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Chapter 5: Discrete Probability Distributions

Discrete Uniform Distribution

 The random variable assumes each of its values with an equal


probability.

Discrete Uniform Distribution

If the random variable X assumes the values x1, x2,…., xk, with equal
probabilities, then the discrete uniform distribution is given by

1
f ( x; k )  , x  x1 , x 2 ,....., x k
k

Example 5.1

When a traffic light bulb is selected at random from a box that


contains a 40-watt bulbs, a 60-watt bulb, a 75-watt bulb, and a 100-
watt bulb, each element of the sample space S={40, 60, 75, 100}
occurs with probability ¼. Therefore, we have a uniform distribution,
with

1
f ( x;4)  , x  401 ,60,75,100
4
Example 5.2

When a fair dice is tossed, each element of the sample space S=(1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6) occurs with probability 1/6. Therefore, we have a uniform
distribution, with

1
f ( x;6)  , x  1,2,3,4,5,6
6
Theorem 5.1

The mean and variance of the discrete uniform distribution


f ( x; k ) are

1 k 1 k
   xi and
   ( xi   ) 2
2

k i 1 k i1

Example 5.3

Referring to Example 5.2, we find that

1 2  3  4  5  6
  3.5
6

1
 
  (1  3.5) 2  (2  3.5) 2  ..  (6  3.5) 2  2.92
2

6
Binomial Distribution

 An experiment often consists of repeated trials, each with two


possible outcomes that may be labeled success or failure.

 The experiment consists of n repeated trials

 The probability of success, denoted by p, remains constant


from trial to trial.

 The repeated trails are independent.

Binomial Distribution

A binomial trial can result in a success with probability p and a failure


with probability q =1-p. Then the probability distribution of the
binomial random variable X, the number of successes in n
independent trials, is

 n  x n x
b( x; n, p)    p q , x  0,1,2,..., n
 x
Example 5.4

The probability that a certain kind of car component will survive a


shock test is ¾. Find the probability that exactly 2 of the next 4
components tested survive.

ANS:

 4  3 
2 2
1 27
b( x; n, p)       
 2  4   4  128
Example 5.5

The probability that a traffic crash patient recovers from a


psychological disease is 0.4. If 15 people are known to have
contracted this disease, what is the probability that (a) at least 10
survive, (b) from 3 to 8 survive, and (c) exactly 5 survive?

ANS:

(a) P( X  10)  1  P( X  10)  1   b( x;15,0.4)  1  0.9662


x 0

8 8 2
P(3  X  8)   b( x;15,0.4)   b( x;15,0.4)   b( x;15,0.4)
(b) x 3 x 0 x 0

 0.4032  0.2173  0.1859

5 4
P( X  5)  b(5;15,0.4)   b( x;15,0.4)   b( x;15,0.4)
x 0 x 0
(c)
 0.4032  0.2173  0.1859

Example 5.6

Proton purchases a certain kind of electronic device from a


manufacturer. The manufacturer indicates that the defective rate of
the device is 3%.

(a) The inspector of the retailer randomly picks 20 items from a


shipment. What is the probability that there will be at least
one defective item among these 20?
(b) Suppose that the retailer receives 10 shipments in a month
and the inspector randomly tests 20 devices per shipment.
What is the probability that there will be 3 shipments
containing at least one defective device?
ANS:

(a) Denote by X the number of defective devices among the 20.


This X follows a b(x; 20, 0.03).

P( X  1)  1  P( X  0)  1  b(0;20,0.03)
 1  0.030 (0.97) 200  0.4562

(b) Each shipment can either contain at least one defective item
or not. Hence, testing the result of each shipment can be
viewed as a binomial trial with p =0.4562. Assuming the
independence from shipment to shipment and denoting Y
the number of shipments containing at least one defective
item Y follows another binomial distribution b(y; 10, 0.4562).

