Running Head: COUNTERING HEGEMONY THROUGH ETHNIC STUDIES 1

Countering Hegemony through Ethnic Studies:

The Impact of Raza Studies on Latinx Students

Sarah Sampe

The University of Arizona

Spring 2019
COUNTERING HEGEMONY THROUGH ETHNIC STUDIES 2

Abstract

The preservation of hegemony (Gramsci, 1971) within the state of Arizona has
contributed to racist views, actions, and practices towards the Latinx community throughout
the history of the state. Low pay, forced deportations, and language discrimination are among
the varying ways that racist practices have affected the Latinx community in Arizona (Sheridan,
2012). These practices have continued to affect the Latinx community, in particular Latinx
students, through the ban of Tucson Unified School District’s Raza Studies program. Raza
studies provided a counter-hegemonic view to Latinx students to understand the oppression
they faced (Cammarota, 2017). Through the theoretically grounded instructional approach of
Critically Compassionate Intellectualism, Latinx students in Raza Studies classrooms grew in
confidence and were empowered through counter-storying their experiences (Delgado, 1989;
Romero, 2010). Latinx students gained a positive sense of self, understanding of identity, and
increased academic achievement as a result of participation in the Raza Studies program
(Cabrera, Meza, & Rodriguez, 2011; Romero, Arce, & Cammarota, 2009).
This paper will provide a look at the Raza Studies program through its Critically
Compassionate Intellectualism framework to build a critical consciousness’ within Latinx
students. I will discuss hegemony within the state of Arizona and the racism experienced by the
Latinx community and how that impacted the eventual ban on ethnic studies within the Tucson
Unified School District. Finally, this paper will provide an overview of the positive outcomes
experienced by Latinx students who participated in Raza Studies. I argue the value and
importance of ethnic studies programs to counter hegemony.
COUNTERING HEGEMONY THROUGH ETHNIC STUDIES 3
Countering Hegemony through Ethnic Studies:

The Impact of Raza Studies on Latinx Students

Providing opportunities for students of color to empower themselves is instrumental in

creating a more equitable society including the Latinx community. Tucson Unified School

District’s (TUSD) Mexican American Studies (MAS)/Raza Studies program was a “revolution…of

emergent intellectuals who [saw] their place in the world and strategies to achieve greater

justice within their communities and school districts” (Cammarota & Romero, 2014, p. 3-4). This

revolution was more than seventy years in the making as numerous court battles were fought

to provide Latinx students the opportunity to succeed (Romero, 2014). The opportunity to

obtain a relevant education, focused on the academic achievement of Latinx students, came to

be with the creation of the MAS/Raza Studies department in TUSD (Romero, 2014).

Within the state of Arizona, where racist thinking and practices have factored into the

historical trauma already within the Latinx community (Sheridan, 2012), the need for

opportunities for empowerment is crucial. Oppression is often interpreted as just “how it is”.

However, “how it is” is actually a system of oppression that limits the access to opportunity for

Latinx students and other students of color. The oppression is oftentimes unknown to those

who are oppressed because of the prominence of white supremacy. Hegemony is rule by the

dominant culture, in beliefs, thoughts, and status (Gramsci, 1971). The hegemonic society in the

United States is one where being white is supreme; anything but white is a “racial other” as

people of color will never be accepted as being white, which furthers the oppression and their

“secondary status” (Cammarota, 2016, p. 236). Hegemony in Arizona includes racist thinking

about these racial others, especially toward the Latinx community. Hegemony is often
COUNTERING HEGEMONY THROUGH ETHNIC STUDIES 4
unrecognizable as the policies prohibiting opportunity for people of color have been so

ingrained in our societal thinking that it often goes unnoticed. In order to change hegemonic

thinking, hegemony and white supremacy need to be addressed by those in the dominant

culture and revealed to those within communities of color such as the Latinx community

(Patton Davis, 2019, personal communication).

