Chapter 2 PDF

Techniques of Integration
Chapter 2
Eusebio R. Lina, Jr.
Department of Mathematics and Physics

Visayas State University
Visca, Baybay City, Leyte
February 27, 2019
Eusebio R. Lina, Jr. Techniques of Integration February 27, 2019 1 / 131

Outline
1 Integrals Involving Transcendental Functions
Natural Logarithic Function
Natural Exponential Function
Logarithms and Exponentials with Arbitrary Bases
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Hyperbolic Functions
2 Integration by Parts
3 Trigonometric Integrals
Trigonometric Integrals Involving Powers of Sine and Cosine
Trigonometric Integrals Involving Powers of Secant and Tangent and Cosecant and
Cotangent
Integrals Involving Products of Sine and Cosine with Different Angles
4 Integration of Algebraic Functions by Trigonometric Substitutions
5 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions
6 Exercise
Outline
Cotangent
6 Exercise
Outline
Cotangent
6 Exercise
As we know, the power formula
xn+1
Z
xn dx = +C
n+1
has a gap in it due to the restriction n 6= −1. Furthermore, no familiar
function is available as a solution of the antidifferentiation problem
Z Z
−1 dx
x dx = .
x
The Part 1 of the FTC supplies a theoretical answer, namely the function
Z x
dt
F(x) = , (x > 0).
1 t

Then Z x
d dt 1
F 0 (x) = = ,
dx 1 t x
that is, F(x) is an antiderivative of f (x) = 1/x in the interval (0, ∞).
Moreover, it can be shown that
F(ab) = F(a) + F(b)
and
F(a/b) = F(a) − F(b).
These statements strongly suggest the laws of logarithms.

Definition
For each x > 0, we define the natural logarithm of x to be the number
Z x
dt
ln x = .
1 t

Definition
Z x
dt
ln x = .
1 t
Theorem
1 If a and b are positive real numbers, then
(i) ln ab = ln a + ln b
(ii) ln(a/b) = ln a − ln b.
2 If r is a rational number, ln xr = r ln x, where x > 0.

Definition
Z x
dt
ln x = .
1 t
Theorem
1 If a and b are positive real numbers, then
(i) ln ab = ln a + ln b
(ii) ln(a/b) = ln a − ln b.
2 If r is a rational number, ln xr = r ln x, where x > 0.
Definition
The letter e denotes the positive real number such that
Z e
1
ln e = dt = 1.
1 t
Differentiation Rule
1
Dx ln x =
x
More generally,
d 1 du
(ln u) = .
dx u dx

Differentiation Rule
1
Dx ln x =
x
More generally,
d 1 du
(ln u) = .
dx u dx
Integration Formula
Z
1
dx = ln |x| + C
x
More generally, Z
1
du = ln |u| + C
u

Natural Logarithmic Function
Example
Calculate the derivatives of the following functions.
1 y = ln(2x2 + 1)
2 y = (ln x)4
√ !
4 + x2
3 y = ln
x
4 y = ln(ln x)
5 y = ln | csc x|
p
6 y = 2 + cos2 x

Evaluate the following integrals.

Z Z
5 sec2 (2x)
Z
1 dx 6 dx 11 tan xdx
Z x+3 tan(2x)
7 Z
x2 + x + 1 Z
2 dx 7 dx sec xdx
Z 3 − 2x
12
x2 + 1
cos x
Z
2x
3 dx 8 dx Z
3 sin x − 4 (x + 1)2 13 csc xdx
5x2 e2
Z Z
4 dx 1
7 − 2x3
9
3/2
dx
e x[ln x] 14
π/4 p
3x2 + 1
Z Z Z
5 dx 10 cot xdx 1 + tan2 xdx
x3 + x 0

Outline
Cotangent
6 Exercise
Definition
The inverse of ln is called exp. It is defined by the statement that
y = exp x ⇔ x = ln y.
Remark
Since ln and exp are inverses,
exp(ln x) = x for all x > 0 and ln(exp x) = x for all x.

Theorem
1 For all u and v,
exp(u + v) = exp u + exp v
and
exp u
exp(u − v) = .
exp v
2 If r is rational, then (exp x)r = exp rx for all x.
Definition
e = exp 1
Note
1 n

e = lim 1 + ≈ 2.7182818284...
n→∞ n
From now on, we write

exp x = ex .
Hence,
y = ex ⇔ x = ln y.
Properties
If x > 0 and a, b ∈ R, then
i eln x = x
ii ln ex = x
iii ea+b = ea · eb
ea
iv ea−b = b
e

Differentiation and Integration Formulas

Dx ex = ex
or, more generally,
d u du
(e ) = eu ,
dx dx
where u is a differentiable function of x. Equivalently,
Z
ex dx = ex + C
or, more generally, Z

eu du = eu + C.

Example
Find the derivative.
1 f (x) = e2x ex + 1
7 f (x) =
2
2
g(x) = ex +1 ex − 1
x
3 h(x) = esin x
8 y = e (sin x + cos x)
Z lnx
4 f (x) = e−x ln x 9 F(x) = cos(et )dt
5 g(t) = (e−t + et )3 π
2
6 f (x) = x
e + e−x

Example
Z Z ln 3
1 e5x dx 6 [ex ]3 dx
ln 2
Z √
e x
Z
2 e2x+7 dx 7 √ dx
Z x
2 √
Z
3 xex −3 8 ex 1 − ex dx
Z
5 − ex
3
Z
4 ecos x sin x cos2 xdx 9 dx
e2x
e + e−x
Z x Z
5 dx 10 e−x tan(e−x )dx
ex − e−x

Outline
Cotangent
6 Exercise
What does it mean to calculate
4π or π e ?

What does it mean to calculate
4π or π e ?
Definition
If a > 0 and b is any real number, we define
ab = e(b ln a) .
Definition
Let a be any positive number except 1. The exponential function of base a is
defined by
ax = ex ln a (defined for all x).
When a = e this reduces to ex and is called the natural exponential function.

