Economic Geology

Vol. 67, 1972, pp. 184-197

A Plate TectonicModel for the Origin

PorphyryCopper Deposits
RICHARD H. SILLITOE

Abstract

The theory of lithosphereplate tectonics,embodyingthe conceptsof sea-floorspread-

ing, transform faulting, and underthrusting at continental margins and island arcs, is
employedas a basis for an actualistic, though speculative,model for the origin and
space-timedistribution of porphyry copper and porphyry molybdenumdeposits.
Porphyry ore deposits,occurring in the western Americas, southwest Pacific and
Alpide orogenicbelts, are thought to constitutea normal facet of calc-alkalinemagma-
tism. Chemical and isotopicdata cited are consistentwith the generation of the com-
ponentsof calc-alkalineigneousrocks and porphyry ore depositsby partial melting of
oceaniccrustal rocks on underlying subductionzonesat the elongatecompressirejunc-
turesbetweenlithosphericplates.
It is proposedthat the metalscontainedin porphyry ore depositswere derived from
the mantleat divergentplate junctures,the oceanrises,as associatesof basicmagmatism,
and transported laterally to subductionzones as componentsof basaltic-gabbroic
oceaniccrust and small amountsof suprajacentpelagic sediments;evidencesupporting
the presenceof significantamountsof metals in the oceaniccrust is listed.
It is suggestedthat the temporaland spatial distributionof porphyry ore depositsis
dependenton two principal factors, namely the erosion level of an intrusive-volcanic
chain, and the time and locationof magmageneration,and the availability of metals,on
an underlyingsubductionzone. The erosionfactor is beli.evedto offer an explanation
for the paucityof porphyryore depositsin pre-Mesozoicorogenicbelts, and for the
relative abundanceof exposedporphyry depositsof Upper Cretaceous-Paleogene age in
post-Paleozoic orogens. Provinceswith a high concentrationof porphyrycopperde-
posits,suchas southernPeru-northernChile and the southwest United States,may be
interpretedas regionsbeneathwhich anomalously copper-richoceaniccrust was sub-
ductedat the time of porphyrycopperemplacement; one possibleexplanationfor the
episodicformationof volumesof copper-richoceaniccrust is the presenceof a hetero-
geneous distributionof metalsin the low velocityzoneof the uppermantle. Porphyry
ore depositsseemto have formedduring a seriesof relativelyshort, discretepulses,
perhapscorrelablewith changesin the relative rates and directionsof motion of
lithospheric plates. In someregions,suchas Chile,porphyryore deposits are arranged
in parallel,linearbelts,whichmaybe explicablein termsof shiftingloci of magmaand
includedmetal generationon a subductionzone, and which seemto be largely indepen-
dent of controlby tectoniclineamentintersections.The time intervalsduring which
the formationof porphyrydepositstookplaceare shownto be broadlycoincident with
periodsof lithosphereplate convergence,
and porphyrydepositsmay still be forming
abovecurrentlyactivesubduction
zones.
A numberof potentialregionsfor the discoveryof porphyryore depositsare sug-
gested,andthe importance
to explorationof analyzingorogenicbeltsin termsof plate
tectonicsis emphasized.

Introduction into six large and severalsmallerlithosphericplates

Tn•. sea-floorspreadinghypothesis of Dietz (1961) (Fig. 2), which accreteat oceanrises by uprise of
andHess(1962) hasrecentlybeenfurtherdeveloped subcrustalbasic magrnas,slide past one another
by Isacks, Oliver and Sykes (1968), Le Pichon along transform (horizontal shear) faults, and are
(1968), McKenzieand Parker (1967) and Morgan destroyedat trench systemsby descent into the
(1968), resultingin the theoryof lithosphereplate asthenospheredown inclined subduction(Benioff)
tectonics(the newglobaltectonics),theonlyexisting zones(Fig. 3).
globaltectonicmodelcompatiblewith muchrecently The conceptsof the new global tectonicshave
accumulatedgeologicaland geophysicaldata. The renderedthe stabilistgeosynclinaltheory of orogeny
model considers the Earth's surface to be divided outmoded;it is now realizedthat a generalizedmodel
184
 MODEL FOR ORIGIN OF PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS 185