Research Questions

Keeping this context in mind, this paper explores the hegemonic mindset and practices

within Arizona legal policy, and its prohibition of relevant educational curriculum for Latinx

students, which is crucial for educational equity (Cammarota, 2017). First looking at the role

that racism has played in actions taken against the Latinx community, I pose the following

questions: (1) How did historically racist thinking and practices contribute to the call to ban

Raza Studies? (2) What about ethnic studies triggered the fight for hegemony? (3) Because the

use of counter-storying to understand oppression and counter-hegemony was integral to Raza

Studies, how does ethnic studies promote counter-hegemonic stories? (4) Why is the

promotion of counter-hegemonic narrative important to Latinx students? (5) How do those

counter-hegemonic practices, like Raza Studies, help to promote a positive sense of self among

Latinx students?

To answer these questions one must believe that racism exists in today’s society and

turn away from the idea of a colorblind society (Cammarota, 2017). To keep that thought

central, this paper will use the lens of Critical Race Theory (CRT) to examine the hegemonic

practices within the state of Arizona that are related to racist thoughts of the past and today.

CRT posits that racism is normal and because it is normal, racism is not perceived as abhorrent,
COUNTERING HEGEMONY THROUGH ETHNIC STUDIES 5
which is true within the state of Arizona as racist thoughts lead to racist policies to protect the

hegemony of the dominant race. Interest convergence, the need for racial equality when it best

suits white interests, and the social construct of race has directly impacted Arizona’s racist

history and focused solely on the color of skin a person had, not attributes of intersectionality,

understanding that a person can experience oppression through various identities (Crenshaw,

1994). To combat the racism in the state, the ethnic studies program used the concept of

counter-narratives or counter-storytelling, which is integral to Critical Race Theory, to promote

Latinx experiences in a positive and truth telling light. The fight against hegemony is a critical

concept within ethnic studies, which can be better understood through CRT (Romero &

Cammarota, 2014).

Theoretical Framework

Racism exists.

The impact of racist thinking and practices in the state of Arizona is evident in the mistreatment

of the Latinx community throughout its history (Sheridan, 2012). As explained by Rollock &

Gillborn (2011),

CRT is a body of scholarship steeped in radical activism that seeks to explore and

challenge the prevalence of racial inequality in society. It is based on the understanding

that race and racism are the product of social thought and power relations; CRT

theorists endeavor to expose the way in which racial inequality is maintained through

the operation of structures and assumptions that appear normal and unremarkable

(p.1).
COUNTERING HEGEMONY THROUGH ETHNIC STUDIES 6
Critical Race Theory posits several central themes. Those themes are that racism is normal,

interest convergence tends to occur when the interests of minoritized groups converge with

those of the majority, race is a social construct, intersectionality conceptually links a variety of

oppressions, anti-essentialism disrupts stereotypes, and counter-narratives provide a truthful

and more accurate picture of the lived realities of people of color (Howard & Navarro, 2016).

As mentioned above, racism exists and is “ordinary, not aberrational—“normal science,”

the usual way society does business.”(Delgado & Stefancic, 2017). Racism is an everyday

occurrence for people of color in the United States (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017; Leonardo,

2013). The decrease in deplorable acts of racism, such as lynching and Jim Crow laws, is

evident, yet, as Delgado and Stefancic (2017) state, “by every social indicator, racism continues

to blight the lives of people of color, including holders of high-echelon jobs, even judges” (p.12).

People of color are much more likely to be rejected for loans, housing, or jobs, but less likely to

be outside of prison, have good health, or win an Oscar (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017). Racism

continues to plague people of color in this country.

Interest convergence or “material determinism,” meaning that if “racism advances the

interests of both white elites and working-class whites, large segments of society have little

incentive to eradicate it” (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017, p. 9). The interests of whites are central to

the desire to help people of color (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017). Bell (1995) strengthens this

point, stating “it is clear that racial equality is not deemed legitimate to large segments of the

American people, at least to the extent it threatens to impair the societal status of whites” (p.