Properties
If a, d > 0 and b, c ∈ R, then
(i) ln(ab ) = b ln a
(ii) ab+c = ab ac
ab
(iii) ab−c = c
a
(iv) (a ) = abc
b c
(v) ab = d if and only if d1/b = a, (b 6= 0)

(vi) a0 = 1
(vii) a1 = a
(viii) (ad)c = ac dc

Definition
Let a be any positive number except 1. The logarithmic function of base a is
defined by
ln x
loga x = ( x > 0).
ln a
It is the inverse of the exponential function of base a, that is,
y = loga x ⇔ x = ay .
Moreover, when a = e it is the same as the natural logarithm:
loge x = ln x.

Properties
1 If a, b > 0, then
aloga b = b.
2 If a > 0 and b ∈ R, then
loga ab = b.
3 If a, b, c > 0, then
(i) loga (bc) = loga b + loga c
(ii) loga (b/c) = loga b − loga c
logc b
(iii) loga b =
logc a
1
(iv) loga b =
logb a
(v) loga 1 = 0
(vi) loga a = 1
(vii) For any exponent r, loga (br ) = r loga b

Differentiation and Integration

If a > 0, then
ax
Z
d
(i) a = a ln a equivalently ax dx =
x x
+ C.
dx ln a
d 1
(ii) loga x =
dx x ln a
More generally,
au
Z
d u du
(i) a = au ln a equivalently au du = + C.
dx dx ln a
d 1 du
(ii) loga u =
dx u ln a dx

Example
Calculate.
d x
1 5
dx
d cos x
2 3
dx
d
3 log8 x
dx
d
4 log4 (x cos x)
dx

Example
Evaluate.
Z
1 3cot x csc2 xdx
log6 (x3 )
Z
2 dx
x
Z
2
3 x · 3x dx
32x
Z
4 dx
1 + 32x
Z 1
2 2
5 x(5x − 3x )dx
0

Theorem
For any real number a, we have
d a
x = axa−1 .
dx
More generally, if u is a differentiable function of x and a is any real number,
then
d a du
u = aua−1 .
dx dx
Example
Calculate the derivative of
√ 2
x−π , x 3
, xe , and (cos x2 )e .

Logarithmic Differentiation
We next show how to use logarithm as an aid to differentiation. The key idea
is that if F is a function taking positive values then we can exploit the formula
F0
[ln F]0 = .
F
Example
Find the derivative of the following functions:
1 f (x) = xx , x > 0
√
x3 x2 + 1
2 y=
(x + 2)4
3 y = x2 · sin x · 5x

Exercise
Evaluate the following integrals. Give the exact value for definite integrals.
Z Z
x(x + 2)
1 dx 8 tan x ln(cos x)dx
x3 + 3x2 − 4
Z 3
x − 3x2 + 4x − 9 Z
2
2+3
dx 9
y y
ey 2e 3e dy
Z x
dx
3 √3 2 √ Z
x
x (1 + 3 x) 10 2ln x (ln x + 1)dx
Z x
2e − 2e −x
4
x −x 2
Z (e + e ) 3e2x
Z
11 dx
5 ln(e2x−1 )dx 1 + e2x
Z p
Z 1
ex 12
3
e3x + e4x dx
6 dx
5 − ex
Z0
csc(e−2x ) cot(e−2x )
Z sec x+ln(tan x)
e
7
2x −2x
dx 13 dx
e [1 + csc(e )] cos x
Exercise
Z 3 Z p
x − 3x2 + 4x − 9 5
3
e3x + e4x dx
1
2
dx
x +3
Z 1
ex
Z
dx
2 √ √ 6
x
dx
0 5−e
3 2
x (1 + 3 x)
Z Z 1
3 tan x ln(cos x)dx 7 log2 (42x−1 )dx
−1
Z Z ln 2
x y y
4 2ln x (ln x + 1)dx 8 ey 2e 3e dy
0

Quiz
x3 − 3x2 + 4x − 9 csc(e−2x ) cot(e−2x )

Z Z
1 dx 5 dx
x2 + 3 e2x [1 + csc(e−2x )]
Z
dx 6
2 √3 2 √
Z
x
x (1 + 3 x) 5ln x (ln x + 1)dx, where x > 0
Z
log3 (272x−1 )dx 1p
3
Z
4
7 e5x + e6x dx
0
esec x+ln(tan x)
Z
1
dx ex
4
Z
cos x 8 dx
0 5 − ex

Outline
Cotangent
6 Exercise
None of the six trigonometric functions has an inverse function. In this

section, we will examine these six functions to see whether their domains can
be redefined in such a way that they will have inverse functions on the
restricted domain.


Theorem (Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions)

Let u be a differentiable function of x.
d 1 du d 1 du
[arcsin u] = √ · [arccos u] = − √ ·
dx 1 − u2 dx dx 1 − u2 dx
d 1 du d 1 du
[arctan u] = · [cot−1 u] = − ·
dx 1 + u2 dx dx 1 + u2 dx
d 1 du d 1 du
[sec−1 u] = √ · [csc−1 u] = − √ ·
dx |u| u2 − 1 dx dx |u| u2 − 1 dx

Example
Calculate.
d
1 [sin−1 (2x)]
dx
d
2 [arctan(3x)]
dx
d √
3 [arcsin x]
dx
d
4 [sec−1 e2x ]
dx
d p
5 [sin−1 x + x 1 − x2 ]
dx

Example
Calculate.
d 2
1 [sin−1 (2x)] = √
dx 1 − 4x2
d 3
2 [arctan(3x)] =
dx 1 + 9x2
d √ 1
3 [arcsin x] = √
dx 2 x − x2
d 2
4 [sec−1 e2x ] = √
dx 4x
e −1
d p
5 [sin−1 x + x 1 − x2 ]
dx

The derivatives of the six inverse trigonometric functions fall into three pairs.
In each pair, the derivative of one function is the negative of the other. When
listing the integral that corresponds to each of the inverse trigonometric
functions, you need to use only one member from each pair.
Theorem (Integrals Involving Inverse Trigonometric Functions)