for geosynclinal development, commencing with the posits,from which molybdenumis the principal
accumulationof a thick volcanicand sedimentary metalrecovered, aresimilarto thoseof theporphyry
pile, and followedby plutonismand deformation and coppers.Hypogeneore gradein the porphyrycop-
finally by epeirogenicuplift and volcanism(e.g., persrarelyexceeds 1% Cu, and is commonly below
Beloussov, 1962) doesnot satisfactorily
explainthe 0.5% Cu.
evolutionof mostorogens(Coney,1970). In terms The hostintrusionsof porphyrycopperdeposits,
of the theoryof platetectonics,geosynclinesmay be andtheirvarioustypesof count-ry rocks,maybothbe
equatedwith oceansand continentalmargins, and ore-bearing,and are characterized by widespread,
oceansand island arcs. Mountain systemsare gen- zonally-arranged hydrothermal alteration,commonly
erated as a consequence of the underthrustingof of potassic,phyllic, argillic and propylitic types
oceaniclithosphere beneathan adjacentplate at con- (Meyer and Hemley, 1967; Lowell and Guilbert,
tinental margins (-e.g., the cordilleran system of 1970), and by hydrothermalbrecciation.
North and South America), or at island arcs (e.g., The close association of intrusion and mineraliza-
Japan). In some instances,eventual continent-con- tion in porphyrycopperand molybdenum deposits
tinent collision(e.g., the Himalayas) or continent- is emphasized by K-Ar dating which has demon-
islandarc collision(e.g., New Guinea) are involvedstratedthe two processes to be temporallyindis-
in orogenicdevelopment(Dewey and Bird, 1970; tinguishablein severalinstances(e.g., Livingston,
Dewey and Horsfield, 1970). It shouldbe stressed, Mauger and Damon, 1968; Moore, Lanphereand
however,that eachorogenicbelt displaysan essenti- Obradovich,1968; Laughlin,Rehrig and Mauger,
ally unique sequentialhistory, even though certain1969). In at least some deposits,part of the
sequencesof eventsare more commonthan others. mineralizationmayin factbe syngenetic with respect
Currently acceptedconceptsof the metallogenesis to the associated
intrusiverock (e.g., Ely, Nevada;
of post-Precambrianorogenic belts are based on Fournier, 1967). The intimatetemporalassociation
stabilist geotectonicdoctrine (Bilibin, 1968; Mc- of intrusionand mineralization
lendssupportto the
Cartney and Potter, 1962; McCartney, 1964), and orthomagrnatic model of porphyry coppergenesis
supportthe association of distincttypesof mineraliz- (Nielsen, 1968; Lowell and Guilbert, 1970). Ac-
ation with each stage of geosynclinaldevelopment. cordingto this model, a felsic magma,becoming
Porphyrycopperdeposits,for instance,are considered water-saturated as it intrudes towards the surface
to typify the post-orogenic,late tectonicstage (Mc- zone, undergoescrystallizationof its outer parts,
Cartney and Potter, 1962). In view of the recent whichare subsequently brecciatedby the releaseof
advancesin geotectonictheory, it would therefore accumulatedfluids,which alsoproducethe alteration
seemopportuneto reexaminethe metallogenesis of and mineralization. Meteoric waters are involved in
orogenicbelts in terms of the new globaltectonics. the formationof the outer zonesof hydrothermal
This paperoutlinesa platetectonicmodelto account alteration and mineralization.
for the genesisand distributionin both spaceand
time of one important class of mineralization,the The Origin of Calc-Alkaline Igneous Rocks
porphyrycopperand porphyrymolybdenum deposits. and Porphyry Copper Deposits
Someaspectsof the modelwere presentedelsewhere
l/l/orldDistributionoI Porphyry Ore Deposits
as an abstract (Sillitoe, 1970). It shouldperhaps
be stressedthat the proposedmodelis of a speculative Figure 1 showsthe locationof the majorityof ex-
nature, and does not purport to embody rigorous ploitedporphyrycopperand molybdenumdeposits,
proofsof its validity. and of manyimportantprospects, whichin Figure 2
are relatedto Mesozoic-Cenozoic orogenicbeltsand
Geologicaland Genetic Characteristicsof currently active lithosphericplate boundaries. It
Porphyry Copper Deposits can be appreciatedthat the majority of the world's
porphyry depositsare locatedin the circum-Pacific
Over one half of the world'scopperproductionis orogenicbelts and in the central portion of the
currently derived from porphyry copper deposits, Alpide orogenicbelt. The western Americas belt,
large tonnage (commonlyexceeding500 m tons), containingmost of the known porphyrycopperde-
low grade, roughly equidimensional depositsof dis- posits,extendsfrom westernArgentina and central
seminatedand stockwork-veinlet,pyrite-chalcopyrite and northernChile,throughPeru, Ecuador,Panama,
mineralization,carrying at least trace amounts of Mexico, the western United States (Arizona, New
molybdenum,gold and silver. They are spatially Mexico, Nevada,Utah, Colorado,Idaho, Washing-
andgeneticallyrelatedto passively-emplaced hypabys- ton and Montana), to British Columbia, the Yukon
sal felsicstocks,commonlyporphyries. The geologi- andAlaska. Markedconcentrations of deposits
occur
cal characteristicsof the porphyrymolybdenum de- in Sonora-Arizona-New Mexico and in Brit.i•sh.
186 RICHARD H. SILLITOE

ignimbrites.Thesevolcanicrocksare commonlyob-
ß P•d•PHYRY COPPER
ALPIDE BELT
served to be intruded or underlain by extensive
ß PO•YRy
IIOL'Y'B•E#UM batholiths and smaller intrusions of a similar com-
•POSITS

position. Hamilton and Myers (1967) and Hamil-

ra•AllNl tlld
ton (1969a, b) have convincinglydemonstrated the
CASINO,
consanguinity of the calc-alkalinevolcanicsuite and
the spatiallyrelated felsic plutonicrocks,the latter
interpretedas the roots of major eruptive chains.
KE#lIaNOl•T•l½• The locationof porphyry copperorebodiesin the
e• •4$TMICT.W•ST
P&#ISTIN cupolasof plutonsof intermediatecompositionwas
emphasized many years ago (Emmons,1927), and
WESTERN
AMERICAS
subsequent work tendsto confirmthe high-level,sub-
BELT
volcanic nature of their environment of formation.
ß
L.O•ADO
Some porphyry copperdepositsmay have been em-
' ø ß NEV MCX•O-•NOnA
placedat very shallowdepths,perhapsat less than
1,500 m (Fournier, 1968). This is emphasizedby
the occurrenceat Bingham, Utah of a porphyry-
PUERTO RiCO copper stock and nearby penecontemporaneous,
comagmaticvolcanic rocks (Moore, Lanphere and
SOUTHWEST
Obradovich,1968).
PACIFIC BELT
It is suggested
that the accumulation
of copperand
molybdenumin high-levelfelsicstockswas a normal
part of calc-alkalinemagrnatismin post-Paleozoic
orogenicbelts.
P•