22). Bell’s example of Brown vs. Board of Education, shows that even with a huge victory

against segregation, the outcome would have been different had the United States not wanted
COUNTERING HEGEMONY THROUGH ETHNIC STUDIES 7
to improve its outward image to the world (K. Crenshaw, Gotanda, Peller, & Thomas, 1995;

Delgado & Stefancic, 2017; Leonardo, 2013).

The social construct of race, “holds that race and races are products of social thought

and relations”(Delgado & Stefancic, 2017, p.7). Race is not something that is biological, instead

race is invented by society to group people with similar origins and physical traits (Delgado &

Stefancic, 2017). However this invention of race only considers a relatively small piece of

information that is genetically linked, people have much more in common than not (Delgado &

Stefancic, 2017). Delgado and Stefancic (2017) also point out that race becomes more

important to categorize when the dominant society needs specific groups of color. Sheridan

(2012) made this clear in the numerous ways that in Arizona people of color (Mexicans,

Chinese, and Native Americans) were welcomed when they were needed and shunned when

they were no longer needed. The color of one’s skin became less noticeable when a railroad

needed to be built or silver needed to be found. Stereotypes are ascribed to differing groups of

people of color as the dominant society sees fit (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017).

Intersectionality, as defined by Delgado & Stefancic (2017) means “the examination of

race, sex, class, national origin, and sexual orientation, and how their combination plays out in

various settings” (p. 51). Intersectionality considers the multiple ways that people experience

oppression. For example, a single individual may be Latinx, LGBTQ, and female and

simultaneously experience anti-ethnic, homophobic, sexist or racist oppression (Delgado &

Stefancic, 2017). Delgado and Stefancic (2017) say, “individuals like these exist at an

intersection of recognized sites of oppression” (p. 51). Crenshaw (1994) focused on race and

gender to highlight “the need to account for multiple grounds of identity when considering how
COUNTERING HEGEMONY THROUGH ETHNIC STUDIES 8
the social world is constructed” (p. 2). Regardless of what area of oppression intersectionality

brings into play, Leonardo (2013) states that “CRTheorists [(Critical Race Theorists)] [try] to

avoid the oppression sweepstakes” (p. 32). Critical Race Theory is focused on building “race

coalitions, not a singular focus on one group’s experience with racism” (Leonardo, 2013, p. 32).

Intersectionality also calls for an anti-essentialist way of thinking. In contrast,

essentialism is the concept that each oppression a person experiences can be individualized to

gather what each individual oppression experience is like (Grillot, 1995). For example, if a

woman is Latinx and Queer, essentialism says that each aspect of the woman’s identity can be

broken down into individual categories of gender, race, and sexual orientation. This is contrary

to the intersectional view, which posits that a person’s identity cannot be broken down into

individual pieces but must remain focused on the person’s whole identity (Grillot, 1995). Anti-

essentialism is necessary particularly when it comes to intersectionality, because as Grillot

(1995) explains,

[Essentialism] assumes that the strands of identity are separable, that the experience of

a white woman dealing with a white man, or raising a white child, is the same

experience that a Black woman has dealing with a Black man, or raising a Black child. But

as intersectionality critique has taught us, they are different not just additively (p. 19).

Counter narratives or counter-storytelling are stories that contradict and challenge hegemonic

narratives and beliefs woven within society (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017). Delgado & Stefancic

(2017) offer an example of the myths and preconceptions of black criminality. The images and

scripts that run through hegemonic narratives make the story of black men one synonymous

with being a criminal. Mindsets “that allocate suspicion, place the burden of proof on one party
COUNTERING HEGEMONY THROUGH ETHNIC STUDIES 9
or the other, and tell us in cases of divided evidence what probably happened. These cultural

influences are probably at least as determinative of outcomes as the formal laws, since they

supply the background against which the latter are interpreted and applied” (p. 43). Counter-

stories challenge these malicious narratives and beliefs (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017) and give

voice to the unique experiences of people of color. Shared experience allows differing voices

and life stories to be heard and understood as valid identities. Discrimination faced by people of

color gains a name that makes it something that can be defeated. For example, if Latinx

students wrote a reflection on their experiences being segregated into the four-hour block of

English only instruction within Tucson Unified School District, the story might include their

thoughts on how the lack of access to core curriculum limited their opportunities for

employment. This would provide a way to understand that discrimination has real

consequences for students of color and a specified path to change would be seen. As Delgado

and Stefancic (2017) have argued, “Powerfully written stories and narratives may begin a

process of adjustment in our system of beliefs and categories by calling attention to neglected

evidence and reminding readers of our common humanity” (p. 43).

Discussion

Arizona residents and elected officials have held racist views and practices toward the

Latinx community since white colonizers took Mexico (Sheridan, 2012). Although Mexican and

Indigenous communities existed within the land that we now call Arizona, the hegemonic

steamroller of whiteness took control and communities that once thrived and co-existed

peacefully were now in a state of oppression (Sheridan, 2012). Racism inundated communities

of color. To maintain control over these communities, the now dominant white culture split up
COUNTERING HEGEMONY THROUGH ETHNIC STUDIES 10
and pitted them against each other (Sheridan, 2012). This allowed the racist thinking and

environment to persist, as one racial other was always more valuable than the other depending

on the needs of the dominant culture, in the name of interest convergence (Delgado &

Stefancic, 2017). Interest convergence allows the hegemonic practices to use the oppressed to

best suit their needs and if their needs are met, they are “less oppressed” (Delgado & Stefancic,

2017).

The Latinx community was favored at times when cheap labor was needed within the

mining boom in early Arizona history, but their status dwindled when cheaper Chinese labor for

building railroads was more convenient (Sheridan, 2012). When being Latinx meant one was

expendable, forced deportations of Latinx workers across the country were implemented

(Sheridan, 2012). When dangerous work needed to be completed at the mining site, English

only work environments were enforced, so that Latinx workers had to risk their lives to make a

living (Sheridan, 2012). These historical traumas against the Latinx community are part of the

oppressive structures that have held the Latinx community in its secondary status (Cammarota,

2014).

The fight for hegemony against the Latinx community continues today. The Latinx

community is favored when the need for cheap labor is high, but when a so-called immigration

crisis is said to exist, Latinx status dwindles and it is suddenly necessary that everyone speak

English (Cabrera et al., 2011; Cammarota, 2014; Romero & Cammarota, 2014). Lawmakers

within the state of Arizona continue the hegemonic practice of creating rules or laws meant to

maintain dominance over the Latinx community. In recent years, bills have been created and

signed into law that directly impact those who are Latinx (Cabrera et al., 2011). The legalization
COUNTERING HEGEMONY THROUGH ETHNIC STUDIES 11
of racial profiling through SB 1070 and the banning of affirmative action through Proposition

107, were joined in the election cycle by HB 2281, which banned ethnic studies programs in

Arizona (Cabrera, et al, 2011).

In a state that oppresses the Latinx community, it is essential to prioritize the

educational needs of Latinx students. The MAS/Raza Studies program was integral in changing

the academic achievement, empowerment, and positive sense of self for the Latinx students

who participated in the program (Romero & Cammarota, 2014). Ethnic studies used counter-

storying to create an educational environment that becomes a foot forward to countering

hegemony. This is important to the fight against the oppressive educational structures that

Latinx students find in Arizona schools (Romero & Cammarota, 2014). The relationship between

hegemonic practices in Arizona and their effect on the Latinx community continues to by

inundated by the racist thinking and policies that have plagued the state for over a hundred

years (Sheridan, 2012). The banning of Raza studies was just another example of racism within

the state of Arizona. As Cammarota (2014) states, “In Arizona, the articulation of racism

through overt statements or racial microaggressions impacts everyday experiences for many

people of color” (p. 322).

The MAS program was a victory for Latinx grassroots community organizers whose

demands for equitable treatment of Latinx students were heard in a district that was truly

“separate and unequal” (Romero, 2014, p. 54). More resources were distributed to schools on

Tucson’s east-side, which had mostly white students, whereas the west-side schools with

mostly Latinx and African American students were underfunded (Romero, 2014). The obvious

segregation of students of color from white students was halted in 1978 with a federal
COUNTERING HEGEMONY THROUGH ETHNIC STUDIES 12
desegregation order; however, there was no noticeable change for the Latinx community

(Romero, 2014). This lack of improvement to the social and educational experiences of the

Latinx community led to the collaboration of community groups, leaders, and organizations in

1996 to begin the fight for the creation of MAS (Romero, 2014).

In 2003, Critically Compassionate Intellectualism (CCI) was implemented into the MAS

curriculum in order “ensure an equitable educational experience” (Romero, 2014, p. 55) for

Latinx students. Former director of MAS, Augustine Romero (2014), describes CCI this way:

This model was created from student voices and established on the basis of educational

equity, educational sovereignty, and student empowerment. The model expresses what

our students said they and others like them needed to obtain educational equity and a

method through which they and others could achieve greater academic success…This

opportunity to realize their potential as intellectuals is a manifestation of their

educational sovereignty (p. 5).

Critically Compassionate Intellectualism (CCI) was “a convergence of critical race theory (CRT),

critical pedagogy, and authentic caring, in the Social Justice Education Project (SJEP) and the

Raza studies classrooms” (Romero, 2014, p.15).

The idea of educational sovereignty was critical to the creation of the Social Justice

Education Project (SJEP). The intent was to help students create a critical lens to increase their

level of consciousness to racial, cultural, historical, and social contexts. Additionally, the

curriculum was created to meet state standards while still providing a relevant context to their

lived experiences (Romero, 2014). Through participation in the SJEP, students were empowered

through the opportunity to recognize their ability to decide the span of their own educational
COUNTERING HEGEMONY THROUGH ETHNIC STUDIES 13
experiences; students established the belief that their education was their own (Romero, 2014).

The approach was built on “esperanza, familia, and cariño” (Romero, 2014, p. 20); hope, family,

and love, which built a greater sense of community and shared experience.

The impact of hope, family, and love to the shared experiences of Latinx students and

the Latinx community is critical to the practice of counter-storying (Delgado, 1989). Delgado

(1989) states that storytelling is a way to build community, as stories “build consensus, a

common culture of shared understandings, and deeper, more vital ethics” (p. 2414). Stories can

also be destructive, showing that “what we believe is ridiculous, self-serving, or cruel”

(Delgado, 1989, p. 2415). Counter-stories challenge the conventional hegemonic story and

present a different reality from the one being lived; they can engage consciousness (Delgado,

1989). For counter-stories to be effective, they must be an authentic description of the lived

experience (Delgado, 1989). The counter-storying practice included within the Raza studies

curriculum allowed Latinx students the opportunity to narrate their authentic lived experiences

and to see the experiences as they are and came to be. According to Delgado (1989), analysis of

the story must be free of judgment, focused on what is being stated, and then a decision made

as to its truth.

The CCI classroom was built on lessons that would help students to define the truth of

their educational experience as a Latinx student through counter-storying (Romero, 2014). The

lessons included the activities My History, Four Tables, and I Am poems and led students

through learning by exploring their own identities, thoughts, and views (Romero, 2014). The

exercises called for engagement in dialogue with teachers, parents, peers, and any others who

influenced their daily lives (Romero, 2014). Dialogue is critical to forming a critical
COUNTERING HEGEMONY THROUGH ETHNIC STUDIES 14
consciousness, where praxis calls for reflection and action to revolt against the oppression

faced (Cammarota, 2016). Praxis challenges students to first learn and understand about the

oppression they face (theory), then act to fight that oppression based on the new information,

and finally reflect on the experience and adjust as needed (Cammarota, 2018, personal

communication). Romero (2014) furthers this point stating “CCI in its praxis seeks to nurture

intellectuals that are products of the oppressed groups, and who use, for these oppressed

groups, all of their skills and power to engage and transform the oppressor group’s hegemony”

(Romero, 2014, p. 35).

Dialogue that takes place during the My History lessons asks students to answer

questions like, “Why do you believe this? Where did that belief come from? Who does that

benefit? …What is our identity? How was our identity constructed?” (Romero, 2014, p. 21).

These questions help students reframe their original perspective upon entering the classroom.

The stories constructed are often their individual counter stories, which create a space that

allows students to see that there are valuable stories that exist that are not the white story

(Romero, 2014). Students understand “that their stories and those of their families and

communities are legitimate American stories and that they are significant, vital, and enriching

components of the fabric that makes America and Americans” (Romero, 2014, p. 22).

Dialogue was an important aspect of the Four Tables exercise, which allowed both

students and teachers to dialogue about differing concepts or theories through visual

representations (Romero, 2014). This is a powerful opportunity for students to show their

understanding through their own vision and perspective. Romero (2014) illustrates the example

of a student named AC, who used his skill as a disc jockey to draw the concepts dominant and
COUNTERING HEGEMONY THROUGH ETHNIC STUDIES 15
subordinate groups. AC drew two turntables, one with many controls and large speakers and

the other with small speakers and only a couple of controls. AC explained that the dominant

group was the one that had more controls and powerful large speakers, whereas the

subordinate group had only small speakers and little controls. This metaphorical explanation is

powerful in many ways. It is an excellent example of perspective through the eyes of a Latinx

student, but the symbolism behind the drawing is also evident, clearly illustrating the difference

in power and control.

I Am poems took many different forms but clearly showed the evolution of student

thinking. One student, Sonia, as quoted in (Romero, 2014) wrote these lines in one version of

her I Am poem: “They imagine that people like me are trouble and we evolved just to serve

them. But I try to believe and think positive” (p. 27). These lines reflect knowledge of interest

convergence, in that the Latinx students are only here to serve the dominant culture. The

student uses counter-hegemonic thinking in her desire to think positively and believe that she is

more.

The benefits to students through participation in Raza Studies was seen in substantial

ways. First, academic achievement was higher in students who participated in Raza Studies

(Cabrera, 2014). The youth participatory action research (YPAR) class was designated as a core

course, which would satisfy academic requirements to graduate (Cammarota, 2016). This

incentivized students to focus on the subject matter and take it seriously (Cammarota, 2016).

Through participation in relevant content that pulled from the students’ lived experiences,

students began to see themselves as people who could be academically successful. In the

hegemonic classrooms they were in they had no connection to the content nor understood why
COUNTERING HEGEMONY THROUGH ETHNIC STUDIES 16
it was important However, within Raza studies classrooms, the meaning and connection to their

own lives empowered the students to succeed. Success in developing critical consciousness led

students to see and fight against the oppression they faced (Cammarota, 2016).

The shared experience of oppression built a community of intellectuals that focused on

creating change not solely for their own educational experiences but the experiences of others

(Cammarota, 2016). Cammarota (2016) explains that students recognized their position on the

margins of the school stating, “positionality allowed the students to easily access a second sight

in which they could see the injustices negatively impacting their social contexts” (p. 239).

Through YPAR students recognized the power of the collective, where oppressed individuals

could together “struggle for liberation” (p. 239). Cammarota (2016) continues, “In the end,

YPAR for these students led to action that engendered not only structural change but also

transformation of themselves” (p. 239). This transformation was guided through writing, which

allowed students the opportunity to revise how they perceived themselves, from being victims

of oppression to becoming activists for change (Cammarota, 2016).

Students saw that their voices could make a change, demanding funding for school

improvements and making it possible for the program to expand (Cammarota, 2016). The

activism that they learned of and began to use became essential when Tom Horne, who was

elected as Arizona’s Superintendent of Public Instruction, started his crusade to ban ethnic

studies (Cabrera et al, 2011; Cammarota, 2016; Romero & Cammarota, 2014; Simpson, 2009).

The voices of the students were heard, and they did not step aside and accept hegemony, they

took the responsibility to make a difference (Cabrera et al, 2011; Cammarota, 2016).
COUNTERING HEGEMONY THROUGH ETHNIC STUDIES 17
Horne’s call to ban Raza studies was his fight to keep Arizona white. Despite the

evidence that students had made educational gains, the empowerment of Latinx students was

viewed as a problem and the way that the Latinx community would overthrow the government

(Cammarota, 2016). When John Huppenthal began to “carry the torch” to ban Raza studies,

when Horne was elected Arizona attorney general, he stated “he would “stop la Raza” (as

quoted by Cabrera et al, 2011). He did not say he would stop Mexican American Studies, ethnic

studies, or Raza studies. Rather he would stop la raza—that is, the people of Mexican descent in

Arizona (p. 22). The overt racism as well as the microaggressions students faced were central

to the dialogue happening between students and teachers within the Raza studies classroom,

as well as in the documentation of students’ lived experience (Cammarota & Romero, 2014).

Many of the positive benefits to students who studied in Raza Studies classrooms were

internal to each student, changing their sense of self to a more positive one than when they

began the course (Romero, 2014; Cammarota, 2016). Their positive view of who they really

were came through in the documentation that took place and in interviews with instructors

(Romero, 2014). For example, Ansenia explained the effect of hegemony on her educational

opportunities:

Yeah, that word. It prevents people in believing that things can change. People are

scared to speak because they think if they make noise or shine light someone will get

them. But after awhile my family, even my mom started to be different. Anyways, my

family and me now [we] see things different; and yeah I’m going to be somebody, but

somebody who helps (quoted in Romero 2014, p. 29).

COUNTERING HEGEMONY THROUGH ETHNIC STUDIES 18
Another student, Blanca, was quoted by Romero (2014), describing her new perception of

education,

It [CCI] helped me relate to education more. It helped [me] grow stronger in my other

classes because I wanted to do something that would help. I felt like doing the work in

the other classes would give me a chance to do more for the people; it gave [me] a

chance to do more, to help more. I mean, the more I knew, the more I could help. Like

you said, the things we learned would become our weapons because our mind and our

words would be stronger (p. 34).

Both students see their place in the world as helping others, but through the fact that they

were now able to help with the knowledge they gained from Raza Studies. The positive impact

was evident to Lisette, another student quoted in Cammarota (2016) who said, “It gives me the

confidence to change and know that I could also be an outstanding student in my other classes”

(p. 243).

Conclusions

Despite the racist thinking that persists in the state of Arizona, Raza Studies has great

importance for the Latinx community. Students were given the opportunity to empower

themselves and they took that opportunity. The Raza Studies program had a measurable

impact on closing the achievement gap of Latinx students and created students who were

motivated to find academic success (Cabrera et al., 2011; Cammarota & Romero, 2014;

Cammarota, 2016). The importance of academic achievement is clear, but the program also

helped students take the knowledge they were learning and become agents of change. The

confidence and positive sense of self that was instilled within students through participation in
COUNTERING HEGEMONY THROUGH ETHNIC STUDIES 19
counter-storying exercises and through action taken within and outside of their school

community, made a clear statement as to how critical ethnic studies are to Latinx students. This

point is reinforced by Arturo, a Raza studies student, as quoted in Cammarota (2016), “when

you are informed, you can make a difference” (p. 244). And what a difference Raza studies

made.
COUNTERING HEGEMONY THROUGH ETHNIC STUDIES 20
References

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Cammarota, J. (2014). Misspoken in Arizona: Latina/o students document the articulations of

racism. Equity & Excellence in Education, 47(3), 321–333.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10665684.2014.933067

Cammarota, J. (2016). The praxis of ethnic studies: Transforming second sight into critical

consciousness. Race, Ethnicity and Education, 19(2), 233–251.

https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2015.1041486

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