Let u be a differentiable function of x and let a > 0.
Z
du u
1 √ = arcsin + C
2
a −u 2 a
Z
du 1 u
2
2 2
= arctan + C
a +u a a
|u|
Z
du 1
3 √ = sec−1 +C
u u2 − a2 a a

Example
Z Z
dx x+2
1 √ 5 √
Z 4 − x2 4 − x2
dx
2 Z
2 dx
Z 2 + 9x 6
dx x2 − 4x + 7
3 √
Z x 4x2 − 9 Z 9/4
dx 1
4 √ 7 √
e2x − 1 3/2 3x − x2

Answer
Z
dx x
1 √ = sin−1 +C
4− x2 2
Z
dx 1 3x
2
2
= √ arctan √ + C
2 + 9x 3 2 2
|2x|
Z
dx 1
3 √ = sec−1 +C
2
x 4x − 9 3 3
Z
dx
4 √ = sec−1 ex + C
2x
e −1
Z
x+2 p x
5 √ = − 4 − x2 + 2 arcsin + C
4 − x2 2
x−2
Z
dx 1
6 = √ arctan √ + C
x2 − 4x + 7 3 3
9/4
9/4
−1 x − 3/2
Z
1 π
7 √ = sin =
3/2 3x − x 2 3/2 6 3/2
Exercise
Z
dx
1 √
(1 + x) x
Z e
dx
2
x[1 + (ln x)2 ]
Z1
dx
3 √
15 + 2x − x2

Answer
√
Z
dx
1 √ = 2 tan−1 x + C
(1 + x) x
Z e
dx π
2
2
=
x[1 + (ln x) ] 4
Z1
dx x−1
3 √ = sin−1 +C
15 + 2x − x2 4

Outline
Cotangent
6 Exercise
In this section, we will look briefly at a special class of exponential functions

called hyperbolic functions.


Differentiation and Integration of Hyperbolic Functions
Since hyperbolic functions are written in terms of ex and e−x , we cn easily
derive rules for their derivatives. The following theorem lists these derivatives
with the corresponding integration rules.
Theorem (Derivatives and Integrals of hyperbolic Functions)

Example
Calculate the following derivatives.
d
1 sinh(x2 − 3)
dx
d
2 ln[cosh x]
dx
d
3 [x sinh x − cosh x]
dx
d
4 arctan(sinh t2 )
dt
d h sinh x2 i
5 e sech2 3x
dx

Example
Z
1 cosh 2x sinh2 2xdx
Z
2 coth xdx
Z
3 xcsch2 (x2 )dx
Z
4 sinh(1 − 3x)dx
Z
csch(1/x) coth(1/x)
5 dx
x2
Z ln 2
6 tanh xdx
0

Outline
Cotangent
6 Exercise
Integration by Parts
In this section, we will study an important integration technique called

integration by parts. This technique can be applied to a wide variety of
functions and is particularly useful for integrands involving product of
algebraic and transcendental functions.

Integration by parts is based on the formula for the derivative of a product

d dv du
[uv] = u + v = uv0 + vu0
dx dx dx
where both u and v are differentiable functions of x. When u0 and v0 are
continuous, you can integrate both sides of this equation to obtain
Z Z Z Z
0 0
uv = uv dx + vu dx = udv + vdu.
By rewriting this equation, we obtain

Z Z
udv = uv − vdu.

Example
Evaluate the following.
Z
1 xex dx
Z
2 x2 ln xdx
Z 1
3 arcsin xdx
0
Z
4 x2 sin xdx
Z
5 (ln x)2 dx
Z
6 ex sin xdx

Example
Evaluate the following.
Z
1 xex dx = xex − ex + C
x3 x3
Z
2 x2 ln xdx = ln x − +C
3 9
Z 1
π
3 arcsin xdx = − 1
2
Z0
4 x2 sin xdx = −x2 cos x + 2x sin x + 2 cos x + C
Z
5 (ln x)2 dx = x ln2 x − 2x ln x + 2x + C
Z
1
6 ex sin xdx = ex (sin x − cos x) + C
2


More Examples
Z
1 xe6x dx
Z t
2 (3t + 5) cos dt
4
Z
3 w2 sin(10w)dw
√
Z
4 Evaluate x x + 1dx:
(a) using integration by parts.
(b) using u-substitution.
Z p
5 x5 x3 + 1dx

More Examples
Z
x 1
1 xe6x dx = e6x − e6x + C
6 36
Z t t t
2 (3t + 5) cos dt = 4(3t + 5) sin + 48 cos +C
4 4 4
3
w2
Z
w 1
w2 sin(10w)dw = − cos(10w) + sin(10w) + cos(10w) + C
10 50 500
√
Z
4 Evaluate x x + 1dx: Answer:
2 4
(a) x(x + 1)3/2 − (x + 1)5/2 + C
3 15
2 2
(b) (x + 1)5/2 − (x + 1)3/2 + C
Z 5 3
p 2 4
5 x5 x3 + 1dx = x3 (x3 + 1)3/2 − (x3 + 1)5/2 + C
9 15
Intgeration by Parts
Some problems could require us to do integration by parts numerous times

and there is a short hand method that will allow us to do multiple applications
of integration by parts quickly and easily.

Some problems could require us to do integration by parts numerous times

and there is a short hand method that will allow us to do multiple applications
of integration by parts quickly and easily.
Repeated Integration by Parts

Z
fg = fG1 − f 0 G2 + f 00 G3 − f 000 G3 + . . . + (−1)n f (n) Gn+1 + C
where f is a polynomial of degree n and G1 , G2 , ..Gn+1 are successive

antiderivatives of g.

