Society of Petroleum Englneers

SPE 30772

Thirty (30) Years of Steamflooding: Reservoir Management

and Operational Experiences

C.D. Ramkhalawan, J. Khan, and K.R. Bainey, Petrotrin

SPE Members

Copyright 1995, Society of Petroleum Engineers, lnc.

pursued to exploit these reserves. Based on Trinidad's
This paper was preparad for presentation at tha 1995 SPE Annual Technical Conference and complex geology and heterogeneous reservoirs, heavy oil
Exhibition hald in Dallas, Texas, 1995 Octobar 22-25.
recovery has been a major success through the Company's
This papar was selectad for prasentation by an SPE Program Committee following raviaw of
information containad in an abstrae! submittad by tha author(s). Contants of the paper, as scope of operations. Severa! innovations in reservoir
presentad, have not bean reviewad by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to management and operating strategies can be implemented in
correction by the author(s). The material, as presentad, does not necessarily reflact any
position of tha Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers or members. Papers presentad at other similarly adverse environments for heavy oil recovery.
SPE meetings are subject to publication review by Editorial Committaes of the Society of
Petroleum Enginears. Perrnission to copy is restrictad to an abstract of not more than 300
words. lllustrations may not be copiad. The abstrae! should contaín conspicuous lntroduction
acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper was presentad. Write librarían, SPE, PO
Box 833836., Richardson TX 75083-3836, USA, Fax 01-214-952-9435. Geographically, Trinidad and Tobago lies at the mouth of the
Orinoco River on the north-eastem continental shelf of South
America. The island's first oil well was drilled in 1857, but
with only sporadic activity subsequently, the first commercial
Abstract well was eventually drilled in 1901. In this regard, therefore,
The Petroleum Company of Trinidad and Tobago Limited
the country is recognized as one of the oldest oil producing
(Petrotrin) has a heavy oil reserves base of 300 million barreis
provinces world wide.
ofheavy oil in the southem part ofthe island ofTrinidad. The
Following the commercial discovery at the tum of the
Company, and its predecessors, first embarked on a thermal
century, severa! new fields were discovered. The majority of
recovery program in its acreage from 1963 with
these were in the southem half of the island' s land and marine
cyclic/steamflooding operations. At the present time, the
holdings, with the north and north-eastem reservoirs being
Company is operating eleven (11) steamfloods and is
principally gas-bearing, both on and offshore. The majority of
currently implementing another major project. This paper
the land-based operations are located in the south-westem
presents a case history of the Company's thirty-two years
peninsula, in a region where the heavy oils are predominantly
experience in steamflooding, inclusive of reservoir
concentrated. With the majority of these heavy oils occurring
management and monitoring methods, innovations and
at relatively shallow depths (< 3,000 ft), expertise in heavy
operating practices. To date (1995 June), the Company has
oil exploitation was developed out ofnecessity.
recovered a total of 77 million barreis of heavy oil from its
Significantly, severa! other factors contributed to this
acreage, with a current production level of 9000 BOPD.
growth, the major ones being:
During this period, new diagnostic methods were initiated, as
(i) A ready and available supply of fresh water, from
well as new innovations. These include cluster drilling, slim-
shallow aquifers and surface catchments, for the generation of
hole injectors, insulated tubing and packers, non-grave!
steam.
packed injectors, high volume pumps, limited entry
(ii) A cheap and reliable supply of natural gas for firing the
perforating, insulated casing completions, diverting agents,
Company's steam generators, and
dual injectors, iso-fluid mapping and other reservoir
(iii) Proven success record in steamflooding: both locally and
management techniques. In summary, the Company has had
intemationally.
extensive success in steamflooding operations and continues
Additionally, of the enhanced oil recovery (EOR)
to utilise this method for exploitation of its heavy oil reserves.
techniques available to the industry, viz., thermal (steam
With its proven success and existing infrastructure for this
injection and in-situ combustion), miscible, chemical and
type of operation, the Company still has major opportunities
polymer injection floods, steam injection, both in cyclic and
in heavy oil recovery. Additionally, new methods of
flood-type operations, has attained the most widespread
operation, financing and project management are being