The Origin ol Calc-AlkalineIgneousRocks

Many workers (e.g., Benioff, 1954; Coats, 1962;
Dickinson and Hatherton, 1967; Dickinson, 1968;
Ringwood,1969) agreethat the magmaswhich have
given rise to calc-atkalinevolcanicrocks--and by
analogytheirplutonicequivalents (Hamilton,1969a)
Fro. 1. Porphyry copper and molybdenum deposits and --were generatedon subduction zoneswhichunder-
prospectsin the western Americas, southwest Pacific and lay the eruptivechains. The magmaswere probably
Alpide belts.
generatedby partial fusion consequentupon fric-
tional heatingof subducted,water-saturatedoceanic
Columbia. Depositsin the DominicanRepublicand lithospherewhich originally was generatedat ocean
PuertoRico may be considered as an offshootof the rises, and transportedlaterally into ocean trenches
western Americas belt. Two other belts, for which
(Fig. 3). Restrictedvolumesof fused ocean-floor
publishedinformationon the porphyry depositsis sediments (layer 1) andthe lowestmeltingfractions
scant,are locatedin the Taiwan, Philippines,Borneo, of layers2 and 3 of the oceaniccrustseemto be the
West Irian, Papua-NewGuineaand SolomonIslands mostlikely sourcematerialsfor calc-alkaline magnaas
region(the southwest Pacificbelt), andin the South (Oxburgh and Turcotte,1970). Severalchemical
Banat district of Romania,Yugoslavia,central Bul- and isotopicparameters determinedfor calc-alkaline
garia,Armenia,Iran andWest Pakistan(the Alpide volcanicand intrusive rocks are now cited in support
belt). The only well-authenticated occurrences of of an originby partialmeltingon a subductionzone.
porphyrydepositsoutsideof thesepost-Paleozoic Recent volcanic rocks in the circum-Pacific belt
orogenicbeltsare thosein Uzbekstanand Kazakh- showa systematic increasein their potashto silica
stan, USSR. ratios landwards from the trench (Dickinson and
Hatherton, 1967; Dickinson, 1968).; these ratios
Relationships
betweenCalc-AlkalineIgneousRocks correlatewith the depthfrom the site of eruptionto
andPorphyryCopperDeposits the Benioff zone dippingbeneaththe island arc or
The post-Paleozoic mar- continentalmargin, suggestingan origin on the
historyof the continental
ginsandislandarcswhereporphyrycopperdeposits Benioff zone, and the absenceof widespreadcrustal
are locatedwas characterizedby widespreadcalc- contamination.A comparablelandwardincreasein
alkalinevolcanismwhichgaverise to basalts,ande- potashhasalsobeendemonstrated for post-Paleozoic
sites,dacites,rhyolitesand, in someparts, felsic volcanic and intrusive rocks in parts of western
 MODEL FOR ORIGIN OF PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS 187

EuL••sian
Plate ß
ß

•
•/'•
// Southeast
Asian
Plate
ß..'.;.'. ..:::
ß
ß

American
fine Plate Plate
ß
ß

Caribbean
Plate
/

Pacific Plate

.r'

ß , •.•.East Pacific
Plate
o.

IndianI•ate ,,

Nricon Plate
.J
ß
ß

ß
;

t'"'\--.•....x.
....v
• '" Antarctic
Plate
............ Accreting
platemargins Active transform faults

Consuming
platemargins Platemargins
of indeterminate
nature

"'."'i•Mesozoic-Cenozoic
mountain belts
Regions
with
porphyry
copper
and
molybdenum
6el)OSits
(Plate boundaries
tokenfrom Deweyand Bird, 1970)
Fro. 2. The western Americas. southwestPacific and Alpide porphyry belts in relation to Mesozoic-Cenozoic
orogenic belts and accreting and consumingplate boundaries

North America (Moore, 1959, 1962; Moore, Grantz and calc-alkalinemagrnatism,summarizedin the
and Blake, 1963; Batemanand Dodge,1970). preceeding
sections,the components
of porphyry-
Initial Sr87/Sr8øratios (0.703-0.706) obtainedfor copper stocks,including the containedmetals, are
andesiticvolcanics(Ewart and Stipp, 1968; Pushkar, likewisepostulated
to possess
an originby partial
1968; Peterman,Carmichaeland Smith, 1970), and meltingof oceaniccruston a subductionzone. Initial
those (0.705-0.709) obtainedfor felsic rocks from strontiumisotoperatiosin the range0.706-0.708ob-
the British Columbia, Sierra Nevada and Boulder tained for severalporphyry-copper stocksin the
batholiths (Fairbairn, Hurley and Pinson, 1964; southwest United States and for the stock associated
Hurley et al., 1965; Doe et al., 1968) are incom- with theQuesta,New Mexicoporphyrymolybdenum
patiblewith an originby partial meltingor wholesale deposit (Moorbath, Hurley and Fairbairn, 1967;
assimilationof continentalcrust, but would seem to Laughlin,Rehrig and Mauger, 1969) supportthis
be in accordwith a derivationby partial meltingof contention.A deep,homogenized, probablymantle-
oceanic crust on a subduction zone. The trace ele- sourcefor sulfidesulfur in porphyry•opper and
ment content of andesires is also consistent with a molybdenumdepositsin the southwestUnited States
Benloft-zone .origin (Taylor, 1969; Taylor et al., is suggestedby •S3• values close to the meteoric
1969). standard(Field, 1966; Jensen, 1967; Laughlin,
Rehrig and Mauger, 1969).
The Origin of Porphyry Copper and Molybdenum In summation,therefore, porphyry copper and
Deposits molybdenumdepositsare consideredto be confined
In view of the closetemporaland spatialrelation- to orogenic belts characterizedby calc-alkaline
ship betweenthe genesisof porphyryore deposits magrnatism,and resulting from plates of oceanic
188 RICHARD H. SILLITOE