Example
Evaluate the following:
Z
1 x4 ex/2 dx
Z π/4
2 x4 sin(2x)dx.
0

Exercises: (1 whole)
Evaluate the following using integration by parts.
Z
1 4x cos(2 − 3x)dx
Z
2 (ln x)2 dx
Z p
3 x5 x3 + 1dx
Z π/4
4 x4 sin(2x)dx.
0

Exercises: (1 whole)
Evaluate the following using integration by parts.
Z
4 4
1 4x cos(2 − 3x)dx = − x sin(2 − 3x) + cos(2 − 3x) + C
3 9
Z
2 (ln x)2 dx = x ln2 x − 2x ln x + 2x + C
Z p
2 4
3 x5 x3 + 1dx = x3 (x3 + 1)3/2 − (x3 + 1)5/2 + C
9 15
Z π/4
1
4 x4 sin(2x)dx = (48 − 24π + π 3 ).
0 64

End of Coverage for Long Exam 2
Long Exam 2: March 11, 2018

Outline
Cotangent
6 Exercise
Trigonometric Integrals
Objectives
In this section, we
solve trigonometric integrals involving power of sine and cosine
solve trigonometric integrals involving power of secant and tangent
solve trigonometric integrals involving power of cosecant and cotangent
solve trigonometric integrals involving sine-cosine product with different
angles.

In this subsection, we will study techniques for evaluating integrals of the

form: Z
sinm x cosn xdx.
To find the integrals of this form, try to break them into combinations of
trigonometric integrals to which we can apply the power rule.

Z Z
Case 1: sin xdx or cosn xdx, where n is a positive odd integer
n
Factor
n−1 n−1
sinn xdx = sinn−1 x sin xdx = (sin2 x) 2 sin xdx = (1−cos2 x) 2 sin xdx
Factor
n−1 n−1
cosn xdx = cosn−1 x cos xdx = (sin2 x) 2 cos xdx = (1−sin2 x) 2 cos xdx

Example
Z Z Z
sin3 xdx = sin2 x sin xdx = (1 − cos2 x) sin xdx
Z Z
= sin xdx − cos2 x sin xdx
| {z }
u=cos x;du=− sin xdx
Z
= − cos x + u2 du
u3
= − cos x + +C
3
cos3 x
= − cos x + +C
3

Example
Z Z Z
cos5 xdx = cos4 x cos xdx =
(cos2 x)2 cos xdx
Z Z
= (1 − sin x) cos xdx = (1 − 2 sin2 x + sin4 x) cos xdx
2 2
Z Z Z
= cos xdx − 2 sin x cos xdx + sin4 x cos xdx
2
| {z }
let u=sin x;du=cos xdx
Z Z
= sin x − 2 u2 du + u4 du
2 sin3 x sin5 x
= sin x − + +C
3 5

Z
Case 2: sinm x cosn xdx, where at least one of the exponents is a
positive odd integer
The solution of this case is similar to the method used for Case 1.
If m is odd, factor
m−1
sinm x cosn xdx = sinm−1 x cosn x sin xdx = (sin2 x) 2 cosn x sin xdx
m−1
= (1 − cos2 x) 2 cosn sin xdx
If n is odd, factor
n−1
sinm x cosn xdx = sinm x cosm−1 x cos xdx = sinm x cos 2 x cos xdx
n−1
m 2
= sin x(1 − sin x) 2 sin xdx
If both m and n are odd, choose either sinm x or cosn x to be factored.

Example
Z Z
3 4
sin x cos xdx = sin2 x cos4 x sin xdx
Z
= (1 − cos2 x) cos4 x sin xdx
Z Z
= cos x sin xdx − cos6 x sin xdx
4
let u = cos x; du = − sin xdx

Z Z
= − u du + u6 du
4
u5 u7
= − + +C
5 7
cos5 x cos7 x
= − + +C
5 7
Example
cos3 x
Z Z
√ dx = cos2 x(sin x)−1/2 cos xdx
sin x Z
= (1 − sin2 x)(sin x)−1/2 cos xdx
Z Z
−1/2
= (sin x) cos xdx − (sin x)3/2 cos xdx
let u = sin x; du = cos xdx
Z Z
−1/2
= u du − u3/2 du
u1/2 u5/2
= − +C
1/2 5/2
√ 2(sin x)5/2
= 2 sin x − +C
5
Z Z Z
m n
Case 3: sin xdx, cos xdx or sinm x cosn xdx, where both m and
n are positive even integers.
In this case, we make repeated use of the half-angle identities
1 − cos 2x 1 + cos 2x
sin2 x = and cos2 x =
2 2
to convert the integrals to odd powers of cosine and use Case 1 or 2.
Express
sinm xdx = (sin2 x)m/2 dx

1 − cos 2x m/2

= dx
2

Express
cosn xdx = (cos2 x)n/2 dx

1 + cos 2x n/2

= dx
2
Express
sinm x cosn xdx = (sin2 x)m/2 (cos2 x)n/2 dx

1 − cos 2x m/2 1 + cos 2x n/2

= dx
2 2

Example
Z Z
4
cos xdx = (cos2 x)2 dx
1 + cos 2x 2
Z
= dx
2
1 + 2 cos 2x + cos2 2x
Z
= dx
4
Z Z Z
1 1 1
= dx + cos 2xdx + cos2 2xdx
4 2 4
| {z }
let u=2x,du=2dx
Z Z
1 1 1 1 + cos 4x
= x+ cos udu + dx
4 4 4 2

Example (Continuation)
Z Z Z
4 1 1 1 1
cos xdx = x + sin u + dx + cos 4xdx
4 4 8 8
| {z }
let v=4x;dv=4dx
Z
1 1 1 1
= x+ sin 2x + x+ cos vdv
4 4 8 32
3 1 1
= x+ sin 2x + sin v + C
8 4 32
3 1 1
= x+ sin 2x + sin 4x + C
8 4 32

Wallis’s Formula
Z π/2
sinm x cosn xdx =
0
[(m − 1)(m − 3) · · · (1 or 2)][(n − 1)(n − 3) · · · (1 or 2)]

· α,
(m + n)(m + n − 2)(m + n − 4) · · · (1 or 2)
where(m and n are both nonnegative integers and

π
, if m and n are both even integers
α= 2
1, if otherwise

Example
Z π/2
Evaluate sin8 xdx.
0

Example
Z π/2
Evaluate sin8 xdx.
0
Solution
π/2
7·5·3·1 π
Z
sin8 xdx = ·
0 8·6·4·2 2
35π
=
256

