A hurricane is a type of storm called a tropical cyclone, which forms over tropical or

subtropical waters.
Hurricanes originate in the Atlantic basin, which includes the Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, and Gulf of Mexico, the eastern North Pacific
Ocean, and, less frequently, the central North Pacific Ocean. A six-year rotating list of names, updated and maintained by the World
Meteorological Organization, is used to identify these storms.

"Hurricane Season" begins on June 1 and ends on November 30, although hurricanes can, and have, occurred outside of this time frame.
NOAA's National Hurricane Center predicts and tracks these massive storm systems, which occur, on average, 12 times a year in the Atlantic
basin.

As a world leader in hurricane research, NOAA strives to understand the mechanics of these complex storms in order to protect people,
property, commerce, and natural resources.

People also ask

What are the categories of a hurricane?

The Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale (SSHWS), formerly the Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale (SSHS), classifies hurricanes –
Western Hemisphere tropical cyclones that exceed the intensities of tropical depressions and tropical storms – into five
categories distinguished by the intensities of their sustained winds.

Saffir–Simpson scale - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saffir–Simpson_scale

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What is a hurricane for kid?

A hurricane is a large rotating storm with high speed winds that forms over warm waters in tropical areas. Hurricanes have
sustained winds of at least 74 miles per hour and an area of low air pressure in the center called the eye. Different Names
for Hurricanes. The scientific name for a hurricane is a tropical cyclone ...

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What are the stages of a hurricane?

Stages of a Hurricane. A TROPICAL DISTURBANCE is the first stage of development of a hurricane. It consists of a
mass of thunderstorms that have only a slight wind circulation. The tropical disturbance becomes a tropical
depression when the winds increase to more than 20 knots or 23 miles per hour.

Stages of a Hurricane - TeacherTECH

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What it is hurricane?

A hurricane is a type of storm called a tropical cyclone, which forms over tropical or subtropical waters. ... Tropical
cyclones with maximum sustained surface winds of less than 39 miles per hour (mph) are called tropical
depressions. Those with maximum sustained winds of 39 mph or higher are called tropical storms.Aug 28, 2017

People also ask

What is a volcanic eruption Wikipedia?

A volcanic eruption occurs when hot materials are thrown out of a volcano. ... Some eruptions are terrible explosions that
throw out huge amounts of rock andvolcanic ash and kill many people. Some are quiet outflows of hot lava. Several more
complex types of volcanic eruptions have been described by volcanologists.

Volcanic eruption - Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_eruption

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What causes a volcanic eruption Wikipedia?

A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to
escape from a magma chamber below the surface. Earth's volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major, rigid
tectonic plates that float on a hotter, softer layer in its mantle.

Volcano - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcano

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How do you make an erupting volcano?

Make sure to leave the mouth open. Paint the volcano with the acrylic paint tomake it look more realistic. Pour the vinegar,
red food coloring, and a few drops of dishwashing detergent into the bottle. Fold the baking soda into a tissue and drop it into
the bottle, and watch in wonder as your volcano erupts.May 17, 2010

How to Build and make an erupting volcano model at home « Science ...
https://science.wonderhowto.com/.../build-and-make-erupting-volcano-model-home-28...

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What is the cause of a volcanic eruption?

Magma rises through cracks or weaknesses in the Earth's crust. When this pressure is released, eg as a result of plate
movement, magma explodes to the surface causing a volcanic eruption. The lava from the eruption cools to form new crust.
Over time, after several eruptions, the rock builds up and a volcano forms.

People also ask

What is the meaning of the word volcanic eruption?

n the sudden occurrence of a violent discharge of steam and volcanic material. Synonyms: eruption Types: Plinian eruption.
a volcanic eruption in which a stream of gas and ash is violently ejected to a height of several miles.

volcanic eruption - Dictionary Definition : Vocabulary.com

https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/volcanic%20eruption

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What are the effects of a volcanic eruption?

Volcanic eruptions can cause earthquakes, fast floods, mud slides, and rock falls. Lava can travel very far and burn, bury, or
damage anything in its path, including people, houses, and trees. The large amount of dust and ash can cause roofs to fall,
makes it hard to breathe, and is normally very smelly.

Tsunamis are giant waves caused by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions under the sea. Out in the depths of the ocean, tsunami waves do not
dramatically increase in height. But as the waves travel inland, they build up to higher and higher heights as the depth of the ocean decreases.
The speed of tsunami waves depends on ocean depth rather than the distance from the source of the wave. Tsunami waves may travel as fast
as jet planes over deep waters, only slowing down when reaching shallow waters. While tsunamis are often referred to as tidal waves, this
name is discouraged by oceanographers because tides have little to do with these giant waves.

Tsunami
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Tsunami (disambiguation) and Tidal wave.

This article is about disturbances in bodies of water that are sometimes called "seismic sea waves". For the radiated
energy that earthquakes generate, see Seismic wave.
Taken at Ao Nang, Krabi Province, Thailand, during the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami in Thailand

3D tsunami simulation

A tsunami (from Japanese: 津波, "harbour wave";[1] English pronunciation: /tsuːˈnɑːmi/ tsoo-NAH-mee[2]) or tidal
wave, also known as a seismic sea wave, is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a
large volume of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake.[3] Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other underwater
explosions (including detonations of underwater nuclear devices), landslides, glacier calvings, meteorite
impacts and other disturbances above or below water all have the potential to generate a tsunami.[4] Unlike
normal ocean waves, which are generated by wind, or tides, which are generated by the gravitational pull of the
Moon and the Sun, a tsunami is generated by the displacement of water.
Tsunami waves do not resemble normal undersea currents or sea waves, because their wavelength is far
longer.[5] Rather than appearing as a breaking wave, a tsunami may instead initially resemble a rapidly rising tide,
and for this reason they are often referred to as tidal waves, although this usage is not favoured by the scientific
community because tsunamis are not tidal in nature. Tsunamis generally consist of a series of waves,
with periods ranging from minutes to hours, arriving in a so-called "internal wave train".[6] Wave heights of tens of
metres can be generated by large events. Although the impact of tsunamis is limited to coastal areas, their
destructive power can be enormous and they can affect entire ocean basins; the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami was
among the deadliest natural disasters in human history, with at least 230,000 people killed or missing in 14 countries
bordering the Indian Ocean.
Greek historian Thucydides suggested in his late-5th century BC History of the Peloponnesian War, that tsunamis
were related to submarine earthquakes,[7][8] but the understanding of a tsunami's nature remained slim until the 20th
century and much remains unknown. Major areas of current research include trying to determine why some large
earthquakes do not generate tsunamis while other smaller ones do; trying to accurately forecast the passage of
tsunamis across the oceans; and also to forecast how tsunami waves interact with specific shorelines.

Tornado
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the
base of a cumulus cloud. Wikipedia

Cloud of origin: Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall

Effect: Death, injury, and damage
Sign: A large spinning/twirling funnel

Tornado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the weather phenomenon. For other uses, see Tornado (disambiguation).

For the current tornado season, see Tornadoes of 2018.

 Tornado

A tornado approaching Marquette, Kansas.

Sign A large spinning/twirling funnel.

Type Extreme

Cloud of origin Cumulonimbus, Funnel or Wall.

Effect Death, injury, and damage.

A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus
cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are often referred to
as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology to name a weather
system with a low-pressure area in the center around which winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, and they are often visible
in the form of a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of
rotating debris and dustbeneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180 km/h), are
about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most
extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles
(3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]
Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout. Waterspouts are
characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud.
They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water, but there is
disagreement over whether to classify them as true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in
tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist
in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.
Tornadoes occur in North America, particularly in the area of the United States known as tornado alley,[7] as well as
in northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa, northwestern and southeast Europe, western and
southeastern Australia, and New Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use
of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris balls,
as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.
There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused
and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the
weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips
buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for
extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry,
and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating.[10][11]

Flood
A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land that is usually dry. The European Union Floods Directive defines a flood as a covering by water of land
not normally covered by water. Wikipedia

People also search for: Tsunami, Avalanche, Flash flood, Accident, Hail, Lightning, Drowning, Epidemic

Flood
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Flood (disambiguation).

Flooding in a street

Contemporary picture of the flood that struck the North Sea coast of Germany and Denmark in October 1634.

People seeking refuge from flood in Jawa Tengah, Java. ca. 1865–1876.

"Regular" flooding in Venice, Italy.

Flooding of a creek due to heavy monsoonal rain and high tide in Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia.
Jeddah Flood, covering King Abdullah Street in Saudi Arabia.

Chennai Flood in 2017

Flooding near Key West, Florida, United States from Hurricane Wilma's storm surge in October 2005.

Flooding in a street of Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil in April 2013.

Minor flooding in a parking lot off Juniper street Atlanta on Christmas Eve from thunderstorms caused by an El Nino event. The same El Nino caused

recorded highs for January in Atlanta

Flash flooding caused by heavy rain falling in a short amount of time.

Dozens of villages were inundated when rain pushed the rivers of northwestern Bangladesh over their banks in early October 2005. The Moderate

Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA's Terra satellite captured the top image of the flooded Ghaghat and Atrai Rivers on October

12, 2005. The deep blue of the rivers is spread across the countryside in the flood image.

A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land that is usually dry.[1] The European Union (EU) Floods
Directive defines a flood as a covering by water of land not normally covered by water.[2] In the sense of "flowing
water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide.
Flooding may occur as an overflow of water from water bodies, such as a river, lake, or ocean, in which the water
overtops or breaks levees, resulting in some of that water escaping its usual boundaries,[3] or it may occur due to an
accumulation of rainwater on saturated ground in an areal flood. While the size of a lake or other body of water will
vary with seasonal changes in precipitation and snow melt, these changes in size are unlikely to be considered
significant unless they flood property or drown domestic animals.
Floods can also occur in rivers when the flow rate exceeds the capacity of the river channel, particularly at bends
or meanders in the waterway. Floods often cause damage to homes and businesses if they are in the natural flood
plains of rivers. While riverine flood damage can be eliminated by moving away from rivers and other bodies of
water, people have traditionally lived and worked by rivers because the land is usually flat and fertile and because
rivers provide easy travel and access to commerce and industry.
Some floods develop slowly, while others such as flash floods, can develop in just a few minutes and without visible
signs of rain. Additionally, floods can be local, impacting a neighborhood or community, or very large, affecting
entire river basins.

Storm surge
A storm surge, storm flood or storm tide is a coastal flood or tsunami-like phenomenon of rising water
commonly associated with low pressure weather systems, the severity of which is affected by the
... Wikipedia
Fee

Storm surge
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the meteorological term. For the fictional character, see Storm Surge (Transformers). For the
ride at Thorpe Park, see Storm Surge (ride).
 Part of a series on

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Outline of tropical cyclones

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A storm surge, storm flood or storm tide is a coastal flood or tsunami-like phenomenon of rising water commonly
associated with low pressure weather systems (such as tropical cyclones and strong extratropical cyclones), the
severity of which is affected by the shallowness and orientation of the water body relative to storm path, as well as
the timing of tides. Most casualties during tropical cyclones occur as the result of storm surges. It is a measure of
the rise of water beyond what would be expected by the normal movement related to tides.
The two main meteorological factors contributing to a storm surge are a long fetch of winds spiraling inward toward
the storm, and a low-pressure-induced dome of water drawn up under and trailing the storm's center.

Landslide
A landslide, also known as a landslip or Mudslide, is a form of mass wasting that includes a wide range of ground movements, such as
rockfalls, deep failure of slopes, and shallow debris flows. Wikipedia

Landslide
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the geological phenomenon. For other uses, see Landslide (disambiguation).

A landslide, also known as a landslip [1]or Mudslide,[citation needed] is a form of mass wasting that includes a wide range
of ground movements, such as rockfalls, deep failure of slopes, and shallow debris flows. Landslides can occur
underwater, called a submarine landslide, coastal and onshore environments. Although the action of gravity is the
primary driving force for a landslide to occur, there are other contributing factors affecting the original slope stability.
Typically, pre-conditional factors build up specific sub-surface conditions that make the slope area prone to failure,
whereas the actual landslide often requires a trigger before being released. Landslides should not be confused
with mudflows, a form of mass wasting involving very to extremely rapid flow of debris that has become partially or
fully liquefied by the addition of significant amounts of water to the source material.

Contents
[hide]

 1Causes
 2Types
o 2.1Debris flow
o 2.2Earthflows
o 2.3Debris landslide
 2.3.1Movement
o 2.4Sturzstrom
o 2.5Shallow landslide
o 2.6Deep-seated landslide
 3Causing tsunamis
 4Related phenomena
 5Landslide prediction mapping
 6Prehistoric landslides
 7Historical landslides
 8Extraterrestrial landslides
 9Landslide mitigation
 10See also
 11References
 12External links

Causes
Main article: Causes of landslides

The Mameyes Landslide, in the Mameyes neighborhood of barrio Portugués Urbano in Ponce, Puerto Rico, which buried more than 100 homes, was

caused by extensive accumulation of rains and, according to some sources, lightning.

Landslides occur when the slope changes from a stable to an unstable condition. A change in the stability of a slope
can be caused by a number of factors, acting together or alone. Natural causes of landslides include:

 groundwater (pore water) pressure acting to destabilize the slope

 loss or absence of vertical vegetative structure, soil nutrients, and soil structure (e.g. after a wildfire – a fire in
forests lasting for 3–4 days)
 erosion of the toe of a slope by rivers or ocean waves
 weakening of a slope through saturation by snow melting, glaciers melting, or heavy rain
 earthquakes adding loads to barely stable slope
 earthquake-caused liquefaction destabilizing slopes
 volcanic eruptions.
Landslides are aggravated by human activities, such as

 deforestation, cultivation and construction, which destabilize the already fragile slopes.
 vibrations from machinery or traffic
 blasting
 earthwork which alters the shape of a slope, or which imposes new loads on an existing slope
 in shallow soils, the removal of deep-rooted vegetation that binds colluvium to bedrock
 construction, agricultural or forestry activities (logging) which change the amount of water infiltrating the soil.

The landslide at Surte in Sweden, 1950. It was a quick clay slide killing one person.

Types
This article appears to contradict the article Landslide classification. Please see discussion on the linked talk
page. (May 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

Main article: Landslide classification

Debris flow
Slope material that becomes saturated with water may develop into a debris flow or mud flow. The resulting slurry
of rock and mud may pick up trees, houses and cars, thus blocking bridges and tributaries causing flooding along its
path.
Debris flow is often mistaken for flash flood, but they are entirely different processes.
Muddy-debris flows in alpine areas cause severe damage to structures and infrastructure and often claim human
lives. Muddy-debris flows can start as a result of slope-related factors and shallow landslides can dam stream beds,
resulting in temporary water blockage. As the impoundments fail, a "domino effect" may be created, with a
remarkable growth in the volume of the flowing mass, which takes up the debris in the stream channel. The solid–
liquid mixture can reach densities of up to 2,000 kg/m3 (120 lb/cu ft) and velocities of up to 14 m/s (46 ft/s) (;[2][3]).
These processes normally cause the first severe road interruptions, due not only to deposits accumulated on the
road (from several cubic metres to hundreds of cubic metres), but in some cases to the complete removal of bridges
or roadways or railways crossing the stream channel. Damage usually derives from a common underestimation of
mud-debris flows: in the alpine valleys, for example, bridges are frequently destroyed by the impact force of the flow
because their span is usually calculated only for a water discharge. For a small basin in the Italian Alps (area
1.76 km2 (0.68 sq mi)) affected by a debris flow,[2] estimated a peak discharge of 750 m3/s (26,000 cu ft/s) for a
section located in the middle stretch of the main channel. At the same cross section, the maximum foreseeable
water discharge (by HEC-1), was 19 m3/s (670 cu ft/s), a value about 40 times lower than that calculated for the
debris flow that occurred.
Earthflows

A rock slide in Guerrero, Mexico

Earthflows are downslope, viscous flows of saturated, fine-grained materials, which move at any speed from slow to
fast. Typically, they can move at speeds from 0.17 to 20 km/h (0.1 to 12.4 mph). Though these are a lot
like mudflows, overall they are more slow moving and are covered with solid material carried along by flow from
within. They are different from fluid flows which are more rapid. Clay, fine sand and silt, and fine-grained, pyroclastic
material are all susceptible to earthflows. The velocity of the earthflow is all dependent on how much water content
is in the flow itself: the higher the water content in the flow, the higher the velocity will be.
These flows usually begin when the pore pressures in a fine-grained mass increase until enough of the weight of the
material is supported by pore water to significantly decrease the internal shearing strength of the material. This
thereby creates a bulging lobe which advances with a slow, rolling motion. As these lobes spread out, drainage of
the mass increases and the margins dry out, thereby lowering the overall velocity of the flow. This process causes
the flow to thicken. The bulbous variety of earthflows are not that spectacular, but they are much more common than
their rapid counterparts. They develop a sag at their heads and are usually derived from the slumping at the source.
Earthflows occur much more during periods of high precipitation, which saturates the ground and adds water to the
slope content. Fissures develop during the movement of clay-like material which creates the intrusion of water into
the earthflows. Water then increases the pore-water pressure and reduces the shearing strength of the material.[4]
Debris landslide

Goodell Creek Debris Avalanche, Washington, USA

A debris slide is a type of slide characterized by the chaotic movement of rocks, soil, and debris mixed with water
and/or ice. They are usually triggered by the saturation of thickly vegetated slopes which results in an incoherent
mixture of broken timber, smaller vegetation and other debris.[4] Debris avalanches differ from debris slides because
their movement is much more rapid. This is usually a result of lower cohesion or higher water content and commonly
steeper slopes.
Steep coastal cliffs can be caused by catastrophic debris avalanches. These have been common on the submerged
flanks of ocean island volcanos such as the Hawaiian Islands and the Cape Verde Islands.[5] Another slip of this type
was Storegga landslide.
Movement

Debris slides generally start with big rocks that start at the top of the slide and begin to break apart as they slide
towards the bottom. This is much slower than a debris avalanche. Debris avalanches are very fast and the entire
mass seems to liquefy as it slides down the slope. This is caused by a combination of saturated material, and steep
slopes. As the debris moves down the slope it generally follows stream channels leaving a v-shaped scar as it
moves down the hill. This differs from the more U-shaped scar of a slump. Debris avalanches can also travel well
past the foot of the slope due to their tremendous speed.[6]

Blockade of Hunza river

Sturzstrom
A sturzstrom is a rare, poorly understood type of landslide, typically with a long run-out. Often very large, these
slides are unusually mobile, flowing very far over a low angle, flat, or even slightly uphill terrain.
See also: Slump (geology)

Shallow landslide

Hotel Panorama at Lake Garda. Part of a hill of Devonian shale was removed to make the road, forming a dip-slope. The upper block detached along a

bedding plane and is sliding down the hill, forming a jumbled pile of rock at the toe of the slide.

Landslide in which the sliding surface is located within the soil mantle or weathered bedrock (typically to a depth
from few decimetres to some metres)is called a shallow landslide. They usually include debris slides, debris flow,
and failures of road cut-slopes. Landslides occurring as single large blocks of rock moving slowly down slope are
sometimes called block glides.
Shallow landslides can often happen in areas that have slopes with high permeable soils on top of low permeable
bottom soils. The low permeable, bottom soils trap the water in the shallower, high permeable soils creating high
water pressure in the top soils. As the top soils are filled with water and become heavy, slopes can become very
unstable and slide over the low permeable bottom soils. Say there is a slope with silt and sand as its top soil and
bedrock as its bottom soil. During an intense rainstorm, the bedrock will keep the rain trapped in the top soils of silt
and sand. As the topsoil becomes saturated and heavy, it can start to slide over the bedrock and become a shallow
landslide. R. H. Campbell did a study on shallow landslides on Santa Cruz Island, California. He notes that if
permeability decreases with depth, a perched water table may develop in soils at intense precipitation. When pore
water pressures are sufficient to reduce effective normal stress to a critical level, failure occurs.[7]
Deep-seated landslide

Deep-seated landslide on a mountain in Sehara, Kihō, Japan caused by torrential rain of Tropical Storm Talas

Landslide of soil and regolith in Pakistan

Landslides in which the sliding surface is mostly deeply located below the maximum rooting depth of trees (typically
to depths greater than ten meters). Deep-seated landslides usually involve deep regolith, weathered rock,
and/or bedrock and include large slope failure associated with translational, rotational, or complex movement. This
type of landslide potentially occurs in an tectonic active region like Zagros Mountain in Iran. These typically move
slowly, only several meters per year, but occasionally move faster. They tend to be larger than shallow landslides
and form along a plane of weakness such as a fault or bedding plane. They can be visually identified by
concave scarps at the top and steep areas at the toe.[8]

Causing tsunamis
See also: Tsunami § Tsunami generated by landslides

Landslides that occur undersea, or have impact into water e.g. significant rockfall or volcanic collapse into the sea[9],
can generate tsunamis. Massive landslides can also generate megatsunamis, which are usually hundreds of meters
high. In 1958, one such tsunamioccurred in Lituya Bay in Alaska.[5][10]

Related phenomena
 An avalanche, similar in mechanism to a landslide, involves a large amount of ice, snow and rock falling quickly
down the side of a mountain.
 A pyroclastic flow is caused by a collapsing cloud of hot ash, gas and rocks from a volcanic explosion that
moves rapidly down an erupting volcano.

Drought
A drought is a period of below-average precipitation in a given region, resulting in prolonged shortages in the water supply, whether
atmospheric, surface water or ground water. Wikipedia

Drought
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Drought (disambiguation).

 Contraction/Desiccation cracks in dry earth (Sonoran desert, Mexico).

A drought is a period of below-average precipitation in a given region, resulting in prolonged shortages in the water
supply, whether atmospheric, surface water or ground water. A drought can last for months or years, or may be
declared after as few as 15 days.[1] It can have a substantial impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected
region[2] and harm to the local economy.[3] Annual dry seasons in the tropics significantly increase the chances of a
drought developing and subsequent bush fires. Periods of heat can significantly worsen drought conditions by
hastening evaporation of water vapour.
Many plant species, such as those in the family Cactaceae (or cacti), have drought tolerance adaptations like
reduced leaf area and waxy cuticles to enhance their ability to tolerate drought. Some others survive dry periods as
buried seeds. Semi-permanent drought produces arid biomes such as deserts and grasslands.[4] Prolonged droughts
have caused mass migrations and humanitarian crises. Most arid ecosystems have inherently low productivity. The
most prolonged drought ever in the world in recorded history occurred in the Atacama Desert in Chile (400 Years).[5]

Contents
[hide]

 1Causes of drought
o 1.1Precipitation deficiency
o 1.2Dry season
o 1.3El Niño
o 1.4Erosion and human activities
o 1.5Climate change
 2Types
 3Consequences of drought
 4Globally
o 4.1Examples
 5Protection, mitigation and relief
 6See also
 7References
 8External links