Oceanicsediments
(layert) withmetal-rich horizon
at theirbase

Porp•lyrycopperdeposit
Copperconcentration
in oceaniccrust
Volcanic chain
Bat halitl•s /
OCEAN
RIS
r Basaltic
Old continental crust TREN'CH Oce'-
/
/
Basalt
encI
qa-ers
gabbro
2and
31
'iS,;;e ai;metal-rlc
•' ' h /
magma

MOHO
on [layers
,ang
3•
Calco alkaline
magma IOO

- -----e,,--LOW velocity zone

150

200

To 700 Km.

•'m. 3. Schematic repœesentation

of the genesis of porphyry copper depositsin the context of plate tectonics.

lithosphereunderthrustingadjacent lithosphericextracted from oceaniccrust during partial melting

col- as it sank into the mantle on a subduction zone.
plates,in somecaseswith ensuingcontinental
lision-the compressive
type of elongatecontactbe- Collectionof metalsby saline fluids expelledfrom
tweentwo lithosphericplates. oceaniccrust during subductionmay also be opera-
tive. Initially, the metalswere largelyderivedfrom
The Sourceof Metals in Porphyry Ore Deposits the mantle at the oceanrise systemand carried to
th marginsof oceanbasinsas components of layers
The sourceof metalsin post-magmatic sulfideore 1, 2 and 3 of the oceaniccrust (Fig. 3). The wedge
deposits haslongbeena topicof contention.For of mantle above a Benioff zone may also act as a
theporphyry copper depositsin particular,
a con- sourcefor basalticmagmas(Oxburgh and Turcotte,
tinentalcrustalprovenance of copperby extraction 1970), and minor quantitiesof copperand molyb-
from andesiticvolcanics(Ney, 1966), geosynclinal denum. The metalsreleasedduring partial melting
sediments (UnitedNations,1970),or shalehorizons ascendedas componentsof calc-alkalinemagmas
(Jensen, 1971),duringigneous intrusion,
hasbeen (Fig. 3), and were ultimatelyconcentrated in chlo-
inferred. However, consideringthe wide spectrum ride-richfluid phasesassociated with the roof-zones
of host rock typesof porphyrycopperdeposits,of certain intrusions. The fluid phasewas released
namelycalc-alkaline volcanics,intrusiveand meta- upwardsduringconsolidation of the magmato give
morphic rocks,andmarinesediments, partiallycal- rise to the typical upright cylindersof porphyry
careous,andtakingintoaccount the probable
absence copperandmolybdenum mineralization.
of certain of these sourcerock types from beneath
A corollaryof this premiseis that regionspossess-
some porphyry copperprovinces,theprovision ofthe ing highconcentrations of porphyrycopperdeposits,
metalsby a specific rock type in the continentalsuch as the southwest United States and southern
crust seemsimprobable.Furthermore,the only Peru-northernChile, and consideredas copper-rich
source of metals available to all porphyry copper
metallogeneticprovinces(e.g., Turneaure,1955),
deposits,whichtakesinto consideration the thin are not regionsof the Earth where the subjacent
crust and almosttotal absenceof sialic crust beneath
continentalcrust or upper mantle are enrichedin
someporphyry
copperprovinces
(e.g.,the Solomon copper,but regionsbeneathwhichanomalously
cop-
Islands;Coleman,
1966),wouldseemto betheupper
mantle. per-richoceaniccrust,includingpelagicsediments,
An important of the modeloutlinedabove hasbeensubducted.Variation in the amountof cop-
aspect
is the im- perconsumed
for the originof porphyryore deposits, in a zoneof subduction,
andtherefore
plicationthata largepercentageof themetalswere potentially
available
for mineralization,
may depend
 MODEL FOR ORIGIN OF PORPHYRY COPPERDEPOSITS 189

on the rate of sea-floorspreadingand hencethe pillow lavas,which,accordingto Gass(1968), would