Example
Z π/2
Evaluate cos9 xdx.
0

Example
Z π/2
Evaluate cos9 xdx.
0
Solution
π/2
8·6·4·2
Z
cos9 xdx = ·1
0 9·7·5·3·1
128
=
315

Example
Z π/2
Evaluate sin9 x cos8 xdx.
0

Example
Z π/2
Evaluate sin9 x cos8 xdx.
0
Solution
π/2
[8 · 6 · 4 · 2][5 · 3 · 1]
Z
sin9 x cos6 xdx = ·1
0 15 · 13 · 11 · 9 · 7 · 5 · 3 · 1
128
=
45045

Z Z
n
Case 4: tan xdx and cotn xdx, where n is a positive integer
Factor
tann xdx = tann−2 x tan2 xdx = tann−2 x(sec2 x − 1)dx
Factor
cotn xdx = cotn−2 x cot2 xdx = cotn−2 x(csc2 x − 1)dx

Example
Z Z
tan5 xdx = tan3 x tan2 xdx
Z
= tan3 x(sec2 x − 1)dx
Z Z
= tan3 x sec2 xdx − tan3 xdx
Z Z
= tan3 x sec2 xdx − tan x tan2 xdx
Z Z
= tan3 x sec2 xdx − tan x(sec2 x − 1)dx

Example
Z Z Z Z
5 3 2 2
tan xdx = tan x sec xdx − tan x sec xdx + tan xdx
let u = tan x; du = sec2 xdx

Z Z Z
3
= u du − udu + tan xdx
u4 u2
= − + ln | sec x| + C
4 2
tan4 x tan2 x
= − + ln | sec x| + C
4 2

Case 5
Z Z Z Z
n m n n
sec xdx or tan x sec xdx ; csc xdx or cotm x cscn xdx, where n is
a positive even integer.
Factor
secn xdx = secn−2 x sec2 xdx

n−2
= (sec2 x) 2 sec2 xdx
n−2
= (tan2 x + 1) 2 sec2 xdx
Factor
cscn xdx = cscn−2 x csc2 xdx

n−2
= (csc2 x) 2 csc2 xdx
n−2
= (cot2 x + 1) 2 csc2 xdx
Example
Z Z Z
csc6 xdx = csc4 x csc2 xdx =
(csc2 x)2 csc2 xdx
Z Z
= (cot2 x + 1)2 csc2 xdx = (cot4 x + 2 cot2 x + 1) csc2 xdx
Z Z Z
= cot x csc dx + 2 cot x csc xdx + csc2 xdx
4 2 2 2
| {z }
let u=cot x;du=− csc2 xdx
Z Z Z
4 2
= − u du − 2 u du + csc2 xdx
u5 2u3
= − − − cot x + C
5 3
cot5 x 2 cot3 x
= − − − cot x + C
5 3
Example
Z Z
5 4
tan x sec xdx = tan5 x sec2 x sec2 xdx
Z
= tan5 x(tan2 x + 1) sec2 xdx
Z Z
= tan x sec xdx + tan5 x sec2 xdx
7 2
let u = tan x; du = sec2 xdx

Z Z
= u du + u5 du
7
u8 u6
= + +C
8 6
tan8 x tan6 x
= + +C
8 6
Case 6
Z Z
tanm x secn xdx or cotm x cscn xdx, where m is a positive odd integer.
Factor
tanm x secn xdx = tanm−1 x secn−1 x sec x tan xdx

m−1
= (tan2 x) 2 secn−1 x sec x tan xdx
m−1
= (sec2 x − 1) 2 secn−1 x sec x tan xdx
Factor
cotm x cscn xdx = cotm−1 x cscn−1 x csc x cot xdx

m−1
= (cot2 x) 2 cscn−1 x csc x cot xdx
m−1
= (csc2 x − 1) 2 cscn−1 x csc x cot xdx

Example
Z Z
5 7
tan x sec xdx = tan4 x sec6 x sec x tan xdx
Z
= (tan2 x)2 sec6 x sec x tan xdx
Z
= (sec2 x − 1)2 sec6 x sec x tan xdx
Z
= (sec4 x − 2 sec2 x + 1)2 sec6 x sec x tan xdx

Example
Z Z Z
5 7 10
tan x sec xdx = sec x sec x tan xdx − 2 sec8 x sec x tan xdx
Z
+ sec6 x sec x tan xdx
let u = sec x; du = sec x tan xdx
Z Z Z
= u10 du − 2 u8 du + u6 du
u11 2u9 u7
= − + +C
11 9 7
sec11 x 2 sec9 x sec7 x
= − + +C
11 9 7

Case 7
Z Z
n
sec xdx or cscn xdx, where n is a positive odd integer.
Apply integration by parts.
Z
For secn xdx, let u = secn−2 xdx and dv = sec2 xdx.
Z
For cscn xdx. let u = cscn−2 xdx and dv = csc2 xdx.

Example
Z
Evaluate csc3 xdx.
Let u = csc x and dv = csc2 xdx. Then, du = − csc x cot xdx and v = − cot x.
Now, applying the integration by parts formula,
Z Z
csc xdx = − csc x cot x − csc x cot2 xdx
3
Z
= − csc x cot x − csc x(csc2 x − 1)dx
Z Z
3
= − csc x cot x − csc xdx + csc xdx
Z
2 csc3 xdx = − csc x cot x + ln | csc x − cot x|
Z
1
∴ csc3 xdx = [ln | csc x − cot x| − csc x cot x] + C
2
Example
Z
sec5 xdx
Solution
Let u = sec3 x and dv = sec2 xdx. Then du = 3 sec3 x tan xdx and v = tan x.
Hence,
Z Z
sec5 xdx = sec3 x tan x − 3 sec3 x tan2 xdx
Z
= sec3 x tan x − 3 sec3 x(sec2 x − 1)dx
Z Z
= sec3 x tan x − 3 sec5 xdx + 3 sec3 xdx
Z Z
4 sec5 xdx = sec3 x tan x + 3 sec3 xdx (1)