10 
P(Y  3)   0.46523 (1  0.4652) 7  0.1602
3

Theorem 5.2

The mean and variance of the binomial distribution b(x; n, p)

  np  2  npq

Example 5.7

Find the mean and variance of the binomial random variable of


Example 5.5.

  np  (15)(0.4)  6
 2  npq  (15)(0.4)(0.6)  3.6
Example 5.8

It is conjectured that an impurity exists in 30% of all drinking wells in


a certain rural community. In order to gain some insight on this
problem, it is determined that some tests should be made. It is too
expensive to test all of the many wells in the area, so 10 were
randomly selected for testing.

(a) Using the binomial distribution, what is the probability that


exactly three wells have the impurity assuming that the
conjecture is correct?
(b) What is the probability that more than three wells are
impure?

ANS:

3 2
b(3;10,0.3)  P( X  3)   b( x;10,0.3)   b( x;10,0.3)
x 0 x 0
(a)
 0.6496  0.3828  0.2668

(b) P(X >3) =1-0.6496 = 0.3504

Example 5.9

Consider the situation of Example 5.8. The “30% are impure” is


merely a conjecture put for the by the area water board. Suppose 10
wells are randomly selected and 6 are found to contain the impurity.
What does this imply about the conjecture? Use a probability
statement.

ANS:

If the conjecture is correct, is it likely that we could have found 6 or


more impure wells?
10 5
P( X  6)   b( x;10,0.3)   b( x;10,0.3)
x 0 x 0

 1  0.9527  0.0473

There is 4.7% (very unlikely) that 6 or more wells would be found


impure if only 30% of all are impure.

Multinomial Distribution

 The binomial experiment becomes a multinomial


experiment if we let each trial have more than 2 possible
outcomes.
 The drawing of a card from a deck with replacement is also a
multinomial experiment if the 4 suits are outcomes of interest.

Multinomial Distribution

If a given trial can result in the k outcomes, E1, E2,…, Ek with


probability p1, p2,.., pk, then the probability distribution of the random
variables X1, X2,…, Xk, representing the number of occurrences for E1,
E2,…, Ek in n independent trials is
 n  x1 x2 xk
f ( x1 , x2 ,.., xk ; p1 , p2 ,.., pk , n)   p p .. p
 x1 x2 .. xk  1 2 k

k k

x
i 1
i n and p
i 1
i 1
Example 5.10

The complexity of arrivals and departures into an airport are such


that computer simulation is often used to model the “ideal”
conditions. For a certain airport containing three runways it is known
that in the ideal setting the following are the probabilities that the
individual runways are accessed by a randomly arriving commercial
jet:

Runway 1: p1 = 2/9
Runway 2: p2 = 1/6
Runway 3: p3 = 11/18

What is the probability that 6 randomly arriving airplanes are


distributed in the following fashion?

Runway 1: 2 airplanes
Runway 2: 1 airplane
Runway 3: 3 airplanes

ANS:

 6  2   1   11 
2 1 3
2 1 11
f (2,1,3; , , ;6)          0.1127
9 6 18  2 1 3  9   6   18 
Tutorial

1. An employee is selected from a staff of 10 to supervise a


highway construction project by selecting a tag at random from a box
containing 10 tags numbered from 1 to 10. Find the formula for the
probability distribution of X representing the number on the tag that
is drawn. What is the probability that the number drawn is less than
4?

2. As a student drives to school, he encounters a traffic signal.


This traffic signal stays for 35 seconds, yellow for 5 seconds, and red
for 60 seconds. Assume that the student goes to school each
weekday between 8:00 and 8:30. Let X1 be the number of times he
encounters a green lights, X2 be the number of times he encounters
a yellow light, and X3 be the number of times he encounters a red
light. Find the joint distribution of X1, X2, and X3.

3. A traffic control engineer reports that 75% of the vehicles


passing through a checkpoint are from within the state. What is the
probability that fewer than 4 of the next 9 vehicles are from out of
state?

4. If the probability that a traffic light has a useful life of at least


800 hours is 0.9, find the probabilities that among 20 such lights
i. Exactly 18 will have a useful life of at least 800 hours;
ii. At least 15 will have a useful life of at least 800 hours;
iii. At least 2 will not have a useful life of at least 800 hours.

5. One prominent physician claims that 70% those with lung


cancer are chain smokers. If his assertion is correct,
i. Find the probability that of 10 such patients recently admitted
to a hospital, fewer than half are chain smokers;
ii. Find the probability that of 20 such patients recently admitted
to a hospital, fewer than half are chain smokers.
Hypergeometric Distribution

 In the case of the binomial experiment, independent among


trials is required. As a result, if the binomial is applied, the
sampling must be done with replacement of each item after
it is observed.
 However, the hypergeometric distribution does not require
independence and is based on the sampling done without
replacement.

 In general, we are interested in the probability of selecting x


success from the k items labeled successes and n-x failures
from the N-k items labeled failures when a random sample of
size n is selected from N items.

 The hypergeometric experiment possesses the following two


properties:

o A random sample of size n is selected without


replacement from N items.
o k of the N items may be classified as successes and N-k
are classified as failures.

Hypergeometric Distribution

 k  N  k 
  

h( x; N , n, k )    
x n x
N
 
n
Example 5.11
A particular part that is used in airbag is sold in lots of 10. The
producer feels that the lot is deemed acceptable if no more than
one defective is in the lot. Some lots are sampled and the sampling
plan involves random sampling and testing 3 of the parts out of 10. If
none of the 3 is defective, the lot is accepted. Comment on the utility
of this plan.

ANS:
Let us assume that the lot is truly unacceptable (i.e, that 2 out of
10 are defective). The probability that our sampling plan finds the lot
acceptable is

 2  8 
  
p( X  0)      0.467
0 3
10 
 
3
Thus, if the lot is truly unacceptable with 2 defective parts, this
sampling plan will allow acceptance roughly 47% of the time. As a
result, this plan should be considered faulty.

Example 5.12
Lots of 40 components each are called unacceptable if they contain
as many as 3 defectives or more. The procedure for sampling the lot
is to select 5 components at random and to reject the lot if a
defective is found. What is the probability that exactly 1 defective is
found in the sample if there are 3 defectives in the entire lot?

ANS:
N = 40, n=5, k =3, and x=1
 3  37 
  
h(2;40,5,3)      0.3011
1 4
 40 
 
5
This plan is likely not desirable since it detects a bad lot (3
defectives) only about 30% of the time.
Hypergeometric Distribution

The mean and variance of the hypergeometric distribution are

nk N n k  k
 2  .n. 1  
N N 1 N  N

Example 5.13

Let us now reinvestigate Example 3.9. The purpose of this example


was to illustrate the notion of a random variable and the
corresponding sample space. In the example, we have a lot of 100
items of which 12 are defective. What is the probability that in a
sample of 10, 3 are defective?

ANS:

12  88 
  
h(3;100,10,12)      0.08
3 7
100 
 
 10 
Multi-Hypergeometric Distribution

If N items can be partitioned into the k cells A1, A2,.., A1k with a1, a2,..,
ak elements, respectively, then the probability distribution of the
random variables X1, X2,.., Xk, representing the number of elements
selected from A1, A2,.., Ak in a random sample of size n, is

 a1  a2   ak 
  ... 
f ( x1 , x2 ,.., xk ; a1 , a2 ,.., ak , N , n)   1  2   k 
x x x
N
 
n
k k

x
i 1
i n and a
i 1
i N

Example 5.16

A group of 10 individuals is used for a biological case study. The


group contains 3 people with blood type O, 4 with blood type A, and
3 with blood type B. What is the probability that a random sample of
5 will contain 1 person with blood type O, 2 people with blood type A,
and 2 people with blood type B?

ANS:

N =10, n = 5, x1 = 1, x2 = 2, x3 = 2, a1 = 3, a2 = 4, a3 = 3

 3  4  3 
   
f (1,2,2;3,4,3,10,5)      
1 2 2 3
10  14
 
5
Tutorial

1. A traffic engineer selects 6 bulbs randomly from a box


containing 5 tulip bulbs and 4 daffodil bulbs. What is the
probability that he planted 2 daffodil bulbs and 4 tulip bulbs?

2. A random road safety committee of size 3 is selected from 4


engineers and 2 teachers. Write a formula for the probability
distribution of the random variable X representing the number
of engineers on the committee. Find P(2 ≤ X ≤ 3).

3. If 7 cards are dealt from an ordinary deck of 52 playing cards,


what is the probability that
a. Exactly 2 of them will be face cards?
b. At least 1 of them will be queen?

Negative Binomial Distribution

Negative binomial experiment is an experiment where the properties


are the same as those listed fir a binomial experiment, with the
exception that the trials will be repeated until a fixed number of
successes occur.

Negative Binomial Distribution

If repeated independent trials can result in a success with probability


p and a failure with probability q=1-p. then the probability
distribution of the random variable X, the number of the trial on
which the kth success occurs, is

 x  1 k xk
b ( x; k , p)  
*
 p q , x  k , k  1, k  2,...
 k  1
Example 5.17

In a car racing competition series, the team who wins four games out
of seven will be the winner. Suppose that team A has probability 0.55
of winning over team B and both teams A and B face each other in
the championship games.

a. What is the probability that team A will win the series in six games?
b. What is the probability that team A will win the series?
c. If both teams face each other in a regional playoff series and the
winner is decided by winning three out of five games, what is the
probability that team A will win a playoff?

ANS:

 5
a.
b (6;4,0.55)   0.554 (1  0.55)64  0.1853
*

 3
b. P(team A wins the championship series) is

b* (4;4,0.55)  b* (5;4,0.55)  b* (6;4,0.55)  b* (7;4,0.55)


 0.0915  0.1647  0.1853  0.1668  0.6083
c. P(team A wins the playoff is)

b* (3;3,0.55)  b* (4;3,0.55)  b* (5;3,0.55)


 0.1664  0.2246  0.2021  0.5931
Geometric Distribution

If we consider the special case of the negative binomial distribution


where k =1, we have a probability distribution for the number of
trials required for a single success.

Geometric Distribution
If repeated independent trials can result in a success with probability
p and a failure with probability q=1-p. then the probability
distribution of the random variable X, the number of the trial on
which the first success occurs, is

g ( x; p)  pq x1 , x  1,2,3,...

Example 5.18
In airbag manufacturing process it is know that, on average, 1 in
every 100 items is defective. What is the probability that the fifth
item inspected is the first defective item found?

ANS:

X= 5 and p =0.01
g (5;0.01)  0.01(0.99)4  0.0096
Example 5.19
At “busy time” a telephone exchange is very capacity, so callers have
difficulty placing their calls. It may be of interest to know the number
of attempts necessary in order to gain a connection. Suppose that we
let p = 0.05 be the probability of a connection during busy time. We
are interested in knowing the probability that 5 attempts are
necessary for a successful call to a hospital emergency section.

ANS:
g (5;0.05)  0.05(0.95)4  0.041
Theorem 5.4

The mean and variance of a random variable following the geometric


distribution
1 1 p
 2 
p p2

Poisson Distribution
 Experiments yielding numerical values of a random variable X,
the number of outcomes occurring during a given time interval
or in a specified region, are called Poisson experiment.
 The give time interval may be of any length, such as a minute,
a week, a day, a year, or even a year.

Properties of Poisson process


1. The number of outcomes occurring in one time interval or
specified region is independent if the number that occurs in
any other disjoint time interval or region of space. In this way
we say that the Poisson process has no memory.
2. The probability that a single outcome will occur during a very
short time interval or in a small region is proportional to the
length of the time interval or the size of the region and does
not depend on the number of outcomes occurring outside this
time interval or region.
3. The probability that more than one outcome will occur in such
a short time interval or fall in such a small region is neglilible.

Poisson distribution
The probability distribution of the Poisson random variable, X,
representing the number of outcomes occurring in a given time
interval or specified region denoted by t is,
e  t (  t ) x
p( x; t )  , x  0,1,2,...
x!
Where λ is the average number of outcomes per unit time, distance
area or volume.
Example 5.20

During a laboratory experiment the average number of airbag deploy


in 1 millisecond is 4. What is the probability that 6 airbag deploy in a
given millisecond?

ANS:

x = 6 and λt = 4

e 4 4 6
p(6;4)   0.1042
6!

Example 5.21

Ten is the average number of oil tankers arriving each day at a


certain port city. The facilities at the port can handle at most 15
tankers per day. What is the probability that on a given day tankers
have to be turned away?

ANS:

15
P( X  15)  1  P( X  15)  1   p( x;10)  1  0.9513  0.0487
x 0

Theorem 5.5

Both the mean and variance of the Poisson distribution p(x;λt) are λt
Chapter Tutorial

1. The probability that a person living in a certain city, owns a car


is estimated to be 0.3. Find the probability that the tenth
person randomly interviewed in that city is the fifth one to own
a car.

2. A foreign student racing club lists as its members 2 Canadians,


3 Japanese, 5 Italians, and 2 Germans. If a committee of 4 is
selected at random, find the probability that

a. All nationalities are represented;


b. All nationalities except the Italians are represented.

3. It is know that 60% of traffic crash victims inoculated with a


serum are protected form a certain disease. If 5 victims are
inoculated, find the probability that
a. None contracts the disease;
b. Fewer than 2 contract the disease;
c. More than 3 contract the disease.

4. Computer technology has produced an environment in which


“robots” operate with the use of microprocessors. The
probability that a robot fails during any 6 hour shift is 0.10.
What is the probability that a robot will operate at most 5 shifts
before it fails?

5. Hospital administrators in large cities anguish about problems


with traffic in emergency rooms in hospitals. For a particular
hospital in a large city, the staff on hand cannot accommodate
the patient traffic if there are more than 10 emergency cases in
a given hour. It is assumed that patient arrival follows a
Poisson process and historical data suggest that, on the
average, 5 emergencies arrive per hour.
a. What is the probability that in a given hour the staff can
no longer accommodate the traffic?
b. What is the probability that more than 20 emergencies
arrive during a 3-hour shift of personnel?
6. A government task force suspects that some public transport
companies are in violation of federal traffic regulations with
regard to bus design. Twenty firms are under suspicion but all
cannot be inspected. Suppose that 3 of the firms are in
violation.
a. What is the probability that inspection of 5 firms finds no
violations?
b. What is the probability that the plan above will find two
violations?

7. The probability that a novice driver pilot passes the written test
for a private pilot’s license is 0.7. Find the probability that the
student will pass the test
a. On the third try;
b. Before the fourth try.

8. If a person us dealt 13 cards from an ordinay deck of 52


playing cards several times, how many hearts per hand can be
expect? Between what two values would you expect the
number of hearts to fall at least 75% of the time?

9. The probabilities are 0.4, 0.2, 0.3, and 0.1, respectively, that a
delegate to a certain convention arrived by air, bus, automobile,
or train. What is the probability that among 9 delegates
randomly selected at this convention, 3 arrived by air, 3 arrived
by bus, 1 arrived by automobile, and 2 arrived by train?

10. An inventory study determines that, on average, demands


for a particular item at a petrol station are made 5 times per
day. What is the probability that on a given day this item is
requested
a. More than 5 times?
b. Not at all?

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