volumeof oceaniccrustenteringthe subduction representa part of layer 2 of the oceaniccrust. The
zone,
or the intensityof volcanism andmetalproduction closegeneticrelation betweenthe basalticvolcanics
at
the oceanrise, or, morefundamentally,may reflectan and the copperdeposits(Vokes, 1966; Hutchinson
inhomogeneous and Searle, 1970) is evidencethat concentrations
distributionof thismetalin the upper of
mantle,perhapsin the low velocityzone (Fig. 3); copperare present in the oceaniclithosphere. x
chemicalheterogeneity of the mantle has recently 5. Manganesenoduleson the ocean floors have
beendemonstrated(Petermanand Hedge, 1971). coppercontentsas high as 2.5%. Analysesof nodules
from the Pacific Ocean showedfrom 0.03 to 1.6%
EvidenceBearingon the Derivationof Metals from Cu (United Nations, 1970a).
Oceanic Crust 6. Normal pelagicclays (layer 1) possessmetal
contentsin excessof most sedimentaryrocks, and
The followingpointsare thoughtto provideevi- averageabundances of 323 ppm Cu and 18 ppm Mo
dencefavoringthe oceaniccrustas a sourcefor the havebeenrecordedfor Pacificclays (Cronan, 1969).
copperand molybdenumcontentsof porphyry ore
7. Basemetals,includingcopperand molybdenum,
deposits:
of probablemantlederivationare concentratedon the
1. Recent workers (Cann, 1968; Oxburgh and
East Pacific Rise (Bostr6m and Peterson, 1966,
Turcotte,1968; Thayer, 1969; Christensen, 1970) 1969), and on the rest of the ocean rise system
haveproposed that the third layer of the oceanic (Bostr6m et al., 1969). Layer 1 sedimentson the
crusthasa gabbroic composition, perhapswith dole- flanks of the East Pacific Rise (and presumably
rite dike complexes in its lower part (Dewey and
away from the rise beneatha blanket of normal
Bird,1970).It is overlainbybasaltsof layer2. Basic ocean-floor sediments) have average copper and
igneous rockshaveaveragecopperandmolybdenummolybdenumcontentsof 990 ppm and 100 ppm,
contentsof the order of 100 ppm and 1.5 ppm,
respectively.
respectively,
five timesthat of graniticrocksin the 8. The floor of the Red Sea, also a locus for the
caseof theformerelement(TurekianandWedepohl,
generation of new oceaniccrust (e.g., Vine, 1966),
1961;Vinogradov, 1962). Oceanicbasalts(layer2)
in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceansaverage77 ppm possesses a seriesof metal-richbrine poolsand sedi-
ments (Miller et al., 1966;Degensand Ross,1969),
Cu (Engel,EngelandHavens,1965).
possiblyalsochargeddirectlyfrom the mantle.
2. Sulfidephasescontaining up to approximately
10 percentcopperare presentin vesiclesand as 9. The early PlioceneBoldo beddedcopperde-
globulesin pillowbasaltsfrom layer 2 on the ocean positin Baja California(Wilson and Rocha,1955)
may possibly represent another, albeit somewhat
rises(Moore and Calk, 1971).
older, example of copperwhich has risen directly
3. Sulfidegrainsof a similarnatureto thoseoc- from the mantle, in this case related to the north-
curringin ocean-floor
basalts(but with up to 25 westwardrotation of Baja Californiaaway from the
percentcopper) have been discovered in recent rest of the North American continent, along seg-
Hawaiianbasaltflows (Desborough, Andersonand
ments of the East Pacific Rise mutually offset by
Wright, 1969), and in basalticoozeswhichflowed transform faulting, a processinitiated in the late
into a drill hole in the crust of Alae lava lake, Hawaii
Mioceneto middle Pliocene (Moore and Buffing-
(Skinnerand Peck,1969). The Hawaiianislands ton, 1968; Larsen, Menard and Smith, 1968). The
are mantle-fed volcanoesin the center of the Pacific
high manganese-
and iron oxidecontentsof the Bol•o
lithospheric
plate (Menard, 1969). ores (Wilson and Rocha, 1955) providea further
4. Large alpine-type
mafic-ultramafic
(ophiolite) similarity to the metal concentrationsof the East
complexes suchas thosein Cyprus,Turkey,Papua Pacific Rise and the Red Sea.
andelsewhere are thoughtto representfragments of It is also conceivable that the metals (6 ppm Cu;
surficialrinds of ancientocean-floorplates (Dietz, White, 1968) in the brines of the Salton Sea geo-
1963;Thayer,1969;Bird andDewey,1970). Sup- thermal system,lying just north of the Gulf of
portfor sucha beliefstems fromrecords of similar California,and possiblyunderlainby the East Pacific
rock typeson the mid-Atlanticand Indian Ocean Rise, have a comparablemantle source, although
ridges(Bonatti,1968;EngelandFisher,1969).The their derivation by low-grade metamorphismof
MesozoicTroodosophiolitecomplexof Cyprusis clasticsediments has beenproposed(Skinner et al.,
thoughtto correspond to layers2 and 3, formed 1967).
beneathan oceanrise in the Tethys Ocean (Gass,
x This suggeststhe possibility that other massive pyritic
1968). The well-known cupriferouspyritedepositssulfidedepositsassociatedwith basalticpillow lavas may have
of Cyprusareinterbedded in a successionof basaltic formed on the crests and flanks of ocean rise systems.
190 RICHARD H. $ILLITOE