Solution
Let u = sec x and dv = sec2 xdx. Then du = sec x tan xdx and v = tan x.
Thus,
Z Z
sec xdx = sec x tan x − sec x tan2 xdx
3
Z
= sec x tan x − sec x(sec2 x − 1)dx
Z Z
= sec x tan x − sec3 xdx + sec xdx
Z Z
2 sec3 xdx = sec x tan x + sec xdx
Z
2 sec3 xdx = sec x tan x + ln | sec x + tan x|
Z
1 1
∴ sec3 xdx = sec x tan x + ln | sec x + tan x| + C0
2 2
Solution
From (1),
Z Z
4 sec5 xdx 3
= sec x tan x + 3 sec3 xdx
Z
1 1
4 sec5 xdx = sec3 x tan x + 3 sec x tan x + ln | sec x + tan x|
2 2
Z
3 3
4 sec5 xdx = sec3 x tan x + sec x tan x + ln | sec x + tan x|
2 2
Z
1 3 3
∴ sec5 xdx = sec3 x tan x + sec x tan x + ln | sec x + tan x| + C
4 4 4

Case 8
Z Z
tanm x secn xdx or cotm x cscn xdx, where m is a positive even integer
and n is a positive odd integer.
Express the integrand in terms of odd powers of secant or cosecant and follow
the suggestions in Case 7. That is,
Factor
tanm x secn xdx = (tan2 x)m/2 secn xdx

= (sec2 x − 1)m/2 secn xdx
Factor
cotm x cscn xdx = (cot2 x)m/2 cscn xdx

= (csc2 x − 1)m/2 cscn xdx

Example
Z
Evaluate tan2 x sec3 xdx.
Solution
Z Z
2 3
tan x sec xdx = (sec2 x − 1) sec3 xdx
Z Z
= sec xdx − sec3 xdx
5

Solution
From the preceding example, we get
Z
1 1
sec3 xdx = sec x tan x + ln | sec x + tan x| + C0
2 2
and
Z
1 3 3
sec5 xdx = sec3 x tan x + sec x tan x + ln | sec x + tan x| + C00 .
4 4 4
Therefore,
Z
1 1 1
tan2 x sec3 xdx = sec3 x tan x + sec x tan x + ln | sec x + tan x| + C.
4 4 4

Integrals involving products of sines and cosines with different angles occur
in many applications. In such instances, we can use the following
product-to-sum identities.
1
sin mx sin nx = [cos(m − n)x − cos(m + n)x]
2
1
sin mx cos nx = [sin(m − n)x + sin(m + n)x]
2
1
cos mx cos nx = [cos(m − n)x + cos(m + n)x]
2

Example
Z Z
1
sin 5x cos 4xdx = [cos x − cos 9x] dx
2
Z Z
1 1
= cos xdx − cos 9xdx
2 2
1 1 1
= sin x − · sin 9x + C
2 2 9
1 1
= sin x − sin 9x + C
2 18

Example
Z Z
5x 3x 1
cos cos dx = [cos x + cos 4x] dx
2 2 2
Z Z
1 1
= cos xdx + cos 4xdx
2 2
1 1
= sin x + sin 4x + C
2 8

Outline
Cotangent
6 Exercise
Integration of Algebraic Functions by Trigonometric
Substitutions
Now that we can evaluate integrals involving powers of trigonometric

functions, we can use trigonometric substitution to evaluate integrals
involving the radicals,
p p p
a2 − u2 , a2 + u2 , and u2 − a2 .
The objective with trigonometric substitution is to eliminate the radical in the

integrand. We do this using the Pythagorean identities
cos2 θ = 1 − sin2 θ, sec2 θ = 1 + tan2 θ, and tan2 θ = sec2 θ − 1.

Substitutions
The restrictions on θ ensure that the function that defines the substitution is
one-to-one.
Substitutions
Example
Evaluate the following integral.
Z √
25x2 − 4
dx
x
Substitutions
Example
Z √
25x2 − 4
dx
x
Answer
Z √
25x2 − 4

p 2
dx = 25x2 − 4 − 2 arccos +C
x 5x
Substitutions
Example
4/5
√
25x2 − 4
Z
dx
2/5 x
Substitutions
Example
4/5
√
25x2 − 4
Z
dx
2/5 x
Answer
√
Z 4/5
25x2 − 4
Z π/3 √ 2π
dx = 2 (sec2 θ − 1)dθ = 2 3 −
2/5 x 0 3
Substitutions
Example
−2/5
√
25x2 − 4
Z
dx
−4/5 x
Substitutions
Example
−2/5
√
25x2 − 4
Z
dx
−4/5 x
Answer
√
Z −2/5
25x2 − 4
Z π
2π √
dx = −2 (sec2 θ − 1)dθ = −2 3
−4/5 x 2π/3 3
Substitutions
Example
Z
1
√ dx
x4 9 − x2
Substitutions
Example
Z
1
√ dx
x4 9 − x2
Answer
√
(9 − x2 )3/2 9 − x2
Z
1
√ dx = − − +C
x4 9 − x2 243x3 81x
Substitutions
Example
x5
Z
dx
(9x2 + 1)3/2
Substitutions
Example
x5
Z
dx
(9x2 + 1)3/2
Answer
x5 81x4 − 36x2 − 8
Z
dx = √ +C
(9x2 + 1)3/2 2187 9x2 + 1
Substitutions
Example
Z
x
√ dx
2x2 − 4x − 7
Substitutions
Example
Z
x
√ dx
2x2 − 4x − 7
Answer
2(x − 1) √2x2 − 4x − 7 √2x2 − 4x − 7
√
1
√ ln + + +C

2 3 3 2
Exercise
Evaluate the following integrals by trigonometric substitution.

Z
dx
1 √
2
9x + 36x + 37
Z
2
2 p dy
y4 y2 − 25
Z
dx
3
(5 − 4x − x2 )5/2
Exercise
Evaluate the following integrals by trigonometric substitution.

