9.

Teaching and r esearching English at w ork

Understanding the role and practice of English in the workplace is a key concern in English
for special purposes (ESP). An increasingly globalized workforce andthe over whelming use of
English as a de facto working language have createdsignifi cant demand for workplace – specific
courses.
a. Workplace Discourse Research
While ESP typically focusses on skills development and language learning, workplace discourse
research is interested in identifying how language is used to achieve both task and people -
oriented goals.
b. The Importance of Talk at Work
“ Talk, ” whether spoken or written, is central to this research (and naturally to ESP). Sarangi
and Roberts argue that “ workplaces are held together by communicative practices ” (1999: 1);
talk is how we “ do ” our work. An obvious focus for analysts is the tasks we achieve through
language. Transactional/task – oriented interaction refers to the core, on - topic talk we expect in
the workplace.
c. Teaching Discourse Analysis: The Importance
of Context
Embracing this perspective, there are increasing calls to encourage learners to develop analytic
skills rather than teaching particular formulae or strategies. This also addresses various practical
concerns, for example, how to meet the needs of learners from assorted backgrounds, on diverse
career trajectories, and with different workplace goals. A focus on discourse analytic rather than
English language skills encourages a move away from the decontextualized nature of some ESP
materials and toward a focus which allows learners to assess and evaluate the English they meet
in their own workplace interactions. A useful model for such an approach is provided by
Liddicoat et al. (2003) . The exploratory process outlined in their model aims at facilitating the
development of intercultural competence (Byram 1997 )
 d. An Interdisciplinary Project: Workplace Communication
for Skilled Migrants
By way of a study to illustrate a combined ESP – workplace discourse approach, I briefl y
describe an interdisciplinary project currently underway at Victoria University of Wellington in
New Zealand. With the goal of facilitating the development of sociopragmatic competence,
researchers from the Language in the Workplace project (described above) have joined with
colleagues specializing in English language teaching to devise a course aimed at empowering
skilled migrants who wish to enter New Zealand workplaces. The course consists of
practicalexperience in workplaces, complemented by structured refl ection in the classroom.
To demonstrate the analytic perspective, I include two brief extracts which indicate the
potential for insights offered by the approach. In example 1 , Andrei, a workplace intern from
Russia, is talking about his past work history with New Zealand colleague, Camille. Establishing
his credentials as an experienced and competent professional seems like an obvious and
acceptable topic of conversation. As the extract indicates, however, the method that Andrei uses
does not have the consequences he necessarily expects.
Example 1:
1. Andrei: yes I er [clears throat] I was involved in the same
2. similar to the similar work back in Europe
3. Camille: oh right
4. Andrei: er but for international er financial institutions like
5. international monetary fund //and the world\
6. Camille: /oh ↑ wow\\
7. Andrei: bank and the European bank for construction and development
8. Camille: oh ↓
9. Andrei: and for our ( ) of ch - chairman and deputy chairman
10. Camille: oh wow
At a linguistic level, the problematic nature of this extract is not necessarily obvious. Despite
some minor non - native features in his talk (e.g. I was involved . . . to the similar work ) Andrei
has no difficulty making himself understood.While the fi rst occurrence sounds genuine, the
others are progressively restrained: there is falling intonation in the second occurrence (as
indicated in the transcript) and relatively fl at intonation in the third. Systematic analysis of other
interactions in this workplace makes it clear that it is important to behave in a way which does
not seem boastful, in line with the widely recognized “ tall poppy syndrome ” prevalent in New
Zealand society (i.e. a low tolerance of explicit demonstrations of power and status).In a second
example, Henry, a Chinese workplace intern, receives directions from his New Zealand
colleague, Simon. Simon, Henry ’ s workplace mentor, is describing the process for setting up
new fi les in the company computer system.
Example 2
1. Simon: set up a new folder and go add new folder
2. Henry: mm
3. Simon: because that automatically defaults to what
4. the parent the parent folder
5. under here is the network folder ...
6. Justine: mm
7. Simon: so if I went
8. and go you know fi le new folder
9. Henry: folder
10. Simon: and I ’ ve got to you know [types] put it in ...
11. Justine: that ’ s right yeah
12. Henry: mm mm mm