TABLE1. Agesof PorphyryCopperand MolybdenumDeposits

Nameof PorphyryDeposits
or Regions Age"of PorphyryDeposits Sourceof Data
British Columbia
deposits Upper Triassic-MiddleJurassic White, Harakal and Carter (1968);
Mostporphyrycopperand molybdenum
Upper Jurassic Brown (1969)
Late Lower Cretaceous
Upper Paleocene-UpperEocene
Vancouver Island Lower Eocene-Lower Oligocene Carson (1969)
Western United States and Sonora
Most porphyry copperdeposits Upper Cretaceous-Paleocene Creaseyand Kistler (1962);
Bisbee, Arizona Middle Jurassic McDowell and Kulp (1967);
Ely and Yerington,Nevada Lower Cretaceous Moorbath, Hurley and Fairbairn
Bingham, Utah Lower Oligocene (1967); Livingston, Mauger and
Front Rangeporphyrymolybdenum
deposits Upper Oligocene-LowerMiocene Damon (1968); Moore, Lanphere
and Obradovich (1968); Tweto
(1968); Wallace et al. (1968);
Laughlin, Rehrig and Mauger
(1969)
Panama
Botija Lower Oligocene Feren[i6 (1970)
Ecuador
Chaucha Upper Miocene M/iller-Kahle and Damon (1970)
Peru
Southern Peru Paleocene Laughlin, Damon and Watson
Michiquillay ? Lower Miocene (1968); Stewart and Snelling (in
prep.)
Argentina Tertiary (S) United Nations (1970)
Farel16n Negro, Catamarca Upper Miocene-Pliocene(S) Llambias (1970)

Chile
Upper Cretaceous Sillitoe, Quirt, Clark, Farrar and
Paleocene Neumann (in prep.)
Upper Eocene-Oligocene
Upper Miocene-Pliocene
BougainvilleIsland
Panguna ? Pliocene(S)' Macnamara (1968)
Taiwan
Chemei Miocene or later Po and Lee (1970)
Philippines Tertiary (S) Bryner (1969)
Atlas Upper Paleocene
West Pakistan
Chagaidistrict ? post-Oligocene
(S) Schmidt (1968)
Iran
Kerman region Upper Oligocene-Miocene
(S) Bazin and H/ibner (1969)
Armenia
Upper Eocene Bagdasaryan,Gukasyan and Kara-
Lower Oligocene myan (1969)
Lower Miocene

aTimescaleaccording
to Hadand,SmithandWilcock(1964).
(S) Stratigraphicestimate.

The Distribution of Ages of Porphyry the quantityof metalsincorporatedin magmas,on a

Ore Deposits subductionzone. It is, of course, recognizedthat
additionalvariables,suchas the quantityof chloride-
Published
agesfor the maingroupsof porphyry
copper
andmolybdenum
deposits in rich
aresummarized fluidpresentduringthefinalstagesof consolida-
tion of an intrusion,are of considerableimportance.
Table1. It is apparent
thatdeposits
wereemplaced
at intervals
throughout andCenozoic, Evidence has been advanced to show that me-
the Mesozoic
witha particularly
largenumber of late chanismsimplicit in the new globaltectonicswere
of deposits
Cretaceous-Paleogene
age. operativein pre-Mesozoic
times (Bird and Dewey,
It is suggested
thattwoprincipal
factorscontrol 1970). Nevertheless,with the exceptionof Uzbek-
thespace-time
distribution
ofporphyryoredeposits.stanand Kazakhstan,
porphyry ore depositshavenot
depend- yetbeendefinitely
Theseare: 1. the levelof exposure--largely describedfromthe olderorogenic
entonerosion chain;and belts. This apparentabsence
rate--ofa plutonic-volcanic is tentativelyattributed
2. the time and locationof magmageneration, and to the effects of Mesozoic-Cenozoicerosion, which
 MODEL FOR ORIGIN OF PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS 191