Z
1 1 p 2
√ dx = ln 9x + 36x + 37 + 3(x − 2) + C
1

2
9x + 36x + 37 Z 3
Z
2
2 p dy = cos3 θdθ
y y2 − 25
4
(x + 2)3
Z
dx 1 3(x + 2)
3 = +√ +C
(5 − 4x − x2 )5/2 243 (5 − 4x − x2 )3/2 5 − 4x − x2
Outline
Cotangent
6 Exercise
Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions
Partial Fraction
In this section we show how to integrate any rational function (a ratio of
polynomials) by expressing it as a sum of simpler fractions, called partial
fractions, that we already know how to integrate.
Partial Fraction
In this section we show how to integrate any rational function (a ratio of
polynomials) by expressing it as a sum of simpler fractions, called partial
fractions, that we already know how to integrate.
Objective
To make a difficult/impossible integration problem easier.
Illustration
Consider adding two algebraic fractions:
3 2 3(x + 5) − 2(x − 4) x + 23
− = = 2
x−4 x+5 (x − 4)(x + 5) x + x − 20
Illustration
3 2 3(x + 5) − 2(x − 4) x + 23
− = = 2
x−4 x+5 (x − 4)(x + 5) x + x − 20
Partial fraction decomposition reverses the process

x + 23 3 2
= −
x2 + x − 20 x−4 x+5
Illustration
3 2 3(x + 5) − 2(x − 4) x + 23
− = = 2
x−4 x+5 (x − 4)(x + 5) x + x − 20

x + 23 3 2
= −
x2 + x − 20 x−4 x+5
Observe that the separate terms are easier to integrate. Moreover,

Z Z Z
x + 23 3 2
2
dx = dx − dx
x + x − 20 x−4 x+5
Illustration
3 2 3(x + 5) − 2(x − 4) x + 23
− = = 2
x−4 x+5 (x − 4)(x + 5) x + x − 20

x + 23 3 2
= −
x2 + x − 20 x−4 x+5
Observe that the separate terms are easier to integrate. Moreover,
Z Z Z
x + 23 3 2
2
dx = dx − dx
x + x − 20 x−4 x+5
= 3 ln |x − 4| − 2 ln |x + 5| + C
Illustration
Recall from algebra that every polynomial with real coefficients can be
factored into linear or irreducible quadratic factors. For instance, factor
x5 + x4 − x − 1.
Illustration
Recall from algebra that every polynomial with real coefficients can be
factored into linear or irreducible quadratic factors. For instance, factor
x5 + x4 − x − 1.
It is straightforward that
x5 + x4 − x − 1 = (x − 1)(x + 1)2 (x2 + 1),
where (x − 1) is a linear factor, (x + 1)2 is a repeated linear factor and

(x2 + 1) is an irreducible quadratic factor.
Using the above factorization, we can write the partial fraction decomposition
of
P(x)
x + x4 − x − 1
5
where P(x) is a polynomial of degree less than 5, as follows:
P(x) A B C Dx + E
= + + + 2 ,
x5 4
+x −x−1 x − 1 x + 1 (x + 1)2 x +1
where A, B, C, D, E are constants.
Decomposition of P(x)/Q(x) into Partial Fractions

1 Divide if improper: If P(x)/Q(x) is an improper fraction (i.e., the
degree of the numerator is greater than or equal to the degree of the
denominator), divide the numerator by the denominator to obtain
P(x) R(x)
= S(x) + ,
Q(x) Q(x)
where the degree of R(x) is less than the degree of Q(x). Then apply
Steps 2, 3 and 4 to the proper rational expression R(x)/Q(x).
2 Factor the denominator: Completely factor the denominator into
factors of the form
(px + q)m and (ax2 + bx + c)n
where ax2 + bx + c is irreducible.

Decomposition of P(x)/Q(x) into Partial Fractions

3 Linear Factors: For each linear factor of the form (px + q)m , the partial
fraction decomposition must include the following sum of m fractions:
A1 A2 Am
+ 2
+ ... + .
px + q (px + q) (px + q)m
4 Quadratic Factors: For each linear factor of the form (ax2 + bx + c)n ,
the partial fraction decomposition must include the following sum of n
fractions:
A1 x + B1 A2 x + B2 An x + Bn
2
+ 2 2
+ ... + .
ax + bx + c (ax + bx + c) (ax2 + bx + c)n
Example
Evaluate
x2 + 2x − 1
Z
dx.
2x3 + 3x2 − 2x
Example
Evaluate
x2 + 2x − 1
Z
dx.
2x3 + 3x2 − 2x
Answer
x2 + 2x − 1
Z
1 1 1
3 2
dx = ln |x| + ln |2x − 1| − ln |x + 2| + C
2x + 3x − 2x 2 10 10
Note
The method of partial fractions is practical only for integrals of rational
functions whose denominator factor “nicely”.
Example
Z
dx
x2 − 5x + 5
Note
The method of partial fractions is practical only for integrals of rational
functions whose denominator factor “nicely”.
Example
Z
dx
x2 − 5x + 5
Answer
√ √
ln |2x − 5 − 5| − ln |2x + 5 − 5|
Z
dx
2
= √ +C
x − 5x + 5 5
Integration by Partial Fraction
Example
Find
x4 − 2x2 + 4x + 1
Z
dx.
x3 − x2 − x + 1
Example
Find
x4 − 2x2 + 4x + 1
Z
dx.
x3 − x2 − x + 1
Answer
x4 − 2x2 + 4x + 1 x2

x − 1
Z
2
dx = +x− + ln +C
x3 − x2 − x + 1 2 x−1 x + 1
Exercise
5x2 + 20x + 6
Z
Evaluate dx.
x3 + 2x2 + 6
Exercise
5x2 + 20x + 6
Z
Evaluate dx.
x3 + 2x2 + 6
Answer
5x2 + 20x + 6
Z 6
− 9 + C.
x
3 2
dx = ln
x + 2x + 6 x + 1 x + 1
Example
Find
2x3 − 4x − 8
Z
.
x4 − x3 + 4x2 − 4x
Example
Find
2x3 − 4x − 8
Z
.
x4 − x3 + 4x2 − 4x
Answer
2x3 − 4x − 8
Z
x
4 3 2
= 2 ln |x| − 2 ln |x − 1| + ln(x2 + 4) + 2 arctan + C
x − x + 4x − 4x 2
Example
Evaluate
1 − x + 2x2 − x3
Z
.
x(x2 + 1)2
Example
Evaluate
1 − x + 2x2 − x3
Z
.
x(x2 + 1)2
Answer
1 1
ln |x| − ln(x2 + 1) − tan−1 x − 2
+C
2 2(x + 1)
Rationalizing Substitution
Some nonrational functions can be changed into rational functions by
means of appropriate substitutions.
In particular, when an integrand contains
p p an expression of the form
n n
g(x) then the substitution u = g(x) may be effective.
Example
Evaluate Z √
x+4
dx.
x
Example
Evaluate Z √
x+4
dx.
x
Answer
Z √ √
√

x+4 x + 4 − 2
dx = 2 x + 4 + 2 ln
√ +C
x x + 4 + 2
More Examples
Z
3x + 11
1 dx
x2 − x − 6
x2 + 4
Z
2 dx
3x3 + 4x2 − 4x
x2 − 29x + 5
Z
3 dx
(x − 4)2 (x2 + 3)
x3 + 10x2 + 3x + 36
Z
4 dx
(x − 1)(x2 + 4)2
x4 − 5x3 + 6x2 − 18
Z
5 dx
x3 − 3x2
Z
2
6 √ dx
x − 3 x + 10
More Examples: Answers

Z
3x + 11
1 dx = 4 ln |x − 3| − ln |x + 2| + C
x2 −x−6
x2 + 4
Z
1 5
2 dx = − ln |x| + ln |x + 2| + ln |3x − 2| + C
3x3 + 4x2 − 4x 2 6

5 1 2 2 x
3 ln |x − 4| + − ln |x + 3| + √ arctan √ +C
x−4 2 3 3
1 x 1
4 2 ln |x − 1| − ln |x2 + 4| − arctan − 2
+C
2 2 2(x + 4)
Z 4
x − 5x3 + 6x2 − 18 1 6
5
3 2
dx = x2 − 2x + 2 ln |x| − − 2 ln |x − 3| + C
x − 3x 2 x
√ √
Z
2 20 8
6 √ dx = ln | x + 10 − 5| + ln | x + 10 + 2| + C
x − 3 x + 10 7 7
Outline
Cotangent
6 Exercise
Exercise
Z
2x + 4
1 dx
x3 − 2x2
Z 2 2
4y − 7y − 12
2
3 2
dy
1 y − y − 6y
Z 3
x + x2 + 2x + 1
3 dx
(x2 + 1)(x2 + 2)
x2 − 2x − 1
Z
4 dx
x4 − 2x3 + 2x2 − 2x + 1
ex
Z
5 dx
e2x + 3ex + 2
√
x2 + 1
Z
6 dx
x
For Further Reading I
[1] Larson, Ron and Edwards, Bruce H., Calculus, 9th ed., CENGAGE
Learning, USA, 2010.
[2] Liethold, Louis, The Calculus 7, Harper Collins, 1996.
[3] Stewart, James, Calculus, Early Transcendentals, 8th ed., CENGAGE

Learning, USA, 2016.
End of Chapter 2
THANK YOU!
Long Exam 3: October 26, 2017

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Techniques of Integration

Eusebio R. Lina, Jr.

Department of Mathematics and Physics

February 27, 2019

Eusebio R. Lina, Jr. Techniques of Integration February 27, 2019 1 / 131

As we know, the power formula

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F(ab) = F(a) + F(b)

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Eusebio R. Lina, Jr. Techniques of Integration February 27, 2019 7 / 131

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Eusebio R. Lina, Jr. Techniques of Integration February 27, 2019 8 / 131

Eusebio R. Lina, Jr. Techniques of Integration February 27, 2019 9 / 131

Evaluate the following integrals.

Eusebio R. Lina, Jr. Techniques of Integration February 27, 2019 10 / 131

exp(ln x) = x for all x > 0 and ln(exp x) = x for all x.

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From now on, we write

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Differentiation and Integration Formulas

or, more generally, Z

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What does it mean to calculate

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What does it mean to calculate

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(v) ab = d if and only if d1/b = a, (b 6= 0)

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Moreover, when a = e it is the same as the natural logarithm:

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Eusebio R. Lina, Jr. Techniques of Integration February 27, 2019 22 / 131

Differentiation and Integration

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Eusebio R. Lina, Jr. Techniques of Integration February 27, 2019 24 / 131

Eusebio R. Lina, Jr. Techniques of Integration February 27, 2019 25 / 131

Eusebio R. Lina, Jr. Techniques of Integration February 27, 2019 26 / 131

Eusebio R. Lina, Jr. Techniques of Integration February 27, 2019 27 / 131

Eusebio R. Lina, Jr. Techniques of Integration February 27, 2019 29 / 131

x3 − 3x2 + 4x − 9 csc(e−2x ) cot(e−2x )

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None of the six trigonometric functions has an inverse function. In this

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Eusebio R. Lina, Jr. Techniques of Integration February 27, 2019 33 / 131

Theorem (Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions)

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Eusebio R. Lina, Jr. Techniques of Integration February 27, 2019 35 / 131

Eusebio R. Lina, Jr. Techniques of Integration February 27, 2019 36 / 131

Theorem (Integrals Involving Inverse Trigonometric Functions)

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In this section, we will look briefly at a special class of exponential functions

Eusebio R. Lina, Jr. Techniques of Integration February 27, 2019 43 / 131

Eusebio R. Lina, Jr. Techniques of Integration February 27, 2019 44 / 131

Theorem (Derivatives and Integrals of hyperbolic Functions)

Eusebio R. Lina, Jr. Techniques of Integration February 27, 2019 45 / 131

Eusebio R. Lina, Jr. Techniques of Integration February 27, 2019 46 / 131

Eusebio R. Lina, Jr. Techniques of Integration February 27, 2019 47 / 131

In this section, we will study an important integration technique called