There is very little content in Henry ’ s contributions which largely comprise of listenership
devices in the form of minimal feedback (i.e. mm ). However, Henry clearly understands what is
going on, and is learning from his mentor ’ s instructions. He uses appropriate signals to indicate
that he is following, and that Simon English in the Workplace should continue his explanation.
In this interaction there is clear evidence of the success that some of the students achieve in
developing their sociopragmatic competence within the workplace environment.
A Need for Dialogue
Belcher (2004) argued that the perceived shortcomings of ESP were the focus on a narrow range
of contexts and/or tasks in isolation from real life contexts. This speaks to the very heart of what
workplace discourse research can offer.

Conclusions and Future Directions

In this chapter, I have provided an overview of the fi ndings and methodological approaches of
discourse analysts who research English in the workplace. ThroughEnglish in the Workplace out
the discussion I have called for greater dialogue between these researchers and ESP practitioners
who typically (and somewhat unhelpfully) engage in parallel academic worlds. As an illustration
of the benefi ts of collaborative work
 10. Business English

a. A Historical Overview: How We Got There

Business English is a recognized area of English for Specifi c Purposes (ESP) (Dudley - Evans
and St John 1998 ; Hutchinson and Waters 1987 ; St John 1996 ). A number of Business English
education programs are offered in quite different linguistic and social milieus across the world,
notably the international BusinessEnglish undergraduate program at Anglia Ruskin University in
the United Kingdom, the Master ’ s program of international business communication at Aalto
University in Finland, and the Brazilian national ESP project (Celani 2008 ).The position of this
chapter within the handbook means that Business Englishlooks up, fi guratively - speaking, to
English in the workplace (Marra, this volume),as well as down, to intercultural rhetoric (Connor
and Rozycki, this volume) and English as a lingua franca (ELF) (Nickerson, this volume).

b. Business English in Practice: Focus on Asia

In business discourse research at least, and especially, though not exclusively, in the “ West, ” in
the last two decades we have moved a long way from idealistic notions of English and language
needs in business settings that were currency until the 1980s. In the same period, the growth of
English “ as an Asian language ” has consolidated into a phenomenon with potentially vast and
long - term repercussions on the socioeconomic life of hundreds of millions of people, especially
in East Asia. In his commentary on the spread and use of English in Asia, Tom
McArthur ( 2003 : 2) wrote:
English is the lingua franca that Asians now share with one another and the rest of the world.
One should also add however that it is now manifestly an Asian language in its own right. It has
been thoroughly indigenized.

c. Business E nglish - J apan

Attempts at tracing a chronology of Business English in Japan always seem to lead to “ business
communication, ” as if the two terms were considered synonymous. According to Kameda
(personal communication 2010), the term “ business communication” was fi rst used in Japan in
the early part of the 1970s. The 1974 issue of the Journal of Business English (formerly The
Japan Business English Association Annual Studies ) carried papers by the pioneers of Japanese
BE, namely Haneda Saburo, Ozaki Shigeru, and Nakamura Mikito. Not only did these
individuals serve as executive directors of the Japan Business English Association but, through
their work, they left an indelible mark on the fi eld. Ozaki also published a monthly magazine
with the telling title of Business English to which Kameda himself contributed as a young
scholar. It was Ozaki who, in the early days of the field, first proposed a “ human - oriented ”
perspective for the study of Business English that moved beyond linguistic analysis. He argued
that: Business English is a tool with which [man] communicates with others, and it is always a
human being that makes use of it. It follows, therefore, that the whole questionof how best or
most effectively [he] can communicate [his] ideas to others in Business English must be
considered with [man], i.e . the one who uses Business English, at its center. The work that has
hitherto been done in this area has tended to concentrate upon its linguistic aspects in total
disregard of the existence of [men] (Ozaki 1975 : 27) .

d. Business E nglish - C hina

The launch of the Asian ESP Journal ( http://asian - esp - journal.com/index.php ) in 2003, a free
access periodical that responds to the needs of teachers and trainers in Asia, refl ects a dominant
interest in pedagogic issues and applications, especially, although not exclusively, in East Asian
countries. China is exemplary in this respect. The fi rst activities foreshadowing the development
of the fi eld of Business English in China can be traced back to the early 1950s when language
skills courses became available under the general banner of “ translation ” and prepared students
to deal with business correspondence. Elements of business knowledge were included in such
courses even though they were not identifi able as specific disciplines such as management or
international law. With the opening of China to international markets in the 1980s, more
undergraduate courses began to offerbusiness subjects such as management, economics, and
international business law in association with language skills aimed to develop both written and
spoken competences. Around the same period, university programs also fi rst listed language for
specifi c purposes as a specialist subject, which, in the Chinese education system, belonged to the
arts, alongside foreign language and comparative literary studies.
Following a national change of emphasis of undergraduate programs towards broad
based education, at the end of the 1990s language for specifi c purposes (LSP) was dropped from
university curricula. The success of BA and MA degree programs in Business English now
poses the issue of further development at the doctoral level, especially for students who are
keen to specialize in the subject.

e. Re - contextualizing Business English as a Research -

Led Field of Practice
The orientation expressed in the call for papers of the 2nd ESP Asia conference seems to capture
the thrust of future ESP research in Asia and beyond: As ESP grows in Asia, it needs to evolve
practices that engage the ecologies in which it operates. Such ecologies include, on the one hand,
sociolinguistic realities such as multilingualism and variation in global English(es), and, on the
other hand, variable professional and academic cultures and practices in Asia ( http://www.
nottingham.edu.cn/conference/esp/call%20for%20papers.htm ).
The enduring gap between research and practice in Business English prompted Catherine
Nickerson (2005) to observe that textbooks of Business English continue to ignore research
pointing to the need to integrate traditional teaching materials with fi ndings from business
practice. Her three - pronged approach to research and practice in English as a lingua franca and
in English for special business purposes (ESBP) is motivated by “ the pressing need to refer to
the fi ndings of research in the development of teaching materials ” (Nickerson 2005 : 376).
Refl ecting on the many roles associated with ESP practitioners (Dudley – Evans and St John
1998 ), Laurence Anthony (2008) questions whether the desirable

Conclusion: Where We May Be Going

In the 1990s, Maggie Jo St John ’ s review of ESP clearly identifi ed its greatest strength in the
range of effective textbooks, the product of a strong pedagogic tradition which also informed the
professionalism of the teachers. Within thin “ materials - led movement ” (St John 1996 : 15), the
role of the intuition of the materials writer is paramount; this, St John admits, was a cause of
concern. In research - led Business English, fi ndings from direct observation and analysis of
(business) practices and languages are made available to the textbook author. Thus, for example,
discourse - analytic research using ethnographic tools could shed light on the “ generic features
of different events such as meetings, [. . . . ]
 11. Legal English
Introduction
The growth in English for specifi c purposes (ESP) practice and research has waxed and waned
with the growth and decline of global industries and their related professions. Legal English is no
exception. Because English is currently acknowledged to be the lingua franca of international
commercial and legal transactions, globalization has ensured an ongoing interest in this area of
ESP practice. As ESP practitioners “ a commitment to revealing the workings of other
communicative worlds to our students by grounding pedagogical decisions in our understanding
of target texts and practices ” (Hyland 2002 : 393) requires us to undertake and refl ect upon
relevant research. This focus underpins the following examination of Legal English research.