has been sufficientto remove the upper parts of presently available suggestthat the periods of
batholiths,the loci of porphyrydeposits. However, porphyrycopperformationin Chile were separated
it is predictedthat porphyry depositswill be en- by quiescentintervalswith durationsof about 15-25
counteredin parts of certain pre-Mesozoicorogens m.y. Similar pulse-likeigneousintrusionhas also
where erosionhas been less severe. 8 The apparent beenreportedfrom parts of westernNorth America,
predominanceof late Cretaceous-Paleogene ages of pulseslastingapproximately10-15 m.y. and being
porphyrydeposits(Table 1) mightalsobe dependent separatedby 30 m.y. intervals(Damon and Mauger,
on the erosionfactor,wherebymany early Mesozoic 1966; Evernden and Kistler, 1970; Gabrielse and
depositshave been eroded away, and some post- Reesor, 1964). Such magmaticperiodicitymay be
Paleogenedepositshave yet to be exhumedfrom correlablewith changesin the thermal regime on
beneaththeir volcaniccover. Supportfor this pro- subductionzonesinducedby variationsin the relative
posal is derived from conditionsin Chile north of spreadingrate or motionpattern of the plates. In
latitude 30øS, where the erosionlevel becomespro- this context,changesin the relative motion of plates
gressivelydeeperfrom the recentvolcanicchain on every 10-20 m.y. in the northeastPacific, deduced
the Andeancrestwestwardsto the Jurassicintrusions by Francheteau,Sclaterand Menard (1970), might
on the Pacificlittoral (Sillitoe and Sawkins,1971). be significant.
The majority of the exposedporphyry copper de- The eastwardmigration of the loci of intrusion
positsare Paleogenein age; Jurassicdeposits,if they and porphyry copperemplacementevident in north-
ever existed,havebeenlost by erosion,and deposits ern Chile, which perhapsreflectsa parallel trend in
yet to be exposedmay exist in the recent volcanic the positionof magmagenerationon the underlying
chain. However, the secondfactor, discussedbelow, subduction zone,whetheror not causedby a change
may also be an importantcontributary,or even the in its position or inclination relative to the con-
dominant, causeof the relative abundanceof Paleo- tinental margin, is less well definedin the western
genedepositsin northernChile. United States. In the latter region,Gilluly (1963)
If the importanceof the erosionfactor has been recognized an overalldecrease in the ageof Mesozoic-
correctly evaluated,then porphyry depositsin re- Cenozoic intrusion landwards from the continental
gionswith a high erosionrate, suchas the south- margin, but subsequentprograms of radiometric
west Pacificbelt characterized by a tropicalclimate, dating have shown many exceptionsto this gen-
couldbe expectedto yield a predominance of particu- eralization. A broadly comparablepattern of east-
larly youngages;more radiometricdating is needed ward youngingis apparentfrom the porphyry de-
in order to test this proposal. posits. The belt of mid-Tertiary porphyry moly-
Explanationsof many featuresof the distribution bdenumdepositsin the Front Range lies east of the
of porphyry copperand molybdenumdepositscan main clusterof late Cretaceous-Paleocene porphyry
be attemptedin termsof the secondfactor,the lateral copper deposits in Sonora-Arizona-New Mexico
and secularpattern of magma generation,and the (Fig. 1), and the Lower Cretaceousporphyryde-
availabilityof copperandmolybdenum, on subduction positsat Ely and Yerington, Nevada are locatedin
zones. In northern Chile, discrete post-Paleozoic the westernpart of this porphyry province. The
intrusiveepisodes are manifested by a seriesof north- great concentrationof late Cretaceous-Paleocene
south-trendingbelts of batholithsand stocks.The porphyry copper depositsin the southwestUnited
ages of these belts decreasefrom Lower Jurassic Statesis visualizedas being due to the subductionof
nearthe coastto late Tertiary in the AndeanCordil- areasof exceptionally copper-richoceaniccrust. This
lera (Ruiz et al., 1965; Farrar et al., 1970). The contentionis supportedby the occurrencein the
ages of porphyry copperdepositsin this region sameprovinceof unmineralized(with the exception
possessan analogousspace-timedistribution,al- of Bingham, Utah) mid-Tertiary stocks, which I
thoughJurassicdeposits are as yet unknown. Thus consider to have been intruded at a time when lesser
the possibilityarises that each discretepulse of amountsof copperwere availableon the subjacent
magmageneration had the potentialto give rise to subductionzone. Theories invoking the extraction
porphyryore deposits;the extendedtime interval of copperfrom the continentalcrust or uppermantle
fail to account for the concentration within a limited
and episodicityof porphyrydepositgenesis,particu-
larly in westernNorth America,as reflectedby the time period of most of these porphyry copper de-
posits;furthermore,post-Paleozoic stocksof all ages
agesin Table 1, supportthis conclusion.The data in the provincewould be expectedto be similarly
a Pre-Mesozoic porphyry copper-typedepositshave been endowed with porphyrycopperdeposits.Continuing
reported from northwest of St. John, New Brunswick the sameline of argument,large amountsof moly-
(Ruitenberg,Shafiquallahand Tupper, 1970), and from east-
central Queensland,(Cornelius, 1969), but no particulars bdenum,and only minorcopper,are thoughtto have
of the occurrenceswere given. been available on a subduction zone vertically
192 RICHARD H. $ILLITOE

beneaththe Front Range in mid-Tertiary time. If in mid-Cretaceous-early Tertiary times (Freeland