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2 30 YEARS OF S/FLOODING : PETROTRIN'S RES MANAGEMENT ANO OPERATIONAL EXPERIENCE SPE 30772
application. As expected, the growth of applied technology in
these thermal operations has been simultaneous with the
growth of the Company's production leve!, with steamflood
oil currently contributing approximately 30% of the
Company's total daily production.
Indeed, the experience accumulated, and the
infrastructure developed over Petrotrin's tenure of steamflood
operations, has been so significant that the Company is
currently implementing a major thermal project in its land
based operations. To date, this in itself has been a success
story, with the most modem approaches of project
management and synergistic work team concepts being
applied.
In summary, therefore, the Company's experiences in
steam injection operations has grown from the basics
utilitarian usage of wellsite boilers to the application of up to
date concepts in reservoir management, operational and
design applications.
Geological Overview
Currently, three major geologic horizons, demarcated the
Lower Mome L'Enfer (LMLE), Forest and Cruse are being
exploited in Petrotrin's thermal recovery projects. The sands
are generally of Upper Pliocene age with log profiles, cores
and geological models suggesting that they are a combination
of distributary channel fills and mouth-bar complexes which
were deposited in lower deltaic plain environments. They can
be broken up into the following discrete mappable units:
LMLE D, E and F
Forest Upper and Lower and Forest A
Cruse E, F and G
Using the model of deltaic distributary channel/mouthbar
complexes, the channel-type geometry evolves easily in the
contouring of the gross sand isopachs. This is, generally, also
supported by the ease in log correlations along depositional
trends.
Generally, the sands are poorly consolidated and consist
of coarse to fine to very fine grained deposits. They ali
contain interbedded shale laminations and varying degrees of
dispersed clays.
The LMLE sands are present in Apex-Quarry, North
Palo Seco, Central Los Bajos and Bennett Village
Steamfloods, occurring at depths ranging from 1400 feet to
2200 feet. These projects are contiguous with one another so
that there is very little variation in reservoir rock properties.
The Forest sands occur at approximately 1000 feet in
North Fyzabad, Parrylands, Forest Reserve Project III and
Forest Reserve Phase I East. Rock properties are, generally
similar in these projects. In the Phase I East project, however,
a significant degree of lateral variation in rock properties is
observed.
The Cruse sands occur at depths ranging from 1600 feet
to 2200 feet in the Guapo, North Fyzabad, Point Fortin Cruse
'E' and Cruse 'E' Expansion Projects. These sands tend to be
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coarser-grained and are better cemented than the LMLE and
Forest Horizons. Permeabilities are of a higher order of
magnitude.
The major reservoir rock and fluid properties are as
listed in Table 1, with Table II illustrating performance
parameters to 1995 June.
Historical Perspectives
Following the early discovery of commercial hydrocarbons in
Trinidad and Tobago, a period of significant exploration and
development activity ensued, with severa! of the major
intemational oil Companies acquiring leases. Expectedly,
they embarked, at various stages, on heavy oil recovery
programmes efforts to exploit the shallow, available reserves.
These companies included:
(i) United British Oilfield ofTrinidad (UBOT)
(ii) Shell Trinidad Limited
(iii) Kem Trinidad Limited
(iv) Texaco Trinidad Limited (TEXTRIN)
(v) British Petroleum
(vi) Trinidad-Tesoro Petroleum Company Limited
(vii) Trinidad and Tobago Oil Company Limited (Trintoc)
(viii) Trinidad and Tobago Petroleum Company Limited
(Trintopec).
Ali the above companies were, at sorne stage,
predecessor companies to Petrotrin, with the last merger of
Trintoc and Trintopec resulting in the establishment of the
Petroleum Company of Trinidad and Tobago Limited
(Petrotrin).
The earliest documented experience of thermal recovery
of heavy oil in Trinidad was in 1963 by UBOT. The target
reservoir in this instance was a 15ºAPI oil reservoir in the
Penal/Wilson field that had previously produced 10-12% of
the original oil in place (OOIP). The experiment conducted
was a cyclic stimulation programme on six(6) wells. Steam
was generated via a conventional steam boiler, utilizing water
from a surface dam. The results obtained were mixed. After
injecting steam at 250º F and 500-600 psi over a one month
period, the wells produced a mixture of water, mud and
emulsions on the production cycle. As expected, in hindsight,
with wells not thermally prepared (casing and cementation
programmes), casing failure resulted, and the project was
aborted.
In 1965, Shell Trinidad Limited targeted the Forest
sandstone reservoirs (Miocene age) in the Parrylands oilfield,
with oils ranging in gravity from 8-18° API, viscosity of the
order of 6000 cp and ata depth of 1,000 ft. Following cyclic
stimulation on one well, which had not been grave! packed,
this effort, too, was curtailed.
Simultaneously, Textrin was also experimenting with
cyclic stimulation in a similar reservoir at Forest Reserve in
1965, but with oils ranging in viscosities between 100-250 cp.
Early success resulted in the implementation of eight (8)
cyclic projects, six (6) of which were in Forest Reserve, and
 SPE 30772 C. D. Ramkhalawan, J. Khan, K. R. Bainey
one (I) each in the Cruse and Vessigny fields. Toree (3) of
these were discontinued due to poor response, with,
eventually, the Forest Reserve Project III Steamflood
ernerging as an unqualified success, and is even still active
currently.
In 1966, a cyclic pilot was initiated by British Petroleurn
in the North Palo Seco field, which also resulted in significant
progress in stearn injection operations in Trinidad, and which
is also still currently the largest stearnflood in the country.
With these encouraging results, thermal activity accelerated,
with the following being the rnajor projects undertaken
subsequently, with their status in 1995 being indicated in
parentheses:
(i) 1969 Kem Trinidad Lirnited - Cyclic injection
in the Guapo field, followed by continuous steam injection in
1976 (active)
(ii) 1971-1977 : Arnplification of the Forest Reserve
Project III Steamflood by Textrin (active)
(iii) 1974 Cyclic stirnulation in the Central Los
Bajos field, with a conversion to steamflooding in 1977 by
Trinidad- Tesoro Petroleurn Cornpany Lirnited (active)
(iv) 1978 Cyclic injection project initiated in the
North Fyzabad field, by Trinidad-Tesoro, with a conversion to
continuous injection in 1979 (active)
(v)' 1981 (a) Trintoc initiated a pilot six (6) pattem,
inverted five-spot steamflood in 1981 in the Parrylands field,
expanding in 1981 and 1987 to its current sixteen (I 6) pattem
configuration (active)
(b) Trinidad -Tesoro irnplernented the Apex-
Quarry/Coora/Quarry field steamflood project (active)
(vi) 1985 Trintopec irnplernented the Bennett
Village steamflood project (active)
(vii) 1986 In an effort to irnprove its declining
reserves base, Trintoc initiated a five (5) pattem pilot
stearnflood in the Cruse E reservoir in the Point Fortin field
(active)
(viii) 1987 Trintopec cornrnenced steam injection in
the country's first rnediurn to light oíl (28° API) steamflood in
the PS-805 reservoir in the Palo Seco field (defunct)
(ix) 1993 Petrotrin irnplernented its first cyclic
stirnulation project, Forest Reserve Phase I East, in the Forest
Reserve field (active)
(x) 1994 -current: Petrotrin is currently irnplernenting a
rnajor steamflood project in its Cruse 'E' field in Point Fortin
(in progress).
Frorn the preceding discussion, it is evident that significant
activities in steam injection operations have been, and
continue to be, undertaken, in Trinidad and Tobago.
Evidently, the experiences gamered would have been both
positive and negative, and these will be discussed as
operational and reservoir rnanagernent experiences in the
subsequent sections ofthe paper.
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3
Operational Experiences
During the tenure of thermal operations in Petrotrin's
experience, several practices were adopted, sorne of which, in
retrospect, have proveo inappropriate. It is instructive to note
that stearnflooding operations in the industry was in as
developrnental a rnode as the practices ernployed in Trinidad
and Tobago, and, as a result, docurnented experience of other
projects was very lirnited.
The geological environrnent in which these steamfloods
are located is an extrernely cornplex one, with thinly
interbedded shales separating rnost of the sand packages
available for steamflooding. Additionally, the areal extent of
rnost of the reservoirs, particularly in the Lower Mome
L 'Enfer horizon, a poorly consolidated sandstone of Upper
Pliocene age, are so lirnited, that cornpletions across sands
were necessary to facilitate econornic feasibility.
The following are sorne of the rnajor highlights of the
Cornpany's experiences:
Completion Methods. Casing Programmes. During the
early phase of irnplernentation, with the unavailability of
thermally suitable grades of casing and cernent, existing wells
were utilised as injectors. In short order, casing failures were
experienced, which were later identified as joint pullout and
pipe body failure. These phenornena have been well
docurnented for the Parrylands, Guapo and Apex-Quarry
projects. In the case of the Parrylands project, several wells
have developed failures at the sandcap shale interface and is
attributed to rnechanical shearing at the shale wetting surface.
As a result of the thermal stress induced, in both injectors and
responding offiakes, lateral rnovernent has been sufficient to
result in casing failure. The use of old wells, with J-55 casing
cornpletions, in the Guapo field, has resulted in severa!
inoperable wells, which have, nevertheless, been retained as
observation wells.
Detailed studies in the Apex-Quarry field indicated that,
as a result of thermal stress fluctuations in permanent and
cyclic injectors, as a result of injection interruption (planned
and inadvertent), joint pullout has resulted, with attendant well
failure.
As a result of the above, casing programmes have been
standardized to N-80 Buttress thread types and thermally
cemented for both injectors and offtakes.
Sllm-Hole Injectors. Based on documented literature and in-
house reservoir rnodelling, slim-hole injectors have now
become standard practice in the Company's operations.
Whereas previously, injectors were completed using 6-5/8"
and 7" casing, new injectors are cemented with 4-1/2" casing
as a matter of course. The benefits to be derived are two fold:
- Tubular and drilling costs have been significantly reduced,
and
- The thicker, insulated cement sheath provides greater pipe
support and results in higher sand-face steam quality.
Cluster Locations. As the more obvious and attractive
opportunities have been developed, and in light of declining
4 30 YEARS OF S/FLOODING: PETROTRIN'S RES MANAGEMENT ANO OPERATIONAL EXPERIENCE SPE 30772
oil prices, cluster location drilling for thermal projects has
been initiated with encouraging success. Significant cost
savings have been realised in this regard, whereby location
preparation and infrastructural costs have been substantially
reduced. The Company's first experience of cluster location
drilling was in the Palo Seco Bennett Village project. The
negative experience of improperly cemented deviated
injectors was duly noted, and the use of cluster locations in the
new Cruse 'E' Steamflood Expansion has maintained the
practice of straight hole injectors.
lnsulated Tubing and Packers. Recovery is a direct function
of sand-face steam quality. In an effort to reduce wellbore
heat losses, insulated tubing and packers with a variety of
combinations has been utilised. The use of insulating gases on
the annulus, viz. nitrogen and natural gas, have also been
applied. In the instance of the Forest Reserve Project III
Steamflood, since the early wells were not completed with
thermal recovery in mind, they were not cemented with
thermal blends. Ali these injection wells were fitted with
thermal packers and expansion joints, but an average of 80%
of such installations failed. As a result, ali injectors in the
Company's operations are currently completed with open
ended tubing.
Non-Gravel-Packed Injectors. Dissolution of silica at high
steam temperatures has now been well documented in the
literature. Additionally, it has been physically demonstrated
in the field in Petrotrin's operations whereby gravel-packed
liners have been inadvertently recovered during workover
operations on injectors. As a result, grave! packing of steam
injectors has now been dispensed with, and, coupled with the
slim-hole completions, contribute to additional cost savings.
Limited Entry Perforating. Reference has already been made
to the highly heterogeneous nature of the reservoirs under
thermal stimulation. In order to combat the adverse effects of
gravity override, limited entry and selective perforating
practices are currently standard operating procedure for new
injectors. The evidence of success of this method of
completion has been observed in the uniformity of heating in
both injeptors and offtakes, especially in mature pattems.
Jnsulated Casing Completions. As previously indicated,
production performance is functionally dependent on heat
Josses in the wellbore. A single injector was completed with
insulated casing in the Guapo project in 1986 on a pilot basis.
The results obtained from this inverted five-spot pattem were
very encouraging, with much earlier response obtained in the
associated offtakes.
Cyclic Stimulation. Traditionally in the industry, the
Boberg-Lantz mathematical model has been used for
predicting cyclic thermal stimulation performance.
model has been found to be unsuitable for cyclic steam
production prediction in Petrotrin's operations as a result of
the extent ofthe sand-shale interbedding and lenticularity.
Cyclic stimulation has been applied to and continues to
be utilised in, ali the projects under Petrotrin's purview. In the
instance of the Parrylands pilot project, it has been established
that it required up to six (6) cycles of huff and puff to produce
10% OOIP with an optimum of 10,000 barreis of steam, a
production cycle of up to six (6) months and a steam-oil
ratio(SOR) of 1.0.
In the instance of the Cruse 'E' Pilot although the first
two cycles of huff and puff were matched by the Boberg-
Lantz prediction, the forecast production for subsequent
cycles varied widely from actual field data. In this project, up
to six cycles of huff and puff were carried out in the pilot area.
Severa! slug sizes were experimented with, resulting in
generally decreased production from successive cycles. The
highest production (16 MBO) was obtained for cycle 1 where
the smallest steam slug was used (20 MBBLS) while the
lowest production (5.0 MBO) was obtained for the largest
steam slug (89 MBBLS).
With the exception of the Guapo area, which requires on
average a steam slug size of 30 MBBLS, best results for the
other projects have been obtained for steam slug sizes of 1 O
MBBLS.
Steamflooding. With the advent of upgraded computer
facilities, most of the reservoir modelling and performance
prediction is undertaken in house, utilising software developed
intemally. The models currently available, and which are
being applied, include:
(1) Boberg-Lantz (Cyclic)
(2) Mandl-Volek
(3) Neumann
(4) Myhill-Stegemeir
(5) Jeff Jones
(6) Gomma.
At the current time, the Company's personnel are now
developing expertise in the application of numerical
simulation. A brief description of the individual projects'
performance is presented below.
• Forest Reserve Project IIL The Project III Steamflood was
one of the earliest attempts at Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR)
in Trinidad. This project is located in the north-central part of
the Forest Reserve field in the south-westem portion of the
island of Trinidad. The cyclic stimulation phase was
successfully conducted in 1965, a pilot flood was initiated in
1967 January with severa! phases of expansion in 1968, 1971
and finally amplified in 1977. By 1995 June, 12.8 million
barreis of oil, or 68% of the OOIP have been recovered. Peak
production was 2,599 BOPD in 1979 and the project is still
producing 700 BOPD with a 90% water-cut. The project III
steamflood is an unqualified success by world standards.
However, it was not achieved without significant problems
This and modification of techniques, and through the introduction
of new technology and equipment for improved efficiency.
This project has served as a major leaming experience and
methods leamt were applied to other projects to good effect.
• North Palo Seco. A pilot scheme was started in 1966 with
a 5.8 MMBTU/hr generator supplying three (3) wells. In
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 SPE 30772 C. D. Ramkhalawan, J. Khan, K. R. Bainey
1970, a 25 MMBTU/hr generator was Installed to increase the
steam output further, with consequent increases in net
production. Continuous steamflooding began in 1975 May
with two (2) inverted seven (7) spot pattems increasing to four
(4) pattems by 1976 June. At present, there are thirty-one
(31) active pattems with fifty-three (53) injectors and one
hundred and thirty-five (135) offtakes spread over an area of
278 acres.
Toe total volume · of steam injected under continuous
injection to 1995 June was 56.0 MMBbls which yielded a
cumulative oil production of 22.2 MMSTBO. Production
from the scheme currently averages 2200 BOPD with water
cuts of approximately 75%.
• Guapo. Guapo was the third field in which steam injection
was implemented following the successful pilot in North Palo
Seco. Cyclic steam injection began in 1969 with
commencement of continuous injection in 1976 with four (4)
pattems. At present, there are fifteen ( 15) active pattems
extending over an area of 530 acres, with the cumulative
steam injected being 41.8 MMBbls and a cumulative
production yield 11.9 MMSTBO. Average production rate is
approximately 1500 BOPD.
• Central Los Bajos. Cyclic steam injection began in 1974
while continuous injection commenced in 1977. However,
several operational problems forced the curtailment of steam
injection in the area until 1981. Currently, there are twenty
(20) pattems covering an area of 280 acres. Cumulative stem
injected to 1995 June was 26.7 MMBbls, for a cumulative
production level of 11. l MMSTBO. Oil production rate
currently averages 1800 BOPD.
• North Fyzabad. Cyclic steam injection started in North
Fyzabad in 1978 and the continuous injection phase began
early in 1979 with four (4) pattems in the Forest Horizon.
Two (2) patterns in the Cruse Horizon were also started
towards the end of 1979. At present, there are ten (10) Forest
and seven (7) Cruse pattems covering an area of 300 acres.
This project is unique insofar as two separate reservoirs
(Forest at 1,000 ft and Cruse at 1,800 ft.) are being
simultaneously steamed from the same geographical location.
To date, a combined volume of 15.8 MMBbls of steam has
been injected for a cumulative recovery of 5.5 MMSTBO.
Average current production is 320 BOPD.
• Apex-Quarry/Coora/Quarry. Continuous injection started
in 1981 January with four (4) pattems. Currently, there are
twenty-nine (29) pattems encompassing a total area of 278
acres. Cumulative steam injected to date is 38.8 MMBbls for
a cumulative production of 7.5 MMSTBO. At present,
production averages l 050 BOPD.
• Parrylands. In 1981, the initial thermal experiment in the
Parrylands field in 1965 was followed up, and a six inverted
five-spot pattem pilot project, covering an area of 30 acres
was implemented. This was expanded in 1985 and again in
1987 to its present size of 86 acres, sixteen ( 16) pattems and
forty-seven (47) wells. To date, this project has had a
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cumulative injection of 7.8 MMBbls of steam for a
cumulative production of 2.1 MMSTBO. At present,
production averages 320 BOPD.
• Bennett Village. Continuous injection started in the Palo
Seco Bennett Village project in 1985 and there are at present
seven (7) active pattems. At present, the project encompasses
an area of 150 acres, has had a cumulative injection of 7.7
MMBBls steam and a cumulative production of 3.2
MMSTBO. Current average production stands at 420 BOPD.
This project represented the Company's first effort at cluster
drilling for EOR production and also witnessed the use of dual
slimhole injectors and special blends ofbubble cement.
• Cruse 'E' Pilot. In 1986, a pilot project was implemented
in the Cruse 'E' reservoir in the Point Fortín field. This pilot
consisted of five (5) inverted five-spot pattems and covered
40 acres. This project was later expanded by adding three
more pattems over 20 acres. Based on the Parrylands
experience, with the adverse effects of steaming two zones
together, the zones here were to be flooded in two separate
sand packages. Twin injectors were therefore drilled for each
pattem with single comer well offtakes. This has proven to be
quite effective, and, to date, a total of 3.4 MMBbls of steam
have been injected for a cumulative recovery of 0.7
MMSTBO. Current production averages 400 BOPD.
Reservoir and performance characteristics of ali the
above floods are summarised in Tables I and 11.
Reservoir Management
Over the tenure of these operations, it was inevitable that
severa! operational and reservoir associated problems would
have arisen. To a significant degree, these have been
surmounted by prudent operating practices and sound
reservoir management procedures. Toe evidence of their
success, in many instances methods of a pioneering nature, is
in the continuation of the operations. The two major areas of
effective reservoir management have been in surveillance
methods and production optimisation and these are discussed
below.
Surveillance Methods. Iso-Fluid Mapping. On a project-
wide scale, quarterly iso-fluid maps are generated in order to
detect migration paths and accumulations of reservoir fluids.
These include iso-thermal, iso-baric (static and dynamic), iso-
salinity, iso-pach, iso-gross and nett rates, iso-cumulative
production and iso-water-cut maps. These maps have proven
invaluable in determining in-fill drilling locations, zones
requiring pump-off or profile control, and for pattem re-
orientation for production optimisation.
As an example, since the conversion of the Parrylands
pilot to continuous steam injection, severa! pattems have
shown good response to injection while others are exhibiting
steam breakthrough, resulting from steam channelling. These
maps were prepared to identify heat distribution and potential
areas requiring injection and withdrawal balancing. After
corrective action, which sought to produce out collapsed
6 30 YEARS OF S/FLOODING : PETROTRIN'S RES MANAGEMENT AND OPERATIONAL EXPERIENCE SPE 30772
flood fronts and balance injection, the project's production
potential of 300 BOPD was restored.
Temperature Proji/es. A programme of quarterly temperature
profiles on steam injectors has been initiated. Examination of
these has guided decisions to reduce injection rates or switch
injection points where premature breakthrough has been a
phenomenon. Additionally, these surveys have served as
casing integrity checks, and have identified leaks in casing in
non-target zones. These have been required in order to negate
undesirable surface eruptions.
Non-Radioaetive Tracers. Within recent times, a pilot study,
using alcohols as tracers, was undertaken to establish interwell
connectivity. Different alcohols were injected at selected
injectors with the effluent captured at communicating offtakes
and analysed using gas chromatography. Initial results have
been encouraging, and it is proposed to do additional testing
to confirm these results.
Injectivity Re/ationships. Moving one-year, quarterly
generated, injectivity profiles are prepared for all injectors.
These incorporate actual steam injection rates and injectivity
indices (BSPD/psi) for individual injectors with changes in
characteristics guiding decisions as to changing injection
points in instances of premature breakthrough.
Fluid-Leve/ and Rate Monitoring, Dynamic fluid-leve! and
rate (nett and gross) monitoring are standard measurements to
determine fluid migration and responding zones.
Computer Modelling and Project Reviews. Quarterly well
reviews and annual projects reviews, using the analytical
computer-models for matching and optimisation are currently
ongoing
Production Optimisation. Based on the combined results of
all the surveillance procedures enunciated, production
optimisation on all the projects is an ongoing exercise. The
methods used are summarised below:
(a) Infill and replacement drilling
(b) Cyclic stimulation in cold or non-responding areas
(e) Well re-tailoring as indicated by results seen from the
fluid-maps and production testing
(d) Profile control on injectors by sanding of swept
zones or by use of diverting agents (limited usage
because of cost)
(e) Alteration ofwell injectivities (injectors) to
stimulate unresponsive pattems
(t) Pattem re-orientation via switching of injection points
(g) Regular team meetings for synergy achievement.
The above represent the most significant approaches to
production optimisation. With the advent of Petrotrin in 1993
(resulting from the merger of the two previously state-owned
oil companies, Trintoc and Trintopec), the Company has
embarked on the concept of autonomous field units,
comprising natural work teams, incorporating engineers,
production and facilities personnel. The early success of this
method of operation has manifested itself in early and timely
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response to problems and significant reduction in cost of the
operations.
New Approaches in Project Management
Following the merger of its two predecessor companies,
Petrotrin now has a combined heavy oil reserves base of 300
million barreis. With an asset of this magnitude, and with the
petroleum industry, both Iocally and intemationally, becoming
increasingly competitive, it is an imperative that the Company
develop these reserves in a timely and cost effective manner.
To this end, a significant energy thrust was undertaken, with
funding from the Inter-American Development Bank (IADB),
in conjunction with other intemational lending agencies, for
the implementation of three major petroleum-based energy
projects, viz:
(a) The Trinmar Main Field Waterflood - Offshore.
(b) The Pointe-a-Pierre Refinery Modemization, and
(e) Onshore Heavy Oil Projects (Forest Reserve Phase I East
and Cruse 'E' Steamflood Expansion ).
In order to maximise the retums on the onshore heavy oil
projects, work teams, drawing expertise from both former
companies and encompassing the entire ambit of operations,
from design to implementation and operation of the schemes,
were assembled and assigned to the projects. The synergy
achieved by the application of this modem approach resulted
in tremendous cost savings in the Forest Reserve Phase I East
Project and in the efficient ongoing management in the
implementation phase ofthe Cruse 'E' Expansion Scheme.
In the initial phases of both projects, technical designs
incorporated detailed geological and engineering modelling.
Comprehensive geological models were developed, after
which, in consultation with engineering personnel, well
positions and steamflood pattems were selected.
• Forest Reserve Phase I East. The Forest Reserve Phase I
East project is situated in the Forest Reserve field.
Geologically, it lies on the northem flank of the Forest
Reserve anticline. The objective reservoir is the uppermost
section of the Pliocene Lower Forest formation which occurs
atan average depth of 1200 feet. This project was developed
on an asymmetrical inverted five-spot pattem consisting of
fourteen new wells, comprising seven injectors and seven
offtakes. The seven pattems demarcated also utilised ten
existing wells in the project area.
This project, developed to exploit 14-16° API heavy oil,
is expected to recover a total of 2.2 million barreis of oil in its
projected fifteen year life. During the drilling phase of this
project, which lasted over the period 1993 September to 1993
November, continuous refinement of the geological and
reservoir models resulted in optima! well positions.
Completion of the wells followed a novel procedure, with
severa! initiatives being exercised. These included the
following:
(a) Following the technical remodelling of the scheme,
the most appropriate completions were designed
 SPE 30772 C. D. Ramkhalawan, J. Khan, K. R. Bainey
(b) Simultaneously with the above, the casing cement was
afforded ample time for curing
(e) The wells were perforated and produced, thereby
facilitating wellbore and perforation tunnels' cleanup prior to
gravel packing
(d) Stringent gravel pack supervision was exercised to
ensure the best possible sand control on the wells
(e) Previous experience of huff and puff activities in the
area was utilised, and steam slug sizes for first cycle
stimulation were optimised at 10,000 barreis of steam per
well.
In order to achieve the best results for this type of crude,
reservoir, depth, geological formation and low initial
production and recovery, three phases are being undertaken; viz.
primary production (to achieve depletion prior to
injection), cyclic stimulation via huff and puff (for heating and
improving the mobility of the viscous oil) and, finally the
continuous drive phase by steamflooding. Toe primary
production phase lasted over the period 1994 April to 1994
September, after which an initial batch of six wells was put on
cyclic stimulation. The first injection cycle has been completed
on eight wells to date and these have been put back on
production with favourable initial results.
Initial projections in this project were for primary
production level of 5 BOPD per well from the fourteen new
wells. The performance of the reservo ir has been far superior
to this to date, with total production peaking at 450 BOPD in
1994 May, and currently averaging 350 BOPD. As at 1995
June, the project has realised a total production of 140,000
barreis of oil as compared with the initial forecast to that time
of 30,000 barreis of oil.
• Cruse Steamflood Expansion. The Cruse 'E' Steamflood
Expansion project is located in the Point Fortin/Cruse area and
encompasses acreage in the Point Fortín Central, Point Fortín
East and Cruse fields. Geologically, this area líes immediately
north of the Los Bajos fault system, along the northern flank
of the Point Fortín anticline. The objective reservoir is the
uppermost section of the Pliocene Upper Cruse formation,
which occurs at an average depth of 1900 ft. This project is
being developed on an asymmetrical inverted five-spot pattern
incorporating thirty-four (34) existing wells and sixty (60)
new wells comprised of twenty-eight (28) new injectors and
thirty-two (32) new offtakes. As at 1995 June the total of
sixty (60) new wells has been drilled with log data being very
encouraging.
The Cruse 'E' reservoir in the project area is estimated to
contain thirty-six million barreis of heavy oil of 16-18º API in
place. Utilising a conservative estímate of 30% recovery, this
project is expected to recover a total of eleven million barreis
of oil by steamflooding in the projected fifteen year life of the
scheme.
Toe iterative process of geological and engineering
modelling coupled with drilling data acquisition has resulted
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in the technical expectations being greatly refined, with actual
results closely matching forecast reservoir parameters of nett
oil sand, areal extent and reserves. With dedicated
supervision and management of the drilling phase of the
project, significant cost savings have been realised, with actual
drilling costs to date being 80% of the originally estimated
costs. These savings have resulted from effective project
management techniques and optimisation procedures.
A comprehensive reservoir management programme is
also being developed and implemented. Toe need for such a
programme has been underscored by Petrotrin' s success in
thermal operations over the past thirty years. Reservoir
management is an essential application of good engineering
and geological practices to facilitate the most cost effective fluid
injection and oil production. To this end, this
programme is a two-part one, viz., data acquisition and
modeíling and reservoir monitoring and surveillance. Full hole
cores have been recovered, two each in Forest Reserve and
Cruse 'E'. Rock and fluid data from these cores, from well
logs, produced fluids and field history are currently being
analysed and prepared for detailed numerical reservoir
simulation for both projects.
Petrotrin has developed extensive expertise in the
monitoring of steamfloods, and these methods are being
applied currently to the Forest Reserve project, with similar
applications proposed for Cruse 'E'. These tools include
regular schedules of well testing, injection and production
volume measurements, production logging (downhole
temperature, rate and pressure profiles), injectivity profiles,
volumetric balances and iso-fluid mapping techniques.
To date, significant success has been achieved in both
projects. This has been realised as a result of the teamwork
and synergy among ali the relevant groups with responsibility
for the implementation and management of the projects.
Based on performance to date and team spirit, projections for
continued success appears very positive.
Conclusions
Petrotrin has been a pioneer in the field of thermal recovery in
Trinidad and Tobago. The Company, and its predecessors,
has had fully three decades of experience in this mechanism.
In many regards, development methods in steamflooding
worldwide have reflected those locally applied. Toe
continued and onging application of steamflooding is ample
testimony to the success of the projects implemented. With a
total recovery, to date, of 72 million barreis of heavy oil by
steamflooding, and in light of the preponderance of heavy oil
reserves in Petrotrin's leases, coupled with the substantial
infrastructure, the prospects for the future are encouraging.
Despite the fact that the Company's achievement have been
occasionally hampered by operational problems the
experience gained and the techniques developed indicate
continued profitable effort in this direction.
8 30 YEARS OF S/FLOODING : PETROTRIN'S RES MANAGEMENT AND OPERATIONAL EXPERIENCE SPE 30772

Acknowledgments
The author acknowledge Petrotrin for allowing publication of
this material. The assistance of the technical staff, and
particularly, Ms. Zorida Rahaman Ali, in compiling and
preparing this publication is gratefully acknowledged.

TABLE 1- RESERVOIR ROCK AND FLUID PROPERTIES

Average
Initial Sand
Water Thickness Areal Average API Average
OOIP Porosity Saturation Gross/Nett Extent Depth Gravity Permeability
Project Iitle (mrnbbl) Horizon íill íill (ID (Acres) (ID e) (md)

Guapo 56 Cruse 25 35 225/100 530 2200 10 250

Forest Reserve Project III 19 Forest 35 30 150/95 260 1000 16 200
Central Los Bajos 43 LMLE 26 30 325/175 280 1400 16 315
North Fyzabad
(a) Forest 8 Forest 27 33 175/125 180 900 16 215
(b) Cruse 5 Cruse 25 35 275/90 120 2100 17 15
Parrylands 16 Forest 32 36 150/120 86 1000 12.5 250
Apex-Quarry 36 LMLE 28 35 380/150 275 2200 19 315
Palo Seco- Bennett Village 31 LMLE 26 30 400/175 150 1200 22 315
Point Fortin Cruse 'E' 9 Cruse 29 30 150/100 60 1600 17 500
Palo Seco - North 55 LMLE 26 30 335/180 440 1400 16 315
Forest Reserve Phase I East 9 Forest 30 30 250/150 40 900 15 270
Point Fortin Cruse 'E' Exp. 36 Cruse 29 25 150/90 250 2000 17 500

TABLE 2 - PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS TO DATE

Current Current Cum Cum

Year Prod. Inj. Prod Inj Current Cum Recovery
Project Iitle Started (BQJ2d) íB.slld) (Mmbbl) (Mmbbl) S,_Q.R aas, (%00IP)

Guapo 1969 1500 9000 11.9 41,8 6.0 3.5 21

Forest Reserve Project III 1971 700 3400 12.8 57.0 5.5 4.5 68
Central Los Bajos 1974 1800 4800 11.1 26.7 2.7 2.4 26
North Fyzabad 1978 320 1800 5.5 15.8 5.6 2.9 42
Parrylands 1981 320 1300 2.1 7.8 4.1 3.7 13
Apex-Quarry 1981 1050 3200 7.5 38.8 3.0 5.2 21
Palo Seco- Bennett Village 1985 420 1500 3.2 7.7 3.6 2.4 10
Point Fortin Cruse 'E' 1986 400 1800 0.7 3.4 4.5 4.9 8
Palo Seco - North 1986 2200 8700 22.2 56.0 4.0 2.5 40
Forest Reserve Phase I East 1994 425 1500 0.1 0.1 3.5 1.0 1
Point Fortin Cruse 'E' Exp. To commence in September 1995.

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