Causes of drought[edit]
Precipitation deficiency[edit]
See also: Precipitation

Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform,[6] and orographic rainfall.[7] Convective
processes involve strong vertical motions that can cause the overturning of the atmosphere in that location within an
hour and cause heavy precipitation,[8] while stratiform processes involve weaker upward motions and less intense
precipitation over a longer duration.[9] Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as
liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice. Droughts occur mainly in areas where
normal levels of rainfall are, in themselves, low. If these factors do not support precipitation volumes sufficient to
reach the surface over a sufficient time, the result is a drought. Drought can be triggered by a high level of reflected
sunlight and above average prevalence of high pressure systems, windscarrying continental, rather than oceanic air
masses, and ridges of high pressure areas aloft can prevent or restrict the developing of thunderstorm activity or
rainfall over one certain region. Once a region is within drought, feedback mechanisms such as local arid air,[10] hot
conditions which can promote warm core ridging,[11] and minimal evapotranspiration can worsen drought conditions.
Dry season[edit]
See also: Dry season
Within the tropics, distinct, wet and dry seasons emerge due to the movement of the Intertropical Convergence
Zone or Monsoon trough.[12] The dry season greatly increases drought occurrence,[13] and is characterized by its low
humidity, with watering holes and rivers drying up. Because of the lack of these watering holes, many grazing
animals are forced to migrate due to the lack of water and feed to more fertile spots. Examples of such animals
are zebras, elephants,[14] and wildebeest. Because of the lack of water in the plants, bushfires are common.[15] Since
water vapor becomes more energetic with increasing temperature, more water vapor is required to increase relative
humidity values to 100% at higher temperatures (or to get the temperature to fall to the dew point).[16] Periods of
warmth quicken the pace of fruit and vegetable production,[17] increase evaporation and transpiration from
plants,[18] and worsen drought conditions.[19]
El Niño[edit]

Regional impacts of warm ENSO episodes (El Niño)

See also: El Niño

Drier and hotter weather occurs in parts of the Amazon River Basin, Colombia, and Central America during El Niño
events. Winters during the El Niño are warmer and drier than average conditions in the Northwest, northern
Midwest, and northern Mideast United States, so those regions experience reduced snowfalls. Conditions are also
drier than normal from December to February in south-central Africa, mainly in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique,
and Botswana. Direct effects of El Niño resulting in drier conditions occur in parts of Southeast Asia and Northern
Australia, increasing bush fires, worsening haze, and decreasing air quality dramatically. Drier-than-normal
conditions are also in general observed in Queensland, inland Victoria, inland New South Wales, and
eastern Tasmania from June to August. As warm water spreads from the west Pacific and the Indian Ocean to the
east Pacific, it causes extensive drought in the western Pacific. Singapore experienced the driest February in 2014
since records began in 1869, with only 6.3 mm of rain falling in the month and temperatures hitting as high as 35 °C
on 26 February. The years 1968 and 2005 had the next driest Februaries, when 8.4 mm of rain fell.[20]
Erosion and human activities[edit]
See also: Aeolian processes

Human activity can directly trigger exacerbating factors such as over farming, excessive irrigation,[21] deforestation,
and erosion adversely impact the ability of the land to capture and hold water.[22] In arid climates, the main source of
erosion is wind.[23] Erosion can be the result of material movement by the wind. The wind can cause small particles
to be lifted and therefore moved to another region (deflation). Suspended particles within the wind may impact on
solid objects causing erosion by abrasion (ecological succession). Wind erosion generally occurs in areas with little
or no vegetation, often in areas where there is insufficient rainfall to support vegetation.[24]

Fields outside Benambra, Victoria, Australia suffering from drought conditions.

Loess is a homogeneous, typically nonstratified, porous, friable, slightly coherent, often calcareous, fine-
grained, silty, pale yellow or buff, windblown (Aeolian) sediment.[25] It generally occurs as a widespread blanket
deposit that covers areas of hundreds of square kilometers and tens of meters thick. Loess often stands in either
steep or vertical faces.[26] Loess tends to develop into highly rich soils. Under appropriate climatic conditions, areas
with loess are among the most agriculturally productive in the world.[27] Loess deposits are geologically unstable by
nature, and will erode very readily. Therefore, windbreaks (such as big trees and bushes) are often planted by
farmers to reduce the wind erosion of loess.[23] Wind erosion is much more severe in arid areas and during times of
drought. For example, in the Great Plains, it is estimated that soil loss due to wind erosion can be as much as 6100
times greater in drought years than in wet years.[28]
Climate change[edit]
See also: Climate change

Activities resulting in global climate change are expected to trigger droughts with a substantial impact on
agriculture[29][30] throughout the world, and especially in developing nations.[31][32][33] Overall, global warming will result in
increased world rainfall.[34] Along with drought in some areas, flooding and erosion will increase in others.
Paradoxically, some proposed solutions to global warming that focus on more active techniques, solar radiation
management through the use of a space sunshade for one, may also carry with them increased chances of
drought.[35]

Types[edit]
As a drought persists, the conditions surrounding it gradually worsen and its impact on the local population gradually
increases. People tend to define droughts in three main ways: [36]

1. Meteorological drought is brought about when there is a prolonged time with less than average precipitation.
Meteorological drought usually precedes the other kinds of drought.[37]
2. Agricultural droughts affect crop production or the ecology of the range. This condition can also arise
independently from any change in precipitation levels when soilconditions and erosion triggered by poorly
planned agricultural endeavors cause a shortfall in water available to the crops. However, in a traditional
drought, it is caused by an extended period of below average precipitation.[38]
3. Hydrological drought is brought about when the water reserves available in sources such
as aquifers, lakes and reservoirs fall below the statistical average. Hydrological drought tends to show up
more slowly because it involves stored water that is used but not replenished. Like an agricultural drought,
this can be triggered by more than just a loss of rainfall. For instance, Kazakhstan was recently[when?] awarded
a large amount of money by the World Bank to restore water that had been diverted to other nations from
the Aral Sea under Soviet rule.[39] Similar circumstances also place their largest lake, Balkhash, at risk of
completely drying out.[40]

Avalanche
Disaster type
An avalanche is a rapid flow of snow down a sloping surface. Avalanches are typically triggered in a starting zone from a mechanical failure in the snowpack
when the forces on the snow exceed its strength but sometimes only with gradually widening. Wikipedia

People also search for: Earthquake, Accident, Flood, Tsunami, Hail, MORE

Avalanche
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the natural event. For other uses, see Avalanche (disambiguation).

The toe of an avalanche in Alaska's Kenai Fjords.

A powder snow avalanche in the Himalayas near Mount Everest.

 An avalanche (also called a snowslide) is a rapid flow of snow down a sloping surface. Avalanches are typically triggered in a starting
zone from a mechanical failure in the snowpack (slab avalanche) when the forces on the snow exceed its strength but sometimes only
with gradually widening (loose snow avalanche). After initiation, avalanches usually accelerate rapidly and grow in mass and volume as
they entrain more snow. If the avalanche moves fast enough some of the snow may mix with the air forming a powder snow avalanche,
which is a type of gravity current.
Slides of rocks or debris, behaving in a similar way to snow, are also referred to as avalanches (see rockslide[1]). The remainder of this
article refers to snow avalanches.
The load on the snowpack may be only due to gravity, in which case failure may result either from weakening in the snowpack or
increased load due to precipitation. Avalanches initiated by this process are known as spontaneous avalanches. Avalanches can also
be triggered by other loading conditions such as human or biologically related activities. Seismic activity may also trigger the failure in
the snowpack and avalanches.
Although primarily composed of flowing snow and air, large avalanches have the capability to entrain ice, rocks, trees, and other
surficial material. However, they are distinct from mudslides which have greater fluidity, rock slides which are often ice free,
and serac collapses during an icefall. Avalanches are not rare or random events and are endemic to any mountain range that
accumulates a standing snowpack. Avalanches are most common during winter or spring but glacier movements may cause ice and
snow avalanches at any time of year. In mountainous terrain, avalanches are among the most serious objective natural hazards to life
and property, with their destructive capability resulting from their potential to carry enormous masses of snow at high speeds.
There is no universally accepted classification system for different forms of avalanches. Avalanches can be described by their size,
their destructive potential, their initiation mechanism, their composition and their dynamics.

Contents
[hide]

 1Formation
o 1.1Slab avalanches
o 1.2Powder snow avalanches
o 1.3Wet snow avalanches
o 1.4Avalanche pathway
 2Terrain, snowpack, weather
o 2.1Terrain
o 2.2Snowpack structure and characteristics
o 2.3Weather
 3Dynamics
o 3.1Modeling
 4Human involvement
o 4.1Prevention
o 4.2Mitigation
o 4.3Early warning systems
o 4.4Alarm systems
o 4.5Survival, rescue, and recovery
 5Notable avalanches
 6Classification
o 6.1European avalanche risk table
o 6.2European avalanche size table
o 6.3North American Avalanche Danger Scale
o 6.4Canadian classification for avalanche size
o 6.5United States classification for avalanche size
o 6.6Rutschblock Test
 7See also
o 7.1Related flows
o 7.2Avalanche disasters
 8References
o 8.1Bibliography
o 8.2Notes
 9External links

People also ask

What is the El Nino and La Nina?

El Niño events are associated with a warming of the central and eastern tropical Pacific, while La Niña events are the reverse,
with a sustained cooling of these same areas. These changes in the Pacific Ocean and its overlying atmosphere occur in a cycle
known as the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO).

What are El Niño and La Niña events? - Bureau of Meteorology

www.bom.gov.au/climate/enso/history/ln-2010-12/ENSO-what.shtml

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What is the La Nina phenomenon?

La Niña is also sometimes called El Viejo, anti-El Niño, or simply "a cold event." La Niña episodes represent periods of below-
average sea surface temperatures across the east-central Equatorial Pacific. Global climate La Niña impacts tend to be
opposite those of El Niño impacts.Aug 28, 2017

What are El Niño and La Niña? - NOAA's National Ocean Service

https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/ninonina.html

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What is the meaning of La Nina?

La Niña is the positive phase of the El Niño Southern Oscillation and is associated with cooler-than-average sea surface
temperatures in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean.

La Niña - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Niña

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What is the meaning of Nino?

Niño is the Spanish word for boy or child. Niño or Nino is also a masculine nickname for various names. Nino is a masculine
name in Mediterranean countries, e.g. Spain, Italy and Greece, as well as in nations where these countries have linguistic
relations e.g. Latin-America.

Nino (name) - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nino_(name)

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How do El Nino and La Nina affect climate?

Both El Niño and La Niña are opposite effects of the same phenomenon: the ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation). Both are an
oscillation in the temperatures between the atmosphere and the ocean of the eastern equatorial Pacific region, roughly
between the International Dateline and 120 degrees west (2).

Environmental Impact of El Niño and La Niña | EnvironmentalScience ...

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How does La Nina affect hurricane intensity?

ENSO perturbs tropical and subtropical atmospheric circulation. ... In addition to enhanced vertical wind shear,
El Niño suppresses Atlantic hurricane activity by increasing the amount of sinking motion and increasing the atmospheric
stability. La Niña has opposite impacts across the Pacific and Atlantic basins.May 30, 2014

Impacts of El Niño and La Niña on the hurricane season | NOAA ...

https://www.climate.gov/news-features/.../impacts-el-niño-and-la-niña-hurricane-season

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What is La Nina and what causes it?

La Niña is caused by a build-up of cooler-than-normal waters in the tropical Pacific, the area of the Pacific Ocean between the
Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. Unusually strong, eastward-moving trade winds and ocean currents bring this
cold water to the surface, a process known as upwelling.Sep 5, 2013

La Niña - National Geographic Society

www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/la-nina/

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Why does La Nina happen?

El Niño happens when tropical Pacific Ocean trade winds die out and ocean temperatures become unusually warm. There is a
flip side to El Niño called La Niña, which occurs when the trade winds blow unusually hard and the sea temperature become
colder than normal.
 La Niña
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the ship, see Niña.

Sea surface skin temperature anomalies in November 2007, showing La Niña conditions

La Niña (/lɑːˈniːnjə/, Spanish pronunciation: [la ˈniɲa]) is a coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon that is the counterpart
of El Niño as part of the broader El Niño–Southern Oscillation climate pattern. The name La Niña originates
from Spanish, meaning "the little girl", analogous to El Niño meaning "the little boy". It has also in the past been
called anti-El Niño,[1] and El Viejo (meaning "the old man").[2] During a period of La Niña, the sea surface
temperature across the equatorial Eastern Central Pacific Ocean will be lower than normal by 3 to 5 °C. In the
United States, an appearance of La Niña persists for at least five months. It has extensive effects on the weather
in North America, even affecting the Atlantic and Pacific hurricaneseasons.

Contents
[hide]

 1Definition
 2Occurrences
 3Impacts on the global climate
 4Regional impacts
o 4.1Africa
o 4.2Asia
o 4.3North America
o 4.4South America
 5Diversity
 6See also
 7References
 8External links

Definition[edit]
La Niña is the positive phase of the El Niño Southern Oscillation and is associated with cooler-than-average sea
surface temperatures in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean.[3] However, each country and island nation
has a different threshold for what constitutes a La Niña event, which is tailored to their specific interests.[4] For
example, the Australian Bureau of Meteorology looks at the trade winds, SOI, weather models and sea surface
temperatures in the Niño 3 and 3.4 regions before declaring that a La Niña event has started.[5] However, the Japan
Meteorological Agency declares that a La Niña event has started when the average five-month sea surface
temperature deviation for the NINO.3 region is more than 0.5 °C (0.90 °F) cooler for 6 consecutive months or
longer.[6]

Occurrences[edit]

A timeline of all La Niña episodes between 1900 and 2017.[7][8]

There was a relatively strong La Niña episode during 1988–1989. La Niña also formed in late 1983,[9] in 1995, and a
protracted La Niña event that lasted from mid-1998 through early 2001. This was followed by a neutral period
between 2001 and 2002. The La Niña which developed in mid-2007, and lasted until almost 2009, was a moderate
one. The strength of La Niña made the 2008 Atlantic hurricane season one of the five most active since 1944;
sixteen named storms had winds of at least 39 miles per hour (63 km/h), eight of which became 74-mile-per-hour
(119 km/h) or greater hurricanes.[10]
A new La Niña episode developed quite quickly in the eastern and central tropical Pacific in mid-2010,[11] and lasted
until early 2011.[12] It intensified again in mid-2011 and lasted until early 2012.[13] This La Niña, combined with record-
high ocean temperatures in the north-eastern Indian Ocean, was a large factor in the 2010–2011 Queensland
floods,[14]and the quartet of recent heavy snowstorms in North America starting with the December 2010 North
American blizzard. The same La Niña event was also a likely cause of a series of tornadoes of above-average
severity that struck the Midwestern and Southern United States in the spring of 2011, and drought conditions in the
South Central states including Texas, Oklahoma and Arkansas.[15] Meanwhile, a series of major storms caused
extensive flooding in California in December 2010, with seven consecutive days of non-stop rainfall, leading to one
of the wettest Decembers in over 120 years of records. This is in contrast to the drier-than-normal conditions
typically associated with La Niña in California, especially in the south.[16]
In 2011, on a global scale, La Niña events helped keep the average global temperature below recent trends. As a
result, 2011 tied with 1997 for the eleventh-warmest year on record. It was the second-coolest year of the 21st
century to date, and tied with the second-warmest year of the 20th century. A relatively strong phase of La Niña
opened the year, dissipated in the spring before re-emerging in October and lasted through the end of the year.
When compared to previous La Niña years, the 2011 global surface temperature was the warmest observed. The
2011 globally-averaged precipitation over land was the second-wettest year on record, behind 2010. Precipitation
varied greatly across the globe. This La Niña contributed to severe drought in East Africa and to Australia's third-
wettest year in its 112-year period of records.[17]
La Niñas occurred in 1904, 1908, 1910, 1916, 1924, 1928, 1938, 1949–51,[18] 1954–56, 1964, 1970–72, 1973–76,
1983–85,[9] 1988–89, 1995–96, 1998–2001, 2007–08, 2008–09, 2010–12 and 2016–17.[11][19][20]

Impacts on the global climate[edit]

La Niña impacts the global climate and disrupts normal weather patterns, which as a result can lead to intense
storms in some places and droughts in others.[21]

Regional impacts[edit]
Observations of La Niña events since 1950, show that impacts associated with La Niña events depend on what
season it is.[22] However, while certain events and impacts are expected to occur during events, it is not certain or
guaranteed that they will occur.[22]

El Niño
El Niño is the warm phase of the El Niño Southern Oscillation and is associated with a band of warm ocean water that develops in the central and east-central
equatorial Pacific, including off the Pacific coast of South America. Wikipedia

El Niño
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see El Niño (disambiguation).

The 1997–98 El Niño observed by TOPEX/Poseidon. The white areas indicate the pool of warm water off the Tropical Western coasts of northern South

and all of Central America, as well as along the Central-eastern equatorial and Southeastern Pacific Ocean.[1]

El Niño /ɛl ˈniːnjoʊ/ (Spanish pronunciation: [el ˈniɲo]) is the warm phase of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (commonly
called ENSO) and is associated with a band of warm ocean water that develops in the central and east-central
equatorial Pacific (between approximately the International Date Line and 120°W), including off the Pacific coast
of South America. El Niño Southern Oscillation refers to the cycle of warm and cold temperatures, as measured
by sea surface temperature, SST, of the tropical central and eastern Pacific Ocean. El Niño is accompanied by
high air pressure in the western Pacific and low air pressure in the eastern Pacific. The cool phase of ENSO is
called "La Niña" with SST in the eastern Pacific below average and air pressures high in the eastern and low in
western Pacific. The ENSO cycle, both El Niño and La Niña, cause global changes of both temperatures and
rainfall.[2][3]
 Developing countries that are dependent upon agriculture and fishing, particularly those bordering the Pacific
Ocean, are usually most affected. In American Spanish, the capitalized term "El Niño" refers to "the little boy", so
named because the pool of warm water in the Pacific near South America is often at its warmest
around Christmas.[4] The original name, "El Niño de Navidad", traces its origin centuries back to Peruvian fishermen,
who named the weather phenomenon in reference to the newborn Christ.[5][6] "La Niña", chosen as the 'opposite' of El
Niño, literally translates to "the little girl".

Contents
[hide]

 1Concept
 2Occurrences
 3Cultural history and prehistoric information
 4Diversity
 5Effects on the global climate
o 5.1Tropical cyclones
o 5.2Remote influence on tropical Atlantic Ocean
o 5.3Antarctica
 6Regional impacts
o 6.1Australia and the Southern Pacific
o 6.2Africa
o 6.3Asia
o 6.4Europe
o 6.5North America
o 6.6South America
 7Effects on humanity
o 7.1Economic effect
o 7.2Health and social effects
 8References
 9Further reading
 10External links

Concept[edit]
Originally the term El Niño applied to an annual weak warm ocean current that ran southwards along the coast
of Peru and Ecuador at about Christmas time.[7] However, over time the term has evolved and now refers to the
warm and negative phase of the El Niño Southern Oscillation and is the warming of the ocean surface or above-
average sea surface temperatures in either the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean.[8][9] This warming causes a
shift in the atmospheric circulation with rainfall becoming reduced over Indonesia and Australia, while rainfall and
tropical cyclone formation increases over the tropical Pacific Ocean.[10] The low-level surface trade winds, which
normally blow from east to west along the equator, either weaken or start blowing from the other direction.[9]

Map showing Niño3.4 and other index regions

Historically, El Niño events are thought to have been occurring for thousands of years.[11] For example, it is thought
that El Niño affected the Inca Empire in modern-day Peru, who sacrificed humans in order to try to prevent the
rains.[11] Scientists have also found the chemical signatures of warmer sea surface temperatures and increased
rainfall caused by El Niño in coral specimens that are around 13,000 years old.[12] In around 1525 when Francisco
Pizarro made landfall on Peru, he noted rainfall occurring in the deserts which subsequently became the first written
record of the impacts of El Niño.[12] Modern day research and reanalysis techniques have managed to find at least 26
El Niño events since 1900, with the 1982-83, 1997–98 and 2014–16 events among the strongest on record.[13][14][15]
Currently, each country has a different threshold for what constitutes an El Niño event, which is tailored to their
specific interests.[16] For example, the Australian Bureau of Meteorology looks at the trade winds, SOI, weather
models and sea surface temperatures in the Nino 3 and 3.4 regions, before declaring an El Niño.[17] The United
States Climate Prediction Center (CPC) and the International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI) looks
at the sea surface temperatures in the Niño 3.4 region, the tropical Pacific atmosphere and forecasts that NOAA's
Oceanic Niño Index will equal or exceed +0.5 °C for several seasons in a row.[18] However, the Japan Meteorological
Agency declares that an El Niño event has started when the average 5 month sea surface temperature deviation for
the NINO.3 region, is over 0.5 °C (0.90 °F) warmer for 6 consecutive months or longer.[19] The Peruvian government
declares that a coastal El Niño is under way, if the sea surface temperatures in the Niño 1 and 2 regions, equal or
exceed +0.4 °C for at least 3 months.
There is no consensus on if climate change will have any influence on the occurrence, strength or duration of El
Niño events, as research supports El Niño events becoming stronger, longer, shorter and weaker.[20][21]

Occurrences[edit]
 A timeline of all the El Niño episodes between 1900 and 2016.[13][14]
El Niño events are thought to have been occurring for thousands of years.[11] For example, it is thought that El Niño
affected the Inca Empire in modern-day Peru, who sacrificed humans in order to try and prevent the rains.[11]
It is thought that there have been at least 30 El Niño events since 1900, with the 1982-83, 1997–98 and 2014–
16 events among the strongest on record.[13][14] Since 2000, El Niño events have been observed in 2002–03, 2004–
05, 2006–07, 2009–10 and 2014–16.[13]
Major ENSO events were recorded in the years 1790–93, 1828, 1876–78, 1891, 1925–26, 1972–73, 1982–83,
1997–98, and 2014–16.[22][23][24][verification needed][needs update]
Typically, this anomaly happens at irregular intervals of two to seven years, and lasts nine months to two
years.[25] The average period length is five years. When this warming occurs for seven to nine months, it is classified
as El Niño "conditions"; when its duration is longer, it is classified as an El Niño "episode".[26]
There is no consensus on whether climate change will have any influence on the occurrence, strength or duration of
El Niño events, as research supports El Niño events becoming stronger, longer, shorter and weaker.[20][21]
During strong El Niño episodes, a secondary peak in sea surface temperature across the far eastern equatorial
Pacific Ocean sometimes follows the initial peak.[27]