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The early development of explorarory behavior was studied. One study documents changes in free
exploration of infants aged from 2 to 5 months. Another compares 3- and 4-5 month-olds when
manipulating and exploring an object in the light or in the dark (no visual control over exploration).
The third study compares multimodal exploration in 3- and 4-month-olds when presented with two
different objects varying in multiple properties. Results show that significantchangesoccur between
2 and 5 months, relativeto spontaneous multimodal exploration of a novelobject. Object exploration
becomes increasingly multimodal. Bimanual coordination is first linked to the oral system, later re-
organized in reference to vision when fingering emerges by 4 months. Manipulation in 3-month-
olds is shown to be object-dependent. Factors controlling early object manipulation and functional
changes in manual action prior to 6 months of age are discussed.
When young infants are in an alert and quiet state, they dis- two inseparable phenomena (Thelen & Fogel, 1986). From the
play behaviors that are "exploratory" in nature because they origin of development, action is under some perceptual or sen-
appear to be primarily oriented toward bringing sense organs sorimotor control (Rochat, 1987; Rochat, Blass, & Hoffmeyer,
into various relations with objects in the environment. New- 1988), and the picking up of perceptual information is some-
borns show elements of reaching with arms and hands toward how inherent to any performed act (Thelen & Fogel).
an object moving close to them (Hofsten, 1982). Young infants The idea that infants actively contribute to their perceptual
track objects moving in their field of view with both eyes and and motor development is not new. Piaget ( 1952, 1954) stressed
head (Bullinger, 1984). From birth, they orient their heads in that sensorimotor and cognitive development originate from
the direction of a sound source (Clifton, Morrongiello, Kulig, the infant's busy transaction with objects in the environment
& Dowd, 1981; Muir & Field, 1979) and appear to selectively (i.e., assimilation and accomodation). Helmholtz (1962), ob-
orient (root) their mouths in the direction of a familiar odor serving that the youngest infants deliberately interact with ob-
(Macfarlane, 1975). Contrary to the view that babies are passive jects they encounter, even suggested that knowledge about the
spectators bombarded with stimulation, these observations in- causes of sensations (distal stimuli) originates from active ex-
dicate that from the earliest age infants are actors and, in partic- perimentation with objects in the environment (Helmholtz,
ular, explorers of their environment. From a theoretical point p. 31).
of view, it is relevant to approach early behavior as involving In general, perceiving and acting involve information that is
action systems with specific adaptative functions like communi- picked up simultaneously by more than one perceptual system.
cation, locomotion, consumption, and exploration (Reed, Exploration and the search for information is indeed multi-
1982). Indeed, the active search for information is a basic mo- modal (Neisser, 1976). Manipulating, mouthing, listening, and
t i v e - a m o n g others--guiding behavior from birth (E. J. Gibson looking at objects potentially contribute to the discovery of
& Spelke, 1983). Recent progress in the study of early action their properties and what they afford for action (E. J. Gibson,
development shows that perceptual and motor aspects of behav- 1982; Rochat & Reed, 1987). Multimodal activity involved in
ior are closely intertwined, perception and action appearing as exploration is considered as contributing both to the specifica-
tion of the properties of objects and the perceivers themselves
(J. J. Gibson, 1979). Properties of sensorimotor and perceptual
Support for the author was made possible by the Swiss National Sci- systems are sometimes viewed as actively elaborated during in-
entific Research Foundation (FNRS) FellowshipNo. 81.082-083. fancy by means of exploration (Bullinger, 1984, 1987). By anal-
I would like to express my appreciation to E. S. Spelke, at Cornell ogy, this elaboration is considered as proceeding in essentially
University, in whose laboratory at the University of Pennsylvania the the same way that blind individuals discover the properties of
research was conducted. I thank A. Fogel at the University of Utah for an ultrasonic guide. They discover these properties in using the
his insights and advice on data analysis. 1 also thank S. J. Senders for device and in exploring the new sensorimotor loops provided
his help in scoring, R. K. Clifton and N. A. Myers at the University of by this prosthesis in relation to distal objects (Bower, 1977; Bul-
Massachusetts for their comments on a draft of this article, and H. L.
linger, 1987). Thus, the importance of exploratory behavior in
Pick and the two reviewers for their constructive comments. Finally, 1
development may equally involve the discovery of object and
would like to express my gratitude to all of the parents and infants who
participated in the studies reported here. event properties and the discovery for the perceiver of the vari-
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Phi- ous sensorimotor loops that bind him or her to the environ-
lippe Rochat, Department of Psychology, Tobin Hall, University of ment.
Mas~chusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts01003. Recent studies of early exploratory behavior document this
871
872 PHILIPPE ROCHAT
a bouquet of flowers. Once the object was firmly grasped by the infant, oriented his or her gaze toward the object or brought it into the field of
the experimenter removed his hands and the trial started. The trial view for visual inspection.
ended after 90 s of free exploration or when the object was dropped. 2. Mouthing. The infant is mouthing the object after he or she has
When the object was dropped prior to approximately 10-s trial dura- brought it up toward the mouth for oral contact, touching the object
tion, it was picked up by the experimenter and reintroduced in the same with the lips or introducing it inside the oral cavity for contact with the
hand up to three times. Behavior was scored while the infant was in tongue and gums.
manual contact with the object. Periods during which the experimenter 3. R-Hgrasp. The infant is grasping the object with the right hand.
was reintroducing the object into the infant's hand and while manual 4. L-Hgrasp. The infant is grasping the object with the left hand.
contact was interrupted following a dropping of the object by the baby 5. Bigrasp. The infant is grasping the object with both hands. (This
were omitted. behavior was not entered on one particular channel of the event re-
The object was presented to the infant once in the right and once in corder but identified on the polygraphic transcript as the co-occurrence
the left hand with approximately 15 s between trials. Left- and right- of R-H grasp and L-H grasp, that is, simultaneous entry of Behaviors 3
hand presentation was counterbalanced among subjects of each age and 4.)
group. The general procedure of this study (as for Studies 2 and 3) is 6. Fingering. Theinfantistouchingandscanningtheobject'ssurface
the reverse of the one used in several studies on early reaching behavior with the fingertips of either one of the hands while the other is holding
(i.e., Hofsten, 1982; Hofsten & Lindhagen, 1979), where the infant is (grasping) the object. Fingering is accompanied with a simultaneous
presented first visually with an object, eventually leading to a manual entry of Behavior 3 or Behavior 4.
reach. Here, the infant starts with a manual grasp olthe object that Two observers simultaneously scored the videotapes--one scoring
eventually leads" to visual and oral capture. looking and mouthing behaviors, and the other scoring right-hand
grasping, left-hand grasping, and fingering. The same two observers
scored all the tapes (including those in Studies 2 and 3). Each observer
Scoring and Analysis was highly trained and skilled in the scoring task with this particular
Video recordings were analyzed in real time using a multichannel apparatus. Comparison of the scoring and rescoring by the same ob-
event recorder. Each of the following six behaviors was scored and en- server of six randomly selected subjects indicated a within-observer
tered on one channel of the event recorder. agreement ratio above .89 for all the measures considered in the analy-
1. Looking. The infant is looking at the object, after he or she has sis. lnterobserver reliability of the two independent observers who
coded six randomly selected subjects (one 3-month-old, four 4-month-
olds, and one 5-month-old) on the duration ratio (%) of looking, mouth-
ing. bimanual grasp, and fingering was calculated. Using Pearson's
product-moment correlation test, interobserver reliability was above
.95 for the four measures.
Results
D u r a t i o n and frequency o f behaviors were analyzed. T h e rel-
ative d u r a t i o n (% d u r a t i o n ) over the total trial length was com-
p u t e d considering (a) m o n o g r a s p i n g o f the object (either by left
or right hand), (b) b i m a n u a l grasping o f the object, (c) fingering,
(d) m o u t h i n g , and (e) looking at the object. Further analysis in-
cluded paired co-occurrence a m o n g four scored behaviors:
m o u t h i n g and either bigrasping (f) or fingering (g); looking a n d
either bigrasping (h) or fingering (i). M o n o g r a s p i n g was n o t in-
cluded in the co-occurrence analysis because it is i m p o s e d by
the p r o c e d u r e o f object's p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d t h u s potentially bi-
ased. O t h e r analyses also i n c l u d e d first t r a n s p o r t either (j) to
m o u t h or eyes a n d frequency o f o b j e c t ' s t r a n s p o r t (within a sec-
ond) from m o u t h to eyes or eyes to m o u t h (k). Finally, fre-
quency o f transfer o f the object from h a n d to h a n d (1) was ana-
lyzed.
T h e d u r a t i o n o f exploration averaged 37 s per trial-presenta-
tion for the g r o u p o f 2-month-olds; 44 s for the 3-month-olds;
47 s for the 4-month-olds; a n d 54 s for the 5-month-olds. De-
spite the a p p a r e n t increase with age o f the average t i m e t h a t
infants spontaneously interacted with the object, a 4 (ages) × 2
(left- or r i g h t - h a n d presentation) analysis o f variance (ANOVA)
Figure 1. Objects presented to the infant for free manipulation and ex-
shows t h a t this t r e n d is not significant a n d t h a t there is n o effect
ploration. (Object IA was used in Studies 1 and 2. Both Objects IA and
1B were used in Study 3. Object I A was made of a bright blue elastic o f right- versus left-hand presentation. A t each age, there was
rubber with various textures at each of its extremities. Object 1B was i m p o r t a n t interindividual variability in the overall d u r a t i o n o f
made of a bright red styrofoam sphere covered with a thin plastic wrap- exploration, some babies d r o p p i n g the object after less t h a n 15
ping and attached to a wooden rod for handling. Compared with Object s, a n d others exploring it for a period exceeding 90 s. In further
1A, Object 1B was too large to be introduced in the mouth.) analysis, to correct for this e x t r e m e variability, d u r a t i o n o f be-
874 PHILIPPE ROCHAT
Table 1
Mean Percentage of Durations and Standard Deviations of Each Scored Behavior
According to Age and Left- (L) or Right- (R) Hand Presentation
Monograsping Bigrasping Fingering Mouthing Looking
Age L R L R L R L R L R
2 months
M 90.5 90.7 9.5 6.9 0.0 2.4 15.8 15.6 8.6 1.7
SD 17.6 20.0 13.2 10.0 0.0 9.4 18.5 21.0 22. l 6.7
3 months
M 75.8 81.8 17.3 10.4 6.8 7.8 24.0 9.6 19.3 14.8
SD 27.2 30.1 25.5 19.9 12.3 25.7 29.6 14.2 26.6 23.8
4 months
M 52.4 69.7 21.5 16.6 25.9 13.5 48.7 29.5 28.8 37.1
SD 27.2 26.1 22.6 19.3 18.7 13.6 31.4 32.1 28.6 26.1
5 months
M 55.9 55.7 14.6 13.6 27.6 30.0 41.8 47.1 34.9 33.6
SD 30.4 31.8 13.4 17.7 22.7 22.6 26.7 26.1 23.9 21.0
Age effect
F(3, 55) 5.57 1.46 10.09 6.14 6.66
p < .002a ns < .0001 a < .001 b < .001 c
a Post hoc Tukeytests revealed that both 2- and 3-month groups differed from the 4- and 5-month groups at the .05 levelat least, but did not differ
from each other. ~Post hoc Tukeytests revealed that both 2- and 3-month groups differed from the 5-month group at the .05 levelat least, because
only the 2-month group differed from the 4-month group. The 2- and 3-, 3- and 4-, 4- and 5-month groups did not differ from each other, c Post hoc
Tukey tests revealed that the 2-month group differed from the 4- and 5-month groups at the .01 level,the latter two groups not differing from each
other. The 3-month group did not differ from any other groups.
havior was calculated as the percentage of the total length of nipulation and exploration of the object by fingering i t - - a n d
each trial for each individual baby. These ratios were then aver- not simply by increasingly grasping or holding it with both
aged for each age group and for left- or right-hand presentation hands.
of the object. With mouthing behavior, the ANOVA reveals a significant
Table l shows the mean percentage of duration and standard main effect of age, with significant contrasts between the two
deviation of monomanual grasp, bimanual grasp, fingering, youngest groups of infants and the oldest (2 and 3 months com-
mouthing, and looking at the object during exploration (ac- pared with 5 months). By five months of age, there is a signifi-
cording to age and left- or right-hand presentation). For each cant increase in duration of oral contact, with the infant bring-
of the five categories of behavior, an overall 4 (age) x 2 (hand ing the object to the mouth for longer bouts of mouthing.
presentation) mixed-design ANOVAwas performed on the per- For looking, the ANOVA shows a significant age effect. With
centage of duration of these behaviors. Except for mouthing, no increasing age, infants bring the object into the field of view for
main effect of right- versus left-hand presentation was found, significantly longer visual inspection. Post hoc analyses reveal
nor any interaction of this variable with age. On the other hand, significant contrasts between the two older age groups and the 2-
the ANOVAshows a significant main effect of age for four of the month-olds. Again, 3-month-olds appear to be at a transitional
five categories of behavior considered in the analysis. stage in the development of object manipulation and explora-
As is apparent in Table l, the mean percentage of duration of tion involving multiple modalities.
monograsping decreases significantly with age. At the youngest The co-occurrence of mouthing or looking with either one of
ages (2 and 3 months), infants tended simply to hold the object the two categories of bimanual behavior (bigrasping and finger-
the way it has been introduced by the experimenter. With older ing) was further analyzed. Monograsping was not included in
infants (4 and 5 months), both hands are increasingly involved this analysis because neither mouthing nor looking could occur
in exploring and manipulating the object. without at least one hand grasping the object. This necessity,
There is no significant age effect for mean percentage of dura- together with the imposed monograsping of the object at the
tion of bigrasping, where both hands are holding the object. beginning of each trial, might have indeed potentially influ-
However, there is a significant increase with age of fingering be- enced the manifestation of this particular co-occurrence. The
havior, where one hand holds the object and the other scans it co-occurrence analysis involved a comparison of the observed
with the tips of its fingers. Post hoc analyses indicated that this duration of co-occurrence of either mouthing or looking and
main effect of age is due to significant contrasts between the two bigrasping or fingering (P obs) with the expected duration of co-
older groups of infants and the two younger groups. This result occurrence (P exp) knowing only the separate overall durations
confirms the trend shown in Table I indicating that by 4 months of each behavior. Thus, for two behaviors, A and B, P exp
of age the occurrence of fingering behavior increases signifi- (AB) = % duration (A) X % duration (B). These calculations
cantly. At this age, infants become bimanually involved in ma- were carried out for each infant for each of the two object's
SPECIAL SECTION: OBJECT MANIPULATION AND EXPLORATION 875
Table 2
Means and Standard Deviations of the Percentage of Durations Observed (% obs) and the
Percentage of Durations Expected (% exp) of Co-occurrence of Mouthing or Looking With
Either Bigrasping or Fingering Behaviors According to Age
Mouthing x Mouthing X Looking X Looking x
Bigrasping Fingering Bigrasping Fingering
2 months
M 6.84 2.50 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.11 0.46 0.19
SD 11.17 4.30 0.39 0.39 0.27 0.58 2.35 0.98
3 months
M 7.63 5.80 0.23 0.20 1.46 0.93 2.46 2.40
SD 18.98 17.21 1.27 1.09 5.23 3.44 8.65 8.12
4 months
M 13.21 12.28 9.03 8.31 2.25 2.46 10.50 7.71
SD 19.10 19.67 13.24 11.72 5.23 5.41 14.23 12.72
5 months
M 8.73 7.26 13.73 12.96 3.56 3.70 11.80 10.03
SD 12.79 11.39 16.03 14.48 5.30 6.15 12.86 11.14
Co-occurrence
(p obs > p exp)
F(I, 55) 14.13 3.56 0.050 16.83
P < .0004 ns ns < .0001
Age X Co-occurrence
F(3, 55) 1.75 1.08 1.127 4.67
P ns ns ns < 0.05 a
a Simple effects analysis reveal a significant co-occurrence effect only for the 4-month-olds, F(1, 55) =
11.91, p < .001, and the 5-month-olds, F(I, 55) = 4.50, p < .038.
presentations. Accordingly, if P obs (AB) is larger than P exp these behaviors is not significantly higher than would be ex-
(AB), it would indicate that the observed co-occurrence of A pected by chance. Furthermore, there is no interaction of co-
and B is above chance level. On the other hand, i f P obs (AB) is occurrence probability with age. In the light of the results
equal to P exp (AB), it would indicate that the observed co- above, bigrasping and not fingering is shown to be the bimanual
occurrence of A and B happens in a proportion that would be action significantly associated with oral exploration of the ob-
expected by chance, thus pointing to a random overlap of these ject. The next analysis indicates that the reverse is true when
behaviors over exploration time (for a similar analysis, see Fo- considering the co-occurrence of looking with either one of
gel, 1981). these bimanual behaviors.
On the basis of this analysis, an overall 4 (age) x 2 (presenta- The ANOVAreveals that the co-occurrence of looking and bi-
tion) x 2 (co-occurrence probability) mixed-design ANOVAwas grasping does not occur above chance level and that there is no
performed for each of the four paired categories: mouthing and interaction between age and probability of co-occui rence.
bigrasping, mouthing and fingering, looking and bigrasping, Co-occurrence of looking and fingering appears to be signifi-
and looking and fingering. Table 2 presents, according to age, cantly above chance level. Furthermore, the ANOVAshows a sig-
the means and standard deviations of observed and expected nificant interaction of age with probability of co-occurrence.
percentage of duration for the four considered co-occurrences Post hoc analysis of simple effects reveal that P obs are signifi-
of behavior, as welt as the results of the ANOVAS.No significant cantly higher than P exp for the 4- and 5-month-olds. The group
effect of left- versus right-hand presentation was found in any of 2- and 3-month-olds display no more co-occurrence between
of the four ANOVAS. fingering and looking than would be expected by chance. This
Considering mouthing and bigrasping of the object, the AN- absence of significant difference in the youngest groups proba-
OVA shows that their observed co-occurrence is significantly bly reflects a floor effect. Indeed, the percentages of duration
higher than would be expected by chance. Furthermore, no sig- of looking and fingering at these ages are small whenever these
nificant Age X Co-occurrence Probability interaction was behaviors are manifest, limiting the probability of their co-oc-
found. Thus, for all ages, bigrasping of the object shows higher- currence (see Tables t and 2). Nevertheless, these results pro-
than-chance expected association with oral exploration. Both vide further information about the significant increase in the
hands appear to be significantly involved in supporting the object proportion of fingering at 4 months of age that has been seen in
for oral contacts. previous analyses. They suggest that the development offinger-
Relative to mouthing and fingering of the object, the ANOVA ing is linked to vision. These data indicate that vision might
shows that the observed probability of the co-occurrence of play a role in the control of fine manual exploration early in
876 PHILIPPE ROCHAT
Table 4
Mean Percentage o f Durations and Standard Deviations or Frequency (f) o f Each Scored
Behavior According to Age and Light or Dark Condition
Monograsping
M 76.93 79.20 63.63 71.43 1.58 2.02
SD 27.33 27.95 25.13 31.12
Bigrasping
M 15.70 11.40 22.00 21.90 1.29 0.63
SD 26.44 24.56 19.60 24.83
Fingering
M 4.40 2.23 11.16 4.16 3.34 9.40 < .004
SD 8.74 6.93 11.47 12.09
Looking
M 16.85 0.60 27.26 1.86 1.51 17.90 < .001
SD 23.01 1.63 31.52 3.95
Mouthing
M 29.43 23.46 50.20 49.70 7.29 < .02 0.64
SD 30.70 29.06 30.97 28.31
Transfer (f)
M 0.03 0.03 1.73 1.13 6.17 < .02 1.24
SD 0.18 0.18 2.91 2.37
To mouth (f)
M 1.56 2.56 2.60 3.00 1.48 2.67
SD 1.59 3.31 2.95 2.11
No significant hand-presentation effect was found for any of the tion and co-occurrence probability, F ( l , 28) = 4.66, p < .039.
scored behaviors. Means of the percentage observed and expected durations of
Regarding monograsping of the object, at both ages and in co-occurrence were, respectively, 3.03 and 2.18 in the light, and
both conditions, infants appear to hold the object monomanu- 0.08 and 0.01 in the dark. Simple effects analysis reveals that
ally for comparable proportions of trial duration. only in the light condition is the observed probability of the co-
Considering bigrasping of the object, infants regardless of age occurrence of looking and fingering significantly higher than
or condition appear equally involved in grasping the object with what would be expected by chance, F(1, 28) = 5.53, p < .026.
both hands. Again, the ANOVA shows no significant age or con- The absence of such an effect in the dark is most probably due
dition effect. to a floor effect. Indeed, the minimal percentage of durations of
Together with looking, fingering of the object appears to be looking and fingering in the dark reduces the possibility for the
the sole behavior that occurs in significantly greater proportions observed and expected co-occurrence to differ significantly.
in light than in the dark. Although the ANOVA reveals only a Relative to the light condition, this result confirms again that
marginally significant age effect, F(I, 28) = 3.34, p < .07, fin- there is an early functional link between vision and the fine hap-
gering of the object tended to increase in proportion between 3 tic exploration of fingering.
and 4 to 5 months of age, this trend confirming the developmen- Concerning the percentage of duration of mouthing, older in-
tal observations of Study 1. The present research also confirms fants mouthed the object significantly more, regardless of con-
what was inferred from the observations of the first study, that ditions. These results indicate an overall developmental trend
is, that early fingering of the object is linked to vision and de- consistent with the findings of the first study. This trend is not
pends on this modality. Fingering behavior decreased drasti- affected by conditions, because infants of both ages mouthed
cally in the dark compared with the light condition. There is a the object for equal durations in the light or in the dark. Relative
significant overall condition effect, F(1, 28) = 9.44, p < .004. to the second empirical question guiding the present research,
The percentage of duration of looking was considered in or- the absence o f visual access to the object does not play any sig-
der to analyze its co-occurrence with fingering, in an attempt nificant role relative to the duration o f oral contact with the ob-
to replicate the results that led to the present study (see Results ject. Infants do not appear to compensate for the absence of
section of Study 1 for the rationale of this analysis). At both visual experience in the dark condition by increasing the dura-
ages, infants look rarely in the direction of the object in the dark tion of their oral exploration. This result suggests the relative
and significantly less than in the light (see Table 4). An overall functional independence of mouthing and looking, each of
2 (age) x 2 (condition) x 2 (hand presentation) x 2 (co-occur- these actions eventually serving different functions or being ori-
rence probability of Looking X Fingering) mixed-design AN- ented toward different affordances of the object.
OVA reveals no significant age effect nor any significant hand- In further analysis, frequency of object transfer from one
presentation effect but a significant interaction between condi- hand to another during manipulation and exploration was con-
SPECIAL SECTION: OBJECT MANIPULATION AND EXPLORATION 879
sidered. Again, a 2 (age) X 2 (condition) × 2 (hand presentation) and suckability of the object; Rochat, 1983, 1987). In this con-
mixed design ANOVA was performed. Manual transfer of the text, Study 3 was concerned with whether the emerging explor-
object increased significantly with age, confirming the develop- atory behaviors described in the first two studies are, from the
mental trend exhibited in Study t. Infants of both ages appear start, object dependent. Infants of 3 and 4 months of age were
to switch the object from hand to hand with equal frequency in observed while manipulating and exploring two different ob-
light and dark conditions, regardless of the two hand presenta- jects that differed in shape, size, color, texture and, theoretically,
tions. These results indicate that, early in development, object in what they afford for multimodal action. One object was iden-
transfer from hand to hand does not depend on vision to occur. tical to that used in Studies 1 and 2 (see Figure 1A); the other
In contrast to fingering behavior, this manipulatory behavior was spherical and too large to be introduced in the mouth (see
and its emergence early in development does not appear to be Figure 1B). Two empirical questions guided the study: (a) Will
linked or eventually controlled by vision. young infants manifest different patterns of exploratory behav-
In a final analysis, frequency of object transport to the iors when manipulating and exploring two different objects? (b)
mouth, which ended with oral contact, was considered. At both Will one object be mouthed more than another object because
ages, the object was brought an average of 2 to 3 times to the only the first object affords oral exploration and sucking?
mouth. The ANOVAshowed no significant age effect, no signifi-
cant hand presentation effect, nor any significant condition Method
effect.
Considering mouthing, bigrasping, manual transfer, and Subjects
transport of the object to the mouth, infants' level of manipula- Twenty infants were tested, equally divided into two age groups. The
tory and exploratory activity is comparable in the two condi- first group consisted of ten 3-month-old infants (4 boys and 6 girls),
tions, ruling out eventual inhibition of action caused by a sud- from 80 to 100 days of age, with a mean age of 91 days. The second
den (unusual) absence of light. Aside from the occurrence of group consisted often 4-month-olds (6 boys and 4 girls), from 115 days
fingering and looking, there is no evidence for a significant to 148 days of age, with a mean age of 135 days. In addition to the
difference in the occurrence of other haptic behaviors across total number of 20 infants who completed testing and were used in the
conditions. In general, Study 2 confirms that vision seems to analysis, one 3-month-old and two 4-month-olds were tested but ex-
play a rote in shaping fine exploration and manipulation early cluded from the analysis because of poor state and because they did not
in development. complete the experiment. As for the preceding studies, these two groups
of infants were tested in the infant laboratory at the Universityof Penn-
Overall, Studies 1 and 2 demonstrate the rapid changes that
sylvaniaand came from a comparable population.
occur prior to 6 months of age in the spontaneous interaction
of the infant with a novel object. The growing repertoire of early
manipulation and exploration forms part of the infant's devel- Objects
oping knowledge about objects in the environment. From an
Two objects (see Figure 1A and B; henceforth referred to as ObjectA
early age, the discovery of what objects afford for action is po-
and Object B) were presented successivelyto the infant. As mentioned
tentially a major orientation of infant perception and action above, Object A was identical to the one used in Studies 1 and 2 and is
(J. J. Gibson, 1979, Rochat & Reed, 1987). An important ques- described in the Method section of Study 1. Figure 1 represents Object
tion is whether the changes in object manipulation and explora- A beside Object B (on the same scale). Object B consisted of a bright
tion described in the two preceding studies are adapted to the red sphere, 10 cm in diameter, attached to a 5- × 1.2-cmround wooden
particular characteristics, or "affordances¢" of the object. In the rod, which served as the object's handle for the infant (see Procedure
final study, early object manipulation and exploration were ana- section below).The spherical part of the object was coveredwith a thin,
lyzed and compared in relation to two widely different objects. transparent, removable plastic wrapping for protection and sanitation.
Study 3 was a first attempt to assess whether manipulation and Object B looked like a large, wrapped candied apple and weighed ap-
multimodal exploration depend on the physical properties of proximately the same as Object A (30 g). Under the plastic wrapping,
the object's surface was of a fine sandy texture that was haptically per-
the object explored early in development.
ceivablewith combined pressure and motion of fingertipsoverthe plas-
tic protection. Object B differed from Object A in size (bigger), texture
Study 3 (homogeneous), color (red), shape (spherical), and by its limited affor-
dance for mouthing (oversized). On the basis of interviews with each
As mentioned in the introduction, from the second semester infant's caretaker, Objects A and B were novelto the babies.
of life, infants are shown to adapt and modulate their manipula-
tion of objects in relation to particular physical properties Procedure
(Ruff, 1984; also see Palmer, 1989). The general question ad-
dressed in this third study is the extent to which this modulation The same procedure as the one established for Study 1 was used. In
ofmanipulatory and exploratory activities is manifest in infants the present study, the 2 objects were successivelypresented to each in-
fant for two trials. Each object was introduced once in the right hand
before 6 months. It has been suggested that from birth infants
and once in the left hand for grasping. The order of object and hand
are oriented toward discovering what objects afford for action
presentation was counterbalanced among infants of each age group. Ob-
(J. J. Gibson, 1979; Rochat & Reed, 1987). Neonates, for exam- ject B was introduced with the wooden rod (handle) at the junction of
ple, show differential oral and manual responding to objects thumb and index for palmar grasp, the spherical part of the object ori-
varying in substance and texture, suggesting early detection of ented upward (like an ice cream cone). Infants were videotaped while
object's affordances for either hands or mouth (i.e., graspability freely manipulating and exploring each object. On the right side of the
880 PHILIPPE ROCHAT
infant seat, a mirror was facing the camera with a 60* tilt, in order to There was no significant main effect of hand presentation in
reflect a right-side view of the infant. The mirror was not visible to the any of the ANOVAS. Infants of both ages behave similarly with
seated infant. This mirror's reflection was included in the field of the either hand starting to grasp the objects. Table 5 summarizes
camera and helped disambiguate later scoring of oral contact whenever
the results showing the overall means and corresponding stan-
the big object was brought close to the mouth and occluded the oral
dard deviations of percentage of duration or frequency for each
region to the frontal view of the camera. The small object did not cause
such an occlusion problem. scored behavior according to age and the object explored (small
vs. big). Three- and 4-month-olds are differentiated only in the
overall mean frequency of two scored behaviors, both increas-
Scoring ing with age. ANOVAS reveal a significant m a i n effect of age for
The scoring technique was the same as the one used in the preceding the frequency of object transfer from hand to hand. Regarding
studies. Six behaviors were scored on the basis of real time viewing of this behavior only, the ANOVA reveals a significant Age X Object
the videotapes by two observers using seven channels of a polygraphic interaction, F(1, 18) = 5.492, p < .03). Four-month-olds show
event recorder. In addition to looking, mouthing, left-hand grasping, significantly more "switching" than the 3-month-olds, and this
right-hand grasping, and fingering, scratchingand bangingwere added effect is greater with the small object than with the big one.
to the list of behaviors scored in the preceding studies. The additional Thus, the object's characteristics appear to influence the occur-
scoring of these behaviors was based on pilot observations suggesting rence of transfer from hand-to-hand for the 4-month-olds. The
their occurrence when infants explored Object B. Scratching and bang- only other significant age effect revealed by the ANOVA occurs
ing were added to allow finer discrimination of behaviors in relation to
in the frequency of object transport to the field of view. There
the two objects presented for exploration. These additional behaviors
are defined as follows (see Study l for definitions of the other five behav- is a significant increase in the frequency of this behavior by the
iors): 4-month-olds.
Scratching. The infant is holding (grasping) the object with one hand Three of the 12 scored behaviors manifest in significantly
while the extremities of the fingers of the other hand flex back and forth different proportions for the two different objects. Scratching
in a rubbing motion over one portion of the object's surface. behavior was not displayed by either age group when exploring
Banging. The infant is holding (grasping) the object with one or two the small object. When interacting with the big object, 3-
hands while shaking it in a repetitive motion, either banging it against month-olds spent an average of 5.35% and 4-month-olds an av-
another surface (seat, laps, or knees) or waving it. erage of 7.75% of exploration time scratching the object. An
Within-observer agreement and interobserver reliability were as- ANOVA reveals a significant object main effect for scratching
sessed relative to the scoring of scratching and banging behaviors be- behavior.
cause they were novel compared with the previous studies. Comparison
Frequency analysis of object's transport from the mouth to
of the scoring and rescoring of these two behaviors by the same observer
of four randomly selected subjects indicates a within-observer agree- the field of view, or from the field of view to the mouth, also
ment ratio above .90. Interobserver reliability of two independent ob- revealed a significant object main effect. The big object was
servers who coded 6 subjects (two 3-months and four 4-months) on the looked at significantly more after oral contact than was the
duration of scratching and banging behavior was calculated. Using Pear- small object and it was mouthed significantly more following a
son's product-moment correlation test, interobserver reliability was visual inspection than the small object. Contrary to the pilot
above .93 for these measures. observations, none of the infants showed banging behavior for
either object.
Results In general, the results of Study 3 suggest that, from 3 months
of age, infants demonstrate signs of adapted behavioral patterns
Overall duration of trials averaged 37.1 s for the group of 3- when exploring and manipulating different objects. They show
month-olds and 46.6 s for the group of 4-month-olds. A 2 significant increase in the frequency of certain behavior and in-
(age) x 2 (object) x 2 (hand presentation) mixed-design ANOVA stances of novel action (i.e., "scratching" behavior) when ex-
of duration times showed no significant age effect nor any sig- ploring and manipulating an object with widely different physi-
nificant object or hand presentation effects. cal characteristics.
The same 2 (age) X 2 (object) x 2 (hand presentation) ANOVA
was performed on the relative duration (%) of monograsping, General Discussion
bigrasping, fingering, scratching, banging, looking, and mouth-
ing. Further analysis also included frequency of object transfer O n the basis of the evidence outlined above, a n u m b e r of im-
from hand to hand, frequency of object transport to the field of portant characteristics of the early development of object ma-
view or to the mouth, and frequency of transition from mouth- nipulation and exploration can be identified. In general, it ap-
ing to immediate visual contact with the object (mouth to eyes, pears that from 2 to 5 months of age, significant changes occur
within I s), and vice versa (eyes to mouth, within 1 s). Note that relative to spontaneous multimodal exploration of a novel ob-
object transport to the field of view or to the mouth includes all ject. The object is increasingly brought into the field of view for
object transports that did not qualify for the categories measur- visual inspection and to the mouth for oral contact. Parallel to
ing frequency of transition from mouthing to immediate visual the growing hand-eye and h a n d - m o u t h coordinations manifest
contact with the object. In the case of the categories of object during the first half-year of life, early object exploration be-
transport to the field of view or to the mouth, these behaviors comes increasingly multimodal. Infants tend to use more than
occurred following more than 1 s of visual or oral contact with one modality in their exploration. Data from the first study sug-
the object. gest that, at 2 and 3 months, spontaneous interaction with a
SPECIAL SECTION: OBJECT MANIPULATION AND EXPLORATION 881
Table 5
Mean Percentage o f Durations or Frequency (f) and Standard Deviations
o f Each Scored Behavior According to Age and Small or Big Object
Monograsping
M 65.95 64.05 71.90 58.15 0.00 3.20
SD 34.21 32.34 24.13 29.57
Bigrasping
M 26.45 19.65 12.80 16.35 0.75 0.22
SD 33.98 27.16 16.64 20.48
Fingering
M 6.95 7.95 14.40 18.70 2.68 0.71
SD 15.86 15.03 17.05 22.27
Scratching
M 0.00 5.35 0.00 7.75 0.24 7.36 < .02
SD 0.00 10.98 0.00 12.66
Banging
M 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
SD 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Looking
M 15.70 22.30 31.60 38.05 2.55 1.28
SD 25.60 34.22 26.96 28.13
Mouthing
M 21.05 32.20 29.00 35.83 0.30 2.50
SD 23.86 28.58 35.31 29.08
Transfer (f)
M 0.05 0.15 0.80 0.30 10.41 < .004 2.44
SD 0.22 0.48 1.05 0.80
To eyes (f)
M 0.30 0.75 2.30 2.65 13.49 < .002 0.77
SD 0.57 1.16 2.73 2.49
To mouth (f)
M 1.10 2.35 0.80 1.45 0.71 2.08
SD 1.80 4.80 1.23 2.01
Mouth to eyes(f)
M 0.65 1.10 0.90 1.95 0.78 4.66 < .05
SD 1.63 1.91 2.12 2.74
Eyes to mouth (f)
M 0.85 1.55 1.40 2.65 1.15 4.32 < .05
SD 1.53 2.50 2.47 3.24
novel object starts offwith an oral contact, later, by 4 months, mentally change between 2 and 5 months of age. At 2 and 3
interaction opens with a visual inspection (see Figure 2). This months, the infant's manual involvement in haptically explor-
observation is consistent with Piaget's (1952) observation show- ing the object consists mainly of grasping movements, poten-
ing the precedence of hand-mouth coordination over hand-eye tially informing the infant about the object's substance (i.e., Ro-
coordination early in development. By 4 months, even though chat, 1987). Beside the potential perceptual function of grasp-
vision emerges as the initial modality of exploration, infants ing, hands appear to essentially serve the functions of
continue to bring the object frequently to the mouth. At this supporting and transporting the object to the mouth for oral
age, infants' spontaneous behavior suggests increasing multi- contact.
modal organization of exploration, with vision playing a grow- A particularly interesting feature in the early development of
ing role. From 4 months on, infants show frequent rapid transi- object manipulation is the emergence of a new bimanual action
tions from visual to oral contact with the object (and vice versa). at around 4 months of age, in particular the emergence o f fin-
The hands are serving both supporting and transporting func- gering behavior. Before this age, when both hands are involved
tions, bringing the object alternately into the oral zone and in in contacting the object, it is for transporting the object to the
the field of view for exploration. This behavioral pattern could mouth. Analysis of the co-occurrence of mouthing and bigrasp-
be a basis for active cross-modal comparisons, infants actively ing indicates that from 2 months of age on, both hands are sig-
relating what they experience of the object in the oral and visual nificantly involved in supporting the object for oral contact.
modalities. Currently, it is not clear whether this bimanual involvement
In conjunction with the early development of multimodal ex- precedes or follows the episode of oral contact with the object
ploration, the characteristics of object manipulation funda- once it is stabilized at the mouth. We are currently studying this
882 PHILIPPE ROCHAT
question and have already collected evidence that in 2- to 4- able in their grasping, supporting and transporting functions.
month-olds both hands are involved in transporting the object With the emergence of object transfer from hand to hand and
to the mouth. Young infants show a bimanual action organized fingering behavior, it is as if 4 to 5-month-old infants start to
in a mirror synergy prior to contact with the mouth (Rochat & exploit this newly discovered property of their body (i.e., sym-
Senders, in press). This observation points to the importance of metry). It is possible that it is only when this differentiation oc-
the mouth in the early manifestation of bimanual action and curs that lateralization and hand preference can begin to be
coordination within the context of object manipulation. It ap- manifest (Michel, 1983; Ramsay, Campos, & Fenson, 1979).
pears that bimanual coordination is initially linked to the oral Two sets of observations reveal that fingering behavior is
system and is later reorganized in relation to vision when behav- linked to vision. The observed probability of co-occurrence be-
iors such as fingering emerge. It is interesting to note that at tween fingering and looking at the object is significantly higher
the time bimanual action appears to be reorganized with the than would be expected by chance. This was true for 4- and 5-
emergence of fingering behavior (4 months), infants are often month-olds but not for the few co-occurrences of such behav-
being introduced to solid food (at least in most western cul- iors shown by 2- and 3-month-olds. Co-occurrence analysis of
tures) and begin to teethe. New patterns of oral activities emerge looking and fingering in the second study replicates this finding.
in connection with chewing (Sheppard & Mysak, 1984), the Further support is provided by the observation collected in
processing of solid food, and teething. The haptic capacity of Study 2 showing that by 4 months the occurrence of fingering
the mouth might progressively become more focused within the behavior decreases significantly in the dark condition, where
context of nutrition--specialized in supervising solid-food pro- there is no visual access to the object and no visual feedback
cessing and in selecting what is ingestible. Furthermore, the tak- about object manipulation. This decrease does not appear to be
ing over by the hands of object exploration starts to leave the caused by a general inhibition of action in the dark condition,
mouth free to become an instrument of communication by because ANOVASreveal no condition main effect for any of the
means of active structuring of vocalization (babbling), which other scored behaviors. By 4 months, coordinated action of the
also emerges around this age (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1971). Indeed, hands depends on vision and appears to be organized by visual
observations on later development indicate that, in the course experience. Fingering, like reaching, appears as another by-
of the second semester, infants tend to bring fewer objects to the product of the eye-hand coordination developing from birth
mouth for oral contact (McCall, 1974). With the emergence of (Hofsten, 1982) and during the first months of life (Hofsten &
fingering, the hands become powerful instruments of haptic Lindhagen, 1979). The second study also indicates that infants
perception, eventually taking over from the mouth. do not compensate for lack of visual access to the object with
The emergence of fingering behavior in development is of par- increased duration of oral contact with the object. This fact sug-
ticular interest because it demonstrates differentiation and inte- gests the relative functional independence of mouthing and
gration of two basic functions of the hands: a grasping (support- looking. It also suggests that, in general, infants might focus
ing) function and an exploratory (perceptual) function (Hat- on different characteristics or affordances of the object when
well, 1987). In the present research, fingering was considered to looking and mouthing. In fact, the findings do not provide any
occur when one hand grasped and supported the object while answer as to what type of information the various exploratory
the other hand scanned it with the fingertips where the density systems are sensitive to--whether they function together or sep-
of tactile receptors is highest. Thus, fingering was considered as arately. They emphasize the important link existing from 4
a particular case ofbimanual action, even though it can possibly months on between vision and fine manual action.
involve one hand only. Relative to this definition, fingering con- Finally, the third study provides some indication that the de-
sists of a coordinated action of the hands enabling fine haptic velopment described above is not independent of the physical
scanning of an object. In this action, the most sensitive parts of properties of the object explored. From 3 months of age, the
one hand actively contact the object while the other hand sup- characteristics of manipulation and exploration reflect some re-
ports it. It is the expression ofhaptic exploration par excellence lation to the physical properties and affordances of the object.
and its emergence is a milestone with regard to both motor and Compared with a small object, a large and overall different ob-
perceptual development. By 4 months of age, infants start to ject is associated with new (spontaneous) manual actions. Scrat-
manifest this behavior systematically, demonstrating (per se) a ching behavior emerges for the large object only. Together with
haptic use of the hands. From a functional point of view, it re- the increased frequency of transport from mouth to the field of
veals a change in the status of the hands from being mainly ori- view and vice versa, this supports the idea that, quite early, in-
ented towards prehension to involvement with perception and fants possess a rich and flexible repertoire of manipulatory and
fine exploration. Research with older infants suggest that this exploratory action. Within seconds of interaction with a novel
development continues in the latter half to the first year (Ruff, object, young infants display manual actions that are appropri-
1984). Further research is needed to specify the details of this ate to potentially maximize the affordances of the object. For
development, whether, for example, it is characterized by con- instance, the scratching of the large object afforded an interest-
tinuous differentiation and progressive independence of hands ing noise that the small object did not (because of differences
or on the contrary, marked by successive reorganizations of in texture and material). It is not clear whether "scratching"
manual action. Further support for functional differentiation of of the object corresponds to the secondary circular reactions
hands and re-organization ofbimanual action at around 4 to 5 described by Piaget (1952), that is, infants starting to repeat a
months, comes from the observation of increased frequency of particular action on object(s) in an attempt to make an interest-
object transfer from hand to hand. Hands become interchange- ing event to last. In general, bouts of scratching behavior were
SPECIAL SECTION: OBJECT MANIPULATION AND EXPLORATION 883
relatively short (averaging 2.6 s at 3 months and 3.8 s at 4 Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to perception. Boston:
months) leaving little r o o m for much repetition. Furthermore, Houghton-Mifflin.
it is not evident that the noisy and potentially interesting out- Harris, P. L. (1972). Infants' visual and tactual inspection of objects.
come of scratching on the big object was accidentally discovered Perception, 1, 141-146.
and then reproduced by way of repeating the action that caused Hatwell, Y. (1987). Motor and cognitive functions of the hand in infancy
it. Twelve of the 20 infants tested in the third study were ob- and childhood. International Journal of Behavioral Development,
10(4), 509-524.
served scratching the big object, and none of them showed this
Helmholtz, H. von.(1962). Handbook of physiological optics (Rev. ed.).
behavior with the small object. Thus, this behavior was not
New York: Optical Society of America. (Original work published
merely accidental. Scratching was unmistakable for the ob- 1925)
server, both by the form of its m o v e m e n t and the noisy effect Hofsten, C. von.(1982). Eye-hand coordination in newborns. Develop-
that it produced. It complemented fingering as a novel action mental Psychology. 18, 450-461.
and was not the mere expression of a constrained form of fin- Hofsten, C. von., & Lindhagen, K. (1979). Observations on the develop-
gering. Indeed, along with the manifestation of scratching be- ment of reaching for moving objects. Journal of Experimental Child
havior, the proportion o f fingering remained stable across ob- Ps)vhology 28, 158-173.
jects in Study 3, a finding that replicates the results of Study Kaplan, E., & Kaplan, G. (1971). The prelinguistic child. In J. Elliot
1 at the same ages (see Tables 1 and 5 for comparison of the (Ed.), Human development and cognitive processes (pp. 359-381).
percentage of duration of fingering for the 3- and 4-month New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
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ate investigation of the big object's texture and eventuated in toddlers. Paper presented at the 6th International Conference on In-
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Macfarlane, A. (1975). Olfaction and the development of social prefer-
assess this interpretation, using more than two objects to vary
ences in the human neonate. In R. Porter & M. O'Connor (Eds.),
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Parent-bTfant interaction (CIBA Foundation Symposium 33, pp.
Overall, this research shows that major features of object ma- 103-117). Amsterdam: Elsevier-North Holland.
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life. These findings argue for the necessity o f investigating what infant. Monographs of the Societyfor Research in Child Development,
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origin of action leading to increasing knowledge about objects McQuinston, S., & Wachs, T. D. ( 1979, March). Developmental changes
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biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development,
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For JPSP: Personality, submit nominations to Arthur Bodin, Mental Research Institute, 555
Middlefield Road, Palo Alto, California 94301. Other members of the search committee are
Charles S. Carver, Ravenna S. Helson, Walter Mischel, Lawrence A. Pervin, and Jerry S.
Wiggins.