a. Language and the Law

The nature and properties of legal language provide material for a substantial part of the Legal
English research agenda because a large part of ESP has focused and continues to focus on the
description and analysis of the target language and language practices of the particular discourse
community to which the learners belong or aspire to belong. Research in this area can be found
in a number of related applied linguistic sub - disciplines in addition to ESP. These are referred
to variously as legal linguistics, language and the law, and forensic linguistics. Understandably,
in what is essentially a multidisciplinary area, there is no common agreement on the demarcation
points. It is in effect a contested area.
Although specialized dictionaries are generally intended for specialist communication, the
purpose of the new dictionary was to enable the Chinese – speaking public to understand the law,
motivated by the desire to ensure that Hong Kong ’ s freedom and autonomy were not being
undermined by Beijing. For a term or

concept to be understood it is necessary to have:

1. defi nitions of a legal term;
2. a context showing how a legal term is interpreted;
3. sources of the relevant ordinances (statutes) and cases.
 b. Common Law as a Source of Difficulty

That English is the language of the common law has often been perceived as the root of many of
the law - specifi c diffi culties for Legal English learners (see Northcott 2006 ). These learners
include both students preparing for post - graduate law study and practicing lawyers from
continental Europe and other countries whose legal systems are based on civilian law. Legal
language is system - bound which means that many legal terms denoting concepts derive their
meanings from aparticular legal system and can only be understood by reference to the specifi c
legal system. Examples from English law include equity and trust . All legal systems contain
terms with no comparable counterparts in another legal system but the problem is particularly
acute when it involves a common law country.

c. Common Law Contracts

In addition to the diffi culties inherent in working with cases, contracts are clearly a potential
source of diffi culty for the Legal English learner. Because of the impor tance assigned to the
meaning of words and expressions by judges, in order to understand common law contracts it is
necessary to know what the terms mean to a common law lawyer. In the increasingly globalized
world of commercial contracts this can be a major barrier. As we have seen, there are differences
between all legal systems. The problem is compounded in the case of international commercial
contracts because of the use of English, the language of the common law, as the international
language. There have been attempts to overcome this problem. The International Institute for the
Unifi cation of Private Law (UNIDROIT) tried to avoid the use of terminology peculiar to any
given legal system by creating, where necessary, entirely new concepts with new terminology.
The next section focusses on research areas central to ESP including research with broader
application than just the legal fi eld. Research in ESP generally has contributed substantially to
the development of both the understanding and practice of Legal English.
 d. Implications for Legal English Research
and Practice

From the perspective of the ESP teacher, the diffi culties in understanding legal language present
challenges. Some practitioners have taken the view that obtainLegaling a legal qualifi cation is
the best solution. Others take the view that this is a retrograde step, obscuring the language
issues. Certainly, Legal English teaching experience that attempts to involve legal specialists is
enlightening in this regard. No lawyer will give an answer to a question outside her often very
narrow area of specialization, although ESP teachers often feel that they must be able to answer
every question a learner asks. Neither professional legal qualifi cations, nor the more recent
language and law qualifi cations, available in departments of forensic linguistics in Finland and
the United Kingdom, suffi ce. ESP methods involving a learner - centered approach, which uses
the knowledge of the learners and works in partnership with them to develop their competence in
using the language of the law in the target contexts of use can provide a better solution.
However, the need for authenticity and face validity, particularly in relation to the production of
Legal English materials, requires some understanding of the law. With the best of pedagogic
intentions, approaching text comprehension, for example, by adopting a purely discourse
analytical approach can result in the production of materials which are linguist - friendly but over
complex and demotivating for many learners. As with other branches of ESP, misrepresentations
of subject content result in language teaching material being viewed with suspicion and can lead
to loss of learner confi dence. The dilemma is particularly acute for Legal English practitioners
faced with the dual responsibility of making a diffi cult area more accessible whilst adhering to
sound pedagogical principles as much of the research demonstrates.