which in turn may reduce the occurrence of nightmares. Image-Rehearsal Therapy, or IRT, is
a form of cognitive-behavior therapy that involves working to re-imagine how nightmares unfold. While awake, people
“re-script” the story of their disturbing dreams in order to change their content and remove frightening and upsetting
events and conclusions. IRT helps people re-structure their nightmares to replace troubling and scary conclusions
with peaceful ones.

Both prazosin and IRT are generally used as short-term therapies, and the latest study examined their effectiveness
as short-term treatments. Scientists analyzed the bodies of research for each type of nightmare therapy, and
compared findings on how well drug therapy with prazosin and IRT worked for people with nightmares and PTSD.
Their results found that both prazosin and IRT were similarly effective in reducing the frequency of nightmares for
people with post-traumatic stress. Prazosin and IRT also showed similar effectiveness in improving sleep quality, and
alleviating symptoms of PTSD. Researchers found that when IRT was used in combination with cognitive-behavioral
therapy for insomnia, it became more effective than prazosin at improving sleep quality and reducing symptoms of
PTSD.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia, sometimes referred to as CBT-I, works specifically to change thoughts,
attitudes and behaviors related to sleep, in order to reduce the symptoms of insomnia. CBT-I can include a range of
therapies, including sleep restriction, stimulus control, and mindfulness. Like IRT, CBT-I is often used as a short-term
treatment, typically a period of weeks, in order to break the cycle of sleeplessness and disrupted sleep. Studies have
shown that CBT-I may be as effective as medication in treating insomnia, and its effects may be more enduring.

Nightmares are one of the most difficult and disruptive aspects of PTSD, exacerbating feelings of fear and
helplessness and robbing people of the rest they badly need. Used in the short-term, drug therapy can be an effective
option for alleviating nightmares and symptoms of PTSD. The combination of IRT and CBT-I, two cognitive-behavioral
therapies that can also be used on a short-term basis, may show even greater promise in providing relief from the
debilitating, exhausting pattern of poor sleep and disturbing dreams that occur with post-traumatic stress.

22 Dreams
 Dreaming & Our Waking Lives
How much thought do you give to your dreaming life? We all wake and occasionally wonder
why we dreamt a particular set of circumstances—let’s face it, sometimes dreams can seem
strange in the light of the waking day. And for all of us at some point, a bad dream may linger,
and you may need a little time to shake off the uncomfortable feelings associated with your
dream.

But how much have you considered the purpose of your dreams, and the influence they
might have over your waking life? Two recent studies explore dreaming from different angles,
in search of deeper understanding of the purpose of this fascinating—and relatively little
understood—aspect of our lives.

Scientists at France’s Lyon Neuroscience Research Center examined brain activity during
dreaming, in an attempt to better understand how dreams may carry over to waking memory
—what’s known as dream recall—and why some people are better than others at
remembering dreams.

Their study included 41 participants, nearly evenly split between people with high capacity for
dream recall and people with low dream recall abilities. The high dream recallers were able
to remember their dreams an average of 5 mornings a week. Low dream recallers averaged
about 2 mornings a month.

Researchers used PET scan to observe and record the brain activity of all participants during
sleep and also during a resting, but wakeful, state. They were particularly interested in two
areas of the brain—the temporoparietal junction (TPJ) and the medial prefrontal cortex
(MPFC). After monitoring sleep and waking states using PET scans, researchers found
significant differences in TPJ and MPFC brain activity between low-recall and high-recall
dreamers. Dreamers with high recall abilities showed higher levels of brain activity in both of
these regions during several different stages of sleep, including REM sleep, which is the
stage of sleep most closely linked to dreaming. Most interesting? The differences in brain
activity were apparent not only during sleeping, but also when participants were awake. High
dream recallers also displayed more activity in these brain regions during their resting state
of wakefulness than low dream recallers.

This study builds on earlier research by the same team of scientists, which found that people
with high dream recall abilities awakened twice as often throughout the night, compared to
low dream recallers. As best we know, the brain does not form new memories during sleep
itself, and one possible explanation for differences in dream recall abilities may be the
amount of time people spend awake throughout the night—even in brief awakenings that
sleepers are not aware are taking place.

Their latest findings suggest that the activity in the TPJ and MPFC regions of the brain may
influence the storing of dreams to memory. In particular, the TPJ is an area of the brain that
engages in processing internal and external information, and is responsive to stimuli. Higher
levels of activity in this region may make people prone to more frequent awakenings
throughout the night—and more chances to commit dreams to memory they can access
when they wake for the day.

Dreams have long been thought of as a source of guidance and answers to questions of the
mind. Have you ever awakened from a night’s sleep having new insight into a problem, and
found the source of that insight came in some way through a dream? It’s an experience that’s
happened to many of us.

Scientists at the U.K.’s Liverpool John Moores University explored the potential link between
dreams and problem solving by examining a specific type of dream: the lucid dream. In a
lucid dream, the dreamer is aware that he or she is in the midst of a dream, and can take
23 control and direct aspects of the dream. Lucid dreaming is a skill that can be developed,
according to research.
a
In the current study, researchers worked with 9 experienced lucid dreamers, male and female, between the ages
18-41. Researchers created a control group of 9 participants with similar demographic characteristics who were not
lucid dreamers but who did have strong dream recall abilities. Over a 10-day period, all participants were given a
nightly “task” to solve. Researchers delivered tasks via email each night at 9 p.m. for every participant’s local time.
Both the lucid dreamers and the control group were instructed to read over the task several times before going to
bed, and to try to memorize the task without actually solving the problem it contained. The tasks were of two types:
logical and creative. Logical tasks involved providing factual information in response to a question, while creative
tasks involved creating metaphors.

Researchers asked lucid dreamers to use their dream skills to complete each task. Lucid dreamers were given
specific instructions about how to do this, including initiating a dream and seeking out within that dream a guide who
could help the dreamer solve the problem of the nightly task. Once the task had been resolved, lucid dreamers
were instructed to wake themselves up and write down the answer they received.

Non-lucid dreamers were asked to recall their dreams immediately after waking, to record their most vivid dream of
the night, and to solve the task with the first answer that came to their minds. This was also the procedure that lucid
dreamers followed if they weren’t able to successfully complete their instructions to find an answer through a guide
within their dream. Research analyzed 160 individual dream reports of both lucid and non-lucid dreamers,
examining the responses to both logical and creative tasks. They found no significant differences between lucid and
non-lucid dreamers in terms of the logical problem solving. When it came to solving creative problems, however,
researchers’ analysis determined that lucid dreamers had an edge over non-lucid dreamers. Lucid dreamers were
more successful in creating metaphors than non-lucid dreamers. The experiment is a fascinating one, and ought to
spur more research into lucid dreaming, and the role that dreams can play in the creative process and in problem
solving.

There’s so much we still don’t know about why we dream, where dreams originate in the brain, and what functions
our dreams serve. The search for answers to these questions provides a fascinating look inside one of the deepest
mysteries of sleep—and may shed light on our waking lives as well.

24 Dreams
Near death, dreams can be a comfort and a solace
We’ve all had dreams that seem to reflect
our waking lives. People and events,
emotions and circumstances from our daily
lives often can make their way into our
dreams, whether it’s a relationship under
stress or the anticipation of a new job.
Scientific research into dreams supports the
notion that elements of waking life—
memories, emotions, preoccupations,
autobiographical details—are incorporated
into our dreams.
At especially emotional and significant times
of life, dreams can be particularly vivid and
heightened, laden with emotion and
personal meaning. The wide array of life’s
joys and sorrows—from pregnancy and
childbirth to the de ath of a loved one—find
their way into dreams. This is true of
dreams that occur near the end of life.
Dreams that happen near death can be
intensely emotional experiences, ones that
carry deep meaning and significance for the
dying and for the people close to them. A
great deal of anecdotal evidence and
documentation exists throughout human
history regarding the presence of powerful
dreams and visions near to death. But
there’s been little scientific study exploring
end of life dreams, and the impact of these
dreams on the dreamers themselves.
Researchers at New York’s Center for
Hospice and Palliative Care investigated
the nature, frequency and content of end-of-
life dreams and visions, from the patients’
perspective. Their findings reveal some
fascinating and important information about
how deeply affecting—and largely
comforting—these dreams can be.
Their study included 63 patients who
entered hospice care over an 18-month
period. The patients all agreed to participate
in this research during their time in hospice.
Researchers conducted daily interviews
with patients, asking them questions about
their dreams and encouraging them to
share their dream experiences in as much
detail as possible, including the emotions,
themes, events and characters that
populated their dreams.
Researchers considered both dreams that
happened during sleep, and also
experiences of visions that occurred during
states of waking consciousness. The
experiences of end-of-life visions are
different from episodes of delirium or
hallucination, which often occur during end-
of-life care. Periods of delirium and
hallucination are often distressing,
disorienting and disturbing experiences for
patients. End-of-life dreams and visions, or
ELDVs, as researchers referred to them,
are distinct in part because they appear
most often to be comforting, reassuring, and
peaceful for the patients who experience
Dreams
them. Researchers found that a majority of to.
the dreams and visions experienced by
hospice patients—60%--were described as Researchers found that as patients
comforting to them. Less than a fifth of approach death, dreams about the
dreams and visions—19%--were deceased become more frequent, as
considered distressing, while another 20% dreams about the living occurred less often.
of ELDVs were mixed with both comfort and This transition in the focus of their dreams
distress for patients. was source of comfort and peace for
patients as they moved more closely toward
Researchers discovered that most of the death.
hospice patients—82.5%--experienced at
least one ELDV. Patients reported these There is a great deal that’s important about
dreams to be highly vivid and memorable, these findings, which ought to spur greater
with qualities that made them feel different interest and more scientific inquiry into end
from other dream experiences. Nearly all of life dream experiences. Studying end-of-
patients reported feeling as though the life dreams may bring new insights into the
dream experiences were real. Their underlying function and purpose of
dreams tended to be especially emotional dreaming. Insight into how patients at the
and deeply personal, frequently including end of their lives experience dreams could
the presence of loved ones both living and be of tremendous help to clinicians,
deceased. Researchers analyzed the caregivers and family members of the
dream content they collected from the dying, offering insights that can help make
patients and organized this information into end-of-life care better, more compassionate,
six categories of common themes. The and more sensitive.
thematic content uncovered in these end-of-
life dreams sheds light on how powerful, Theories about why we dream continue to
intimate, and often comforting these dreams diverge in sometimes strikingly different
can be: directions. The experience of dreaming to
us as individuals can be both infinitely
varied and strikingly universal. Vivid and
Comforting presence. In these dreams, deeply meaningful dreams are part of the
patients reported seeing loved ones, both process of death for many people. These
living and deceased, near to them, waiting dreams--which can deliver a sense of
for them, or watching over them. These comfort, belonging, and companionship
dreams tended to be a source of peace and during this most profound stage of life—
comfort for patients. appear to have a meaning and a palliative
purpose all their own.
Preparing to go. Patients often dreamed of
situations in which they were traveling or
preparing to travel, without knowing their
destination.
Waiting or engaging with the dead. In
these dreams, patients interacted
specifically with loved ones—parents,
grandparents, children, friends and pets—
who were already deceased.
Loved ones waiting. Deceased loved ones
appeared specifically in these dreams to be
waiting for the patient, and were seen as
offering themselves as helpers and guides
to the patient, ready to escort them after
death.
Distressing experiences. Patients
reported dreams that re-visited difficult
events, circumstances, and relationships
from their lives. Unlike many other common
dreams that provided comfort to dreamers,
these dreams tended to provoke difficult
and uncomfortable feelings.
Unfinished business. These dreams dealt
with aspects of life that patients regarded as
unresolved. Emotionally, these dreams
were preoccupied with feelings of inability to
tend to things in their lives as they wanted
 News You Can Use

Dreams 26
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Dreams 27
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