the locusof magmagenerationon a subduction zone and Dietz, 1971).
doesnot migrate systematicallywith time, then no IVestern North America
clear pattern of porphyry copperages is to be ex-
pected,a situationwhichmay explainthe apparently It is now generallyaccepted(Vine, 1966; Yeats,
randomdistributionof agesin British Columbia. 1968; Hamilton, 1969b; Page, 1970) that thrusting
of the East Pacific ocean floor beneath the American
Porphyry CopperDeposits/Plate Tectonics plate in westernNorth America took placeat times
Interrelationships duringthe Mesozoicand early and middleTertiary.
Details of the world distribution of the evolving Underthrusting terminated in the western United
systemof oceanrises and trencheswhich existed Statesin the Miocene (Vine, 1966; Atwater, 1970)
during Mesozoicand early Cenozoictimes are not by the overrunningof the East Pacific Rise by the
yet well known. Nevertheless,evidencederived trench system. Porphyry copperand molybdenum
from both continents and ocean basins has enabled depositsin the westernUnited Statesrange in age
the establishment of someaspectsof plate tectonics from middle Jurassicto Lower Miocene (Table 1),
at this time. The distributionof porphyrydeposits in excellentagreementwith the time of plate con-
in selectedregionswill now be related in general vergence. In view of the absenceof an active sub-
duction zone off this coast, it is concluded that
terms to the plate tectonicmodel:
porphyrycopperformationis not currently active in
IVestern South America North America, north of the tip of Baja California,
except in the Alaska Peninsulawhere a trench sys-
Evidencederived from the interpretationof mag- tem is still active,and possiblylandwardof the Juan
netic anomalypatternsin the PacificOceanbasin de Fuca plate. It is noteworthythat calc-alkaline
(Heirtzler et al., 1968; Morgan, Vogt and Falls, volcanism, typical of convergent plate junctures,
1969) and the paleontological study of sediment ceasedin the westernUnited Statessouthof Oregon
cores in the South Atlantic Ocean basin (Maxwell in the Miocene (Christiansenand Lipman, 1970;
et al., 1970) hasdemonstratedthe convergenceof the Lipman, Prostka and Christiansen,1970).
American and East Pacific plates along the western The characterof Mesozoic-middleCenozoicplate
marginof SouthAmerica(Fig. 2) sinceat leastthe interactions off British Columbia cannot be elucidated
late Cretaceous. This interval of active underthrust-
from studiesof magneticanomalypatterns(Atwater,
ing embracesthe periodof formationof porphyry 1970), but it is noteworthythat calc-alkalinevolcan-
copperdeposits
in Chile,Argentina,Peru and Ecua- ism in British Columbia terminated in the Eocene
dor. In western South America, porphyry copper (Souther, 1970), at aboutthe sametime as the de-
deposits
maywellbe formingstillbeneath
theactive dine in the formationof porphyry copperdeposits•
volcanic chains, for underthrustingis continuing excludingthoseon VancouverIsland.
(e.g.,PlafkerandSavage,1970). The small Juan de Fuca plate, sandwichedbe-
tweenNorth Americaand the northeastPacific (Fig.
Central America and the Caribbean
2), hasdescended,
andmay still be descending,along
The Panama trench is sediment-filled,and under- a trench systemparalleling the coast of Oregon,
thrustingis inactive(Le Pichon,1968). The trench Washingtonand VancouverIsland (Morgan, 1968;
was abandonedin the Miocenewhen the pattern of Tobin and Sykes, 1968) giving rise to calc-alkaline
sea-floorspreadingin the North Pacificchanged magmatismin the Cascades. The Lower Eocene-
(Vine, 1966;Le Pichon,1968),but waspart of a Lower Oligoceneporphyry depositson Vancouver
continuous trenchsystemborderingthe westof the Island (Carson, 1969) do not fit well into the over-
American continent intermittently during the all space-timedistributionpattern of porphyry de-
Mesozoicand early and middle Cenozoic,during positsin British Columbia,and might be ascribed
which time the Cerro Petaquilla and Botija to earlier activity in the vicinity of this localized
porphyry copper depositsof Panama wereemplaced.compressivesystem, as might apparently young
In PuertoRico,porphyrycopperformationseems porphyrycoppersin Washington. Extrapolationof
to havebeenassociated with a phaseof igneousin- platemotionsbackinto the early Cenozoic(Atwater,
trusionof Eoceneage (Mattson,1965). Although 1970) has shownthat subductionof the Juan de
present-day eastwardmovement of the American Fuca plate was precededby more rapid under-
platenearlyparallels thePuertoRicotrench(Chase thrustingof the Farallonplate,at a trenchwhichdid
and Bunce, 1969; Molnar and Sykes, 1969), re- not extend further north than Vancouver Island.
constructions of platemotionsin thisregionindicate However, her model approximatelypredicts the
that underthrusting normalto the trenchprevailed commencement of subductionin the Upper Eocene,
 MODEL FOR ORIGIN OF PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS 193

mid-way through the interval of formation of the Miocene times, they would be related to a north-
porphyry deposits. ward dipping subductionzone, which becameex-
tinct during the Miocene,by the collisionof its
LineamentIntersectionsand Porphyry CopperDe- overlyingislandarc (Bismarckarc) with the Aus-
positsin Western .dmerica
traliancontinent(DeweyandBird, 1970).
The locations of several southwest North American
porphyry copper depositshave been attributed to The .dlpideBelt
major orogen- and fault-zone intersections(Bill- The Alpide belt, in termsof the new globaltec-
ingsley and Locke, 1941; Mayo, 1958; Schmitt, tonics,is one of the leastknownand mostcomplex
1966). More specifically,the locationsof several of the compressive plate boundaries.On a global
porphyry copperdeposits(e.g., Ajo, Pima-Mission scale,the compressire forcesin the Alpide belt have
and Silver Bell) have been consideredto have been been attributed to relative movements between the
influencedby elementsof the west-northwest- trend- African and Eurasian plates related to sea-floor
ing Texas lineament,particularlyby its intersection spreadingin the Central and North Atlantic Oceans
with the Wasatch-Jeromeorogen (Mayo, 1958; (Hs/i, 1971; Smith, 1971). Lithospherewas con-
Schmitt, 1966; Guilbert and Sumner, 1968; Wertz, sumedalongthe northernandnortheastern edgesof
1970). Schmitt (1966) and Guilbert and Sumner the Arabianplateat the Zagrosthrustzonein Iran
(1968) have interpretedthe Texas lineamentas a and West Pakistanand its westerlycontinuationin
continental manifestation of now-extinct transform Turkey (DeweyandBird, 1970). Porphyrycopper
faults in the North Pacificbasin. Although several depositsin Iran and West Pakistan, north of the
porphyry copper depositsoutside of the southwest Zagros zone, were emplacedwhile subductionwas
United States (e.g., Chuquicamata,Chile; Taylor, active. The porphyrydepositsin Romania,Yugo-
1935) lie adjacent to important faults, none have slaviaand Bulgaria appearto be relatedto a Meso-
been describedas being locatedby major structural zoic-Tertiarