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Chapter - 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
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CHAPTER - 2
CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 GENERAL
material for more than a hundred and fifty years. Its success and
size
These are batched, mixed, placed, compacted and cured to the highest
performance properties.
permeability.
compliance with specific project needs. HPC has been primarily used
often achieve High Strength, but High Strength concrete may not be
HPC does not require special equipments except careful design and
concrete.
HPC has been used in various structures all over the world
of HPC has brought about the essential need for additives both
ratios.
Performance Concrete
17
shutdown.
69 MPa at 28 days.
times the area under the stress-strain curve for the same concrete
factor (freezing and thawing) of 80% and water cement ratio of 0.35 or
less. A maximum water cement ratio of 0.35 will provide a paste with
consideration.
below.
world.
cement. The extremely fine particles can fill spaces between cement
dense cement paste. As the pores within the paste become finer and
considered high if it becomes greater than 0.15 ml per m2/sec and low
if less than 0.07 ml per m2/sec. The corresponding higher and lower
modulus by 160-300%.
20
predict the behaviour of silica fume concrete and this model give the
lower air void content, higher density, higher surface wear and greater
different water binder (w/b) ratios. The silica fume content varied from
0 to 30% by weight of cement. Four w/b ratios, 0.35, 0.40, 0.45 and
ratio 0.35, the highest value has been observed at 3 days with a silica
fume content of 22.5% at w/b ratios 0.35, 0.40 and 0.45. The strength
hydration retarded at low water cement ratios. On the other hand fly
cement ratios. When both silica fume and fly ash are added with
ratios (w/b) ranging from 0.26 to 0.42 and silica fume binder ratios
from 0.0 to 0.3. The results indicate that the optimum replacement
the water cement material ratio of the mixture and has been found to
silica fume in concrete and evaluated the effect of silica fume on the
aggregate.
models provide equations for calculating water cement ratio for the
with different water binder ratio 0.26 to 0.42 keeping other mix design
methods.
aggregate to fine aggregate was considered 1.81 and water binder ratio
ranging from 0.73 to 2.95% and concluded that for high strength
weight of cement. Cubes, cylinders and prisms are cast and tested. To
and density for all mixes at 7, 28, 90 and 120 days age. Results of the
destructive test.
mixtures were cast and tested with cement replacement of fly ash 0,
2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5 and 15% by weight of cement and silica fume as
cement by 15% fly ash and 7.5% addition of silica fume and flexural
silica fume. The target mean strength of concrete was fixed 60 MPa
and percentage of silica fume are used in this investigation are 2.5, 5,
7.5, 10 and 12.5%. The cubes and cylinders of standard size are cast
and tested for 28 days and concluded that maximum values of cube
ratio of 0.3, 0.34, 0.38 and 0.42 maintaining constant binder content
of 525 kg/m3 and coarse aggregate to fine aggregate rations are 60:40.
2.3.1.2 Superplasticizer
decrease rapidly in the first 5 min after its addition in to all cement
paste and these tests were used to select the type and dosage of
mineral admixtures are tested, only the ultrafine fly ash gave the best
properties were not achieved by increasing the water or the high range
was also compared with mini slump and marsh cone. They concluded
2.3.2 Aggregates
are as follows.
cement with silica fume on long term strength of mortar and studied
aggregate and its specific surface play significant role on the strength
silica fume and non-silica fume mortars at the age of 180 days.
fineness modulus in the range of 2.18 and 3.24 does not substantially
concrete with fine aggregate was partially replaced with silica fume.
and water cement ratio varied from 0.50 to 0.60 and compressive
aggregate replaced by silica fume was higher than the control concrete
Aitcin (1998)7 proposed the methods and guidelines for the use
of silica fume in concrete, ACI 234R-964 are useful for the mix design
utilize the cement effectively by adopting the lower water binder ratio
mix design to investigate the effect of high range water reducing agent
yield stress at the design stage for a given target strength of concrete.
the proposed mix design water cement ratio and aggregate volume to
procedure for HPC by combining BIS and ACI code methods mix
mix design is arrived for M80 and M100. The HPC mixes were tested
and the results showed that the performances of the design mixes are
very good.
high strength concrete with silica fume and high range water reducing
admixture. Five mixes were designed, one mix was treated as a basic
mix without silica fume and 0.5% High Range Water Reducing and
remaining four mixes were designed with micro silica quantities varied
increment of 0.1%, for each mix two cylinders were cast and tested
strength.
2.4.1.1 Workability
strength HPC. Test results showed that the high strength HPC with
method can provide more stable results than any other test method in
2.4.1.2 Curing
sprinkle curing, plastic curing and burlap curing. Each of the last four
were more sensitive to curing than those cured outdoor. In the case of
the outdoor all these curing methods give similar results due to the
weight.
materials ratios, slump loss with time is observed and increase with
similar level for both types of concrete. The crack densities in the
was smaller in the centre portion of the specimen than along the edge.
prediction based on the rate constant model. Test results revealed that
higher strength but eventually attains lower strength at later age. The
strength but almost the same later-age strength. They concluded that
proposed model showed better agreement with the test results than
Five mixes were prepared with 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20% of silica fume
were determined for all the mixes and concluded that 20%
also observed that the failure plane cut the aggregates but not the
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2.4.2.2 Stress-strain
concluded that the HPC with water binder less than 0.3 has lower
strength than the control group at early stages before 28 days and at
than the strength of the concrete at the age of 28 days. The strength of
HPC with silica fumes is higher than HPC with slag by partial
water binder ratios ranging from 0.26 to 0.42 and silica fume binder
increased with silica fume incorporation and the results showed that
that the ratios of flexural tensile strength and uniaxial tensile strength
admixture and concluded that the combined use of silica fume (15%
strength to steel rebar. The bond strength attained was higher than
the aggregates of very low and very high modulus, concrete modulus
reduced.
including 5 different ratios of silica fume (0, 5, 10, 15 and 20%), three
water to cementitious materials ratio (0.24, 0.3 and 0.4) and three
selected. 540 cylinder specimens were cast, cured and tested after 7,
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humidity were carried out. The results indicate that the poison’s ratio
strength concrete.
that this model can predict the age of first cracking through the
Jianyong and Yao Yan (2001)61 studied the creep and drying
cement content, Ground granular blast slag (GGBS) and silica fume,
measured with the Chinese Standard GBJ 82-85. The effects of GGBS
and silica fume on creep and drying shrinkage of HPC were compared
and the mechanism was analysed. Addition of silica fume and GGBS
are cast and cured in the field under hot weather conditions. The
shrinkage strains in both the plain and silica fume cement concrete
fume and good curing for avoiding cracking of concrete due to plastic
microstructure.
2.4.2.8 Durability
with water binder ratio between 0.3 and 0.4 concluded that HPC is
more durable than ordinary concrete not only because of less porous
but also capillary and pore networks are somewhat discontinued due
5, 10 and 15% and the cubes were cast and tested. The results were
compared with the control specimens. The results showed that 10% of
specimens.
ratios of 0.4 and 0.5 as well as that of 0.24 water cementitious ratio
fume and non-silica fume concrete mixtures were used. All concretes
41
were exposed to freeze and thaw and thawing cycles and heavy deicing
salt application. The tested 1988 core results showed that the silica
made with silica fume. Results indicated that silica fume reduced the
from pastes.
cement concrete and the effect of fly ash and silica fume by replacing
cement (10, 20 and 30%). Investigated the effect of silica fume, fly ash
ratio in the mixture increased the freeze thaw resistance of the light
silica fume and fly also increased the freeze-thaw resistance of the
samples up to 83% for mixtures with and 18% for mixtures without
aggregate, silica fume and fly ash can be used to improve freeze thaw
resistance.
and resistance to wet and dry and freeze and thaw environments. The
and 15% fly ash produced high strength and high resistance to freeze-
ratios and four different cycles of freeze–thaw were the main variables.
thaw cycles were repeated. The influence of freeze–thaw cycles and the
stress and the elastic modulus after freeze–thaw cycles was also
analyzed.
and high thermal conductivity coating silica fume particles with silane
cement paste and concluded that the silica fume alone increases the
tensile strength.
2.4.2.12 Reinforcement
Two specimens were made of HPC incorporating silica fume and fly
The beams are reinforced with one 16 mm diameter bar and subjected
concretes having silica fume and fly ash showed better resistance in
2.4.2.13 Temperature
were made of four HPC mixes out which two are with silica fume with
indicate that HPC specimens with higher strength and with silica
high temperatures (200, 400, 600, 800 and 1000 °C) and cooled
differently (in air and water) were obtained. Compression and flexural
and then compared with the samples which are not heated. Strength
investigation, the effect of silica fume and water to cement ratios (w/c)
and 14.1% lower than those of the ordinary concrete. The dosage of
silica fume had not effect on the compressive strength at 100 and
crater depth and the reduction in ultrasonic pulse velocity across the
and without latex were included. With all three test methods, the
It was found that, for all three types of concrete, KID increased with
loading were much higher than those obtained in static tests. There
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loading.
chlorides exhibit lower total chloride content for all depths from the
blends of silica fume and ground granulated blast furnace slag exhibit
loads and provide positive provisions for the inclusion of the effects of
plates.
members including flat slabs, two way slabs, edge supported slabs,
and flat plates. The procedure was tested using data generated by
finite element slab simulation model and shown to agree well with the
lines. This method allows the yield line analysis of plates with a
analysis of slab under combined gravity and lateral loads. For flat
and member action are obtained using a single model based on either
method are found to give good results for slab-beam connections and
drifts and were recommended for analysis and design of two way slabs
resistance for light weight aggregate concrete slabs, which has limited
strength. Tests were made on the slabs with five different light weight
aggregates and on the basis of the results it is concluded that the code
slabs with varying span to depth ratios. Five slabs with flexural
below 6.
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specimens are tested under concentrated mid span loads. One slab
restrained against lateral expansion at the ends, for the other was free
prepared varying the targets and missile conditions and concluded the
steel. The proposed model gives a fairly good agreement between the
concrete slabs. The tested specimen had different slab depth and
reinforcing ratios varying between 0.49 and 2.53%. The test results
on all four sides by edge beams. Investigate the influence of the degree
of the reinforced concrete slabs, with the aim to generate reliable test
test were the different load areas and the amount of reinforcement in
under a patch load has been presented by comparing results with the
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to the often used ACI formula for two way shear resistance has been
proposed.
are supported on two opposite edges only and to unveil its inter
fibers to the concrete mix could increase the punching shear strength
concrete. Test results show that addition of steel fibers to concrete mix
with several common formulae as well as with test data and good
agreement is obtained.
the concrete at the rough crack interfaces that has developed. The
stress distribution along the cracked interfaces and the shape of the
with steel ratio ranging from 0.5 to 2.0%. Four slabs were laid with
specimens were laid with normal strength concrete and light weight
were compared with other test data on normal strength and high-
concrete and reduction factor of 0.85 for normal strength light weight
and 0.95 for high strength light weight concrete. The results revealed
model was derived for punching load prediction. The model allows a
American design Codes and found that the thickness of the slab or the
detailing provision of four European and two American Codes and the
reinforcement ratios.
six simply supported square slabs with a side of 2250 mm were cast
and tested. These slabs were divided in to two groups. In one group
studied the effect of overlay. In other group studied the effect of dowel,
shear capacity of existing slabs. In the case of slabs with larger steel
ratio and relatively high overlay thickness the capacity is greater that
and also in slab with overlay and dowel bars, the punching shear
capacity is more than the slab with overlay and no dowel bar and the
results concluded that the slab with overlay is higher than the
Kwan (2004)74 developed a new method for yield lines that are to
dip and strike angles of the slab surface, which are define the
energy dissipation and the external work done at yield lines are
load patterns. The results showed that current code provisions can
Factors are proposed for these effects while using the control
perimeter and basic shear resistance of the CEB Model Code 90 and it
proposed equation together with the ACI 318-02 equations has been
specimens.
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indicate that generally longer fibers and higher fiber content provide
obtained in experiment.
the American, Euro Code 2 and ACI 318, as well as two models from
the literature. It was found that the predictions by both codes were
shear strength with increased size of the member) and concluded that
tests were carried out in which the slab thickness varied between 160
and 300 mm and the tests by others with slabs up to 500 mm thick.
reinforcement.
capacity of flat slabs. Fifteen slabs were cast and tested ascertain the
some codes are not effectively estimated the punching shear strength.
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Five types of RC slabs which include one control slab without opening
and remaining four slabs with rectangular opening at the centre, first
slab with additional rectangular bars all around the opening, second
diagonal bars around the opening and for fourth slab no additional
could be probable more than one yield line pattern for slab. Plastic
analysis of some concrete reinforced slabs with ANSYS and the stress
and strain distributions were obtained for each case. Also, the yield
the specimens and aggregates was also varied to investigate the effect
less conservative estimates of punching strength for thick slab and for
are obtained using Eurocode 2 and the critical shear crack theory.
SIFCON slabs with 12% fiber volume possess higher performance than
compared with IS and ACI codes and the need for separate provisions
developed.
fixed and the other edge simply supported with fiber percentage of 8,
cement concrete slab specimens were also cast and tested, all slabs
specimens are of size 600x600x50 mm. The results showed that the
slabs with 12% fiber volume shows excellent performance over FRC
plain cement concrete slabs were also cast and tested for comparison
purposes. The impact force was delivered with a steel ball drop weight.
The test results revealed that SIFCON slabs with 12% fiber volume
the yield line theory for the analysis of solid slabs. The yield line
theory was compared with Finite element method and elastic theory
method. The results showed for a two way slab the yield line theory is
and with three different steel fiber contents of 0.5, 0.75 and 1% for the
fall is 750 mm. The energy absorption at first crack and ultimate
more for 1% steel fiber when the aspect ratio of fiber is 100.
Evaluated the initial and ultimate energy absorption and a model was
condition along all the four edges and loaded up to ultimate failure
plates were cast of size 500x500x25 mm and tested with a ball weight
meshes with steel bars. Concluded that increasing the number of steel
mesh layers in the plate increases energy at first crack and ultimate
failure stage and also observed higher energy absorption at first crack
and ultimate stage in steel bars with steel mesh when compared with
slab specimens are cast with and without fiber reinforcement. The
compared with the control specimen. The specimens are tested with
control specimen.
behaviour of RCC slab and ferrocement slabs for cyclic loading. The
first crack and collapse load along with their deflections were
more ductile when compared to RCC slabs design for same moment
impact on concrete slabs with silica fume. Hence, considering the gap