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STRESS
Direct or Normal
Stress:
F P
lim ave
A0 A A
Q 6.1 Illustrative Problems
b
4kN 13kN 2kN 7kN
Bronze
b1
b1
4kN 4kN 13kN 2kN 7kN
Bronze (= )
Aluminum
7kN
(Compressive stress)
STRAIN
STRAIN :
when a load acts on the material it will undergo
deformation. Strain is a measure of deformation produced by
the application of external forces.
P
P 2P P A
stress 2
A 2A A
2L L
normal strain
L
L
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Proportionality limit
Typical tensile test curve for mild steel showing upper yield point
and lower yield point and also the elastic range and plastic range
Stress-strain Diagram
Limit of Proportionality :
From the origin O to a point called proportionality limit the
stress strain diagram is a straight line. That is stress is
proportional to strain. Hence proportional limit is the maximum
stress up to which the stress – strain relationship is a straight
line and material behaves elastically.
Elastic limit:
It is the stress beyond which the material will not return to its
original shape when unloaded but will retain a permanent
deformation called permanent set. For most practical purposes
it can often be assumed that points corresponding proportional
limit and elastic limit coincide.
Beyond the elastic limit plastic deformation occurs and strains
are not totally recoverable. There will be thus some permanent
deformation when load is removed.
After yield point the graph becomes much more shallow and
covers a much greater portion of the strain axis than the
elastic range.
The capacity of a material to allow these large plastic
deformations is a measure of ductility of the material
Ductile Materials:
The capacity of a material to allow large extension i.e. the
ability to be drawn out plastically is termed as its ductility.
Material with high ductility are termed ductile material.
Brittle Materials :
A brittle material is one which exhibits relatively small
extensions before fracture so that plastic region of the tensile
test graph is much reduced.
Example: steel with higher carbon content, cast iron,
concrete, brick
Hooke’s Law
stress (σ) P L PL
E = strain (ε) =
A L AL
2
314.16 16
4 100 36%
314.16
e) Ultimate strength,
Aluminum
Steel
Bronze A= 180 mm2
A= 160 mm2
A= 120 mm2
4kN 13kN 2kN 7kN
stress (σ) PL
E = =
strain (ε) AL
PL
Change in length = L
AE
Change in length of 4000 N 300mm
bronze = Lbr
120mm2 100 103 ( N / mm2 )
= 0.1mm
Change in length of 9000 N 400mm
Lal = -0.286mm
aluminum section = 2 3 2
180mm 70 10 ( N / mm )
Change in length of 7000 N 500mm
Lst = -0.109mm
steel section =
160mm2 200 103 ( N / mm2 )
Change in total
length = Lbr Lal Lst +0.1 – 0.286 - 0.109
= -0.295mm
Q.6.4
2P Aluminum 4P 2P
Steel
0.8m 2.8m
To find P, based on the condition, σst ≤ 140 MPa
2P Aluminum 4P Steel 2P
2P 4P 2P
2P 2P Tensile
To find P, based on the condition, σal ≤ 80 MPa
2P Aluminum 4P Steel 2P
2P 4P 2P
2P 2P Compressive
To find P, based on the condition, total elongation ≤ 1mm
2 P 800 2 P 2800
1mm
3 3
600 70 10 300 200 10
P = 18.1kN
W W
A B
Diameter
d1 L
Diameter
d2
Consider an element of length, δx at a distance x from A
W W
A
B
d1 x d2
dx
2
Diameter at x, d1 d d
2 1 x c/s area at x, d1 d1 kx2
4 4
L
d1 k x
PL Wdx
Change in length over a
AE dx d kx2 E
length dx is 1
4
Change in length over a L Wdx
length L is 0
d kx2 E
1
4
Consider an element of length, δx at a distance x from A
Wdx
Change in length over a L
length L is 0
d kx2 E
1
4
W
dt Put d1+kx = t,
L
k
0
t 2 E Then k dx = dt
4
21 L L L
4W t 4W 1 4W 1
Ek 1 0 Ek t 0 Ek (
1 d kx) 0
4WL WL
Ed1d 2 d1d 2 E
4
Q.6.6
150kN
150kN
1000mm 500mm 500mm
Ф = 40mm
Ф = 20mm
150kN 2 3
1 150kN
1000mm 500mm 500mm
Ф = 40mm
Ф = 20mm
If we take a section any where along the length of the bar, it is
subjected to a load of 150kN.
150kN
1 2
119.37 MPa
40
4
150kN 150kN
2 2
2 , max . 2
119.37 MPa
d 40
4 4
150kN
2,min. 2
477.46 MPa
20
4
150kN
3 2
477.46 MPa
20
4
150kN 2 3
1 150kN
1000mm 500mm 500mm
Ф = 40mm
Ф = 20mm
If we take a section any where along the length of the bar, it is
subjected to a load of 150kN.
150kN 1000
l1 0.597 mm
2
40 E
4
4 PL 4 150kN 500
l2 0.597 mm
Ed1d 2 E 40 20
150kN 500
l3 1.194mm
2
20 E
4
total, l 2.388mm
Q.6.7
W W d2
d1
A B
b
L b
W W d2
d1
A B
b
b
dx x
Consider an element of length, δx at a distance x from A
depth at x, d1
d 2 d1
x c/s area at x, d1 kxb
L
d1 k x
PL Wdx
Change in length over a
length dx is AE dx d1 kxb E
Change in length over a L Wdx
length L is 0
d1 kxb E
P
log e d 2 log e d1
b E k
2.302 P L
log d 2 log d1
b E d 2 d1
Q.6.8
Diameter
d
P1 = weight of the bar below
element
the section,
= volume × specific weight
dx dx = (π d2/4)× x ×
P1
x = A× x ×
Diameter
Extension of
d the element PL P1dx ( A x ) dx
due to weight AE dx AE AE
of the bar
below that,
Hence the total extension
entire bar
2 L
L ( A x ) dx x L2
0 AE 2E 0 2E
Where, P = (AL)×
= total weight of the bar
SHEAR STRESS
The resisting forces acting parallel to the surface per unit area is
called as shear stress.
Shear stress (τ) Shear resistance P
= Area resisting shear A
A D A D
τ τ
Fig. d Fig. e
τ Shear strain is defined as
B B' C'
C the change in angle
between two line element
which are originally right
A D
angles to one another.
τ
Fig. e
BB
shear strain tan
AB
The angle of deformation is then termed as shear strain
Shear Modulus
Shear stress (τ)
= constant = G = or
Shear strain (φ)
Modulus of Rigidity
τ
A B
D C
τ
Force on the face AB = P = τ × AB × t
Where, t is the thickness of the
element.
Force on the face DC is also equal to
P
State of simple shear
A
P B
P ' × AB = P × AD
= (τ × AB × t)× AD ----- (1) P' P'
D C
P
If τ1 is the intensity of the shear
stress on the faces AD and BC,
then P ' can be written as, τ B
A
τ' =τ
State of simple shear
Poisson’s Ratio:
Fig.(a)
POISSON’S RATIO
Lateral strain( d ) ( b )
d b
POISSON’S RATIO = l OR l
Longitudinal strain l l
Poisson’s Ratio = µ
For most engineering metals the value of µ lies between 0.25 and
0.33
In general y
Lz Ly
P P
x
Lx
z
l y l z
Lateral strain ly lz
Poisson’s = OR l
Strain in the direction of l x x
Ratio lx lx
load applied
Poisson’s Ratio = µ
y
In general
Ly
Lz
Px Px
x
Lx
z
Strain in Y-direction = εy
Strain in X-direction = εx
l y l x
l x
ly lx
lx
l z l x
Strain in Z-direction = εz
lz lx
Load applied in Y-direction
y Py
Lz Ly
x
Lx
z
Py
l x l z
Lateral strain lx lz
Poisson’s = OR l
Strain in the direction of l y y
Ratio ly ly
load applied
l x l y
Strain in X-direction = εx
lx ly
Load applied in Z-direction
y
Pz
Lz Ly
x
Lx
z Pz
l x l y
Lateral strain lx ly
Poisson’s = OR
Strain in the direction of l z l z
Ratio lz lz
load applied
l x l z
Strain in X-direction = εx
lx lz
Load applied in X & Y direction
y Py
Ly Strain in X-direction = εx
Lz
Px Px x y
x
Lx E E
z Py
Strain in Y-direction = εy y x
E E
y x
Strain in Z-direction = εz
E E
Py
General
Pz case:
y
Strain in X-direction = εx
Px Px
x
x y z
x
z Py E E E
Pz
Strain in Y-direction = εy σy
σz
y x z
y
E E E σx σx
Strain in Z-direction = εz
z y x σz σy
z
E E E
Bulk Modulus
Bulk Modulus
dV
1
1 1 x 1 y 1 z 1 1 x y z
x y z
change in volume per unit volum e
Relationship between volumetric strain and linear strain
Volumetric strain
dV
x y z
V
x y y z
z x z y x
E E E E E E E E E
1 2
x y z
E
For element subjected to uniform hydrostatic pressure,
x y z
dV 1 2
x y z
V E
dV 1 2
3
V E
K
dV
V
E
K bulk modulus
31 2
or
E 3K 1 - 2
Relationship between young’s modulus of elasticity (E)
and modulus of rigidity (G) :-
A1 A B1 B
45˚ a
H
a
φ φτ
D C
τ
Consider a square element ABCD of side ‘a’ subjected to pure shear
‘τ’. DA'B'C is the deformed shape due to shear τ. Drop a perpendicular
AH to diagonal A'C.
Strain in the diagonal AC = τ /E – μ (- τ /E) [ σn = τ ]
= τ /E [ 1 + μ ] -----------(1)
Strain along the diagonal AC=(A'C–AC)/AC=(A'C–CH)/AC=A'H/AC
In Δle AA'H
Cos 45˚ = A'H/AA'
A'H= AA' × 1/√2
AC = √2 × AD ( AC = √ AD2 +AD2)
Strain along the diagonal AC = AA'/ (√2 × √2 × AD)=φ/2 ----(2)
Modulus of rigidity = G = τ /φ
φ = τ /G
Substituting in (2)
Strain along the diagonal AC = τ /2G -----------(3)
Equating (1) & (3)
τ /2G = τ /E[1+μ]
E=2G(1+ μ)
Relationship between E, G, and K:-
We have
E = 2G( 1+ μ) -----------(1)
E = 3K( 1-2μ) -----------(2)
Equating (1) & (2)
2G( 1+ μ) =3K( 1- 2μ)
2G + 2Gμ=3K- 6Kμ
μ= (3K- 2G) /(2G +6K)
Substituting in (1)
E = 2G[ 1+(3K – 2G)/ (2G+6K)]
E = 18GK/( 2G+6K)
E = 9GK/(G+3K)
(1) A bar of certain material 50 mm square is subjected to an axial
pull of 150KN. The extension over a length of 100mm is 0.05mm
and decrease in each side is 0.0065mm. Calculate (i) E (ii) μ (iii) G
(iv) K
Solution:
(i) E = Stress/ Strain = (P/A)/ (dL/L) = (150×103 × 100)/(50 × 50 × 0.05)
E = 1.2 x 105N/mm2
(ii) µ = Lateral strain/ Longitudinal strain = (0.0065/50)/(0.05/100) = 0.26
(iii) E = 2G(1+ μ)
G= E/(2 × (1+ μ)) = (1.2 × 105)/ (2 × (1+ 0.26)) = 0.47 ×105N/mm2
(iv) E = 3K(1-2μ)
K= E/(1-2μ) = (1.2 × 105)/ (3 × (1- 2 × 0.26)) = 8.3 × 104N/mm2
(2) A tension test is subjected on a mild steel tube of external
diameter 18mm and internal diameter 12mm acted upon by
an axial load of 2KN produces an extension of 3.36 x 10-
3mm on a length of 50mm and a lateral contraction of 3.62
iv) E = 3K(1 -2 μ)
K = E/ [3×(1-2 μ)] = (2.11×105)/{3×[1-(2 × 0.3)]} = 175.42 ×103N/mm2
Working stress: It is obvious that one cannot take risk of
loading a member to its ultimate strength, in practice. The
maximum stress to which the material of a member is
subjected to in practice is called working stress.
This value should be well within the elastic limit in elastic
design method.
Factor of safety: Because of uncertainty of loading
conditions, design procedure, production methods, etc.,
designers generally introduce a factor of safety into their
design, defined as follows
400kN
50 400kN
100
250
2000kN
4000kN
4000kN
50 400kN
100 Stresses in different
2000kN 250
directions
4000 1000 N
y 2
160 MPa
250 100mm
400 1000 N
50
x 2
80 MPa
100 50mm
100
250
2000 1000 N
z 2
160 MPa
250 50mm
Stresses in different direction
160MPa
80 MPa
x y z
x
160 MPa
E E E
80 160 160
x 4 10 4
E E E
l x l x
4 10 4
lx 250
l x 0.1mm
160MPa
80 MPa
160MPa
y x z
y
E E E
160 80 160
y
E
E
E
1.1 10
3
l y l y
1.110 3
ly 50
l y 0.005mm
160MPa
80 MPa
z y x
160 MPa
z
E E E
160 160 80
z
E
E
E
9 10 4
l z l z
9 10 4
lz 250
l z 0.09mm
160MPa To find change in volume
dV
x y z
80 MPa V
dV
160MPa 4 11 9 10 4 2 10 4
V
dV 2 10 4 V 2 10 4 250 100 50
dV 250mm3
Alternatively,
dV 1 2
x y z
V E
dV 1 2
80 160 160
V E
1 - 2
80 2 10 4
E
Q.6.10
4000kN
400kN
50
100
250
2000kN
160MPa
We know that
dV 1 2
80 MPa
x y z
160 MPa
V E
In order that change in volume to be
zero 1 2
0 x y z
E
80 y 160 0 x y z 0
y 240 MPa
Py
240
250 100
Py 6000kN The change in value should be an
addition of 2000kN compressive force
in Y-direction
Exercise Problems
Q1. An aluminum tube is rigidly fastened between a brass
rod and steel rod. Axial loads are applied as indicated in the
figure. Determine the stresses in each material and total
deformation. Take Ea=70GPa, Eb=100GPa, Es=200GPa
Aa=1000mm2
Ab=700mm2 As=800mm2
20kN 15kN 15kN 10kN
brass steel
aluminum
Ф = D mm
Q3. The diameter of a specimen is found to reduce by
0.004mm when it is subjected to a tensile force of 19kN.
The initial diameter of the specimen was 20mm. Taking
modulus of rigidity as 40GPa determine the value of E and
µ
Ans: E=110GPa, µ=0.36
Q4. A circular bar of brass is to be loaded by a shear load of
30kN. Determine the necessary diameter of the bars (a) in
single shear (b) in double shear, if the shear stress in
material must not exceed 50MPa.
Ans: 27.6, 19.5mm
Q5. Determine the largest weight W that can be supported
by the two wires shown. Stresses in wires AB and AC are
not to exceed 100MPa and 150MPa respectively. The cross
sectional areas of the two wires are 400mm2 for AB and
200mm2 for AC.
Ans: 33.4kN
B C
300 450
A
W
Q6. A homogeneous rigid bar of weight 1500N carries a
2000N load as shown. The bar is supported by a pin at B
and a 10mm diameter cable CD. Determine the stress in
the cable
Ans: 87.53MPa
D
A C
B
3m 3m
2000 N
Q7. A stepped bar with three different cross-sectional
areas, is fixed at one end and loaded as shown in the
figure. Determine the stress and deformation in each
portions. Also find the net change in the length of the
bar. Take E = 200GPa
450mm2
300mm2
250mm2 40kN
20kN 10kN
30 90kN
30
180
Ans: 0.125mm
Q12. Define the terms: stress, strain, elastic limit,
proportionality limit, yield stress, ultimate stress, proof
stress, true stress, factor of safety, Young’s modulus,
modulus of rigidity, bulk modulus, Poisson's ratio,
Q18 Find the extension of a conical rod due to its own weight
when suspended vertically with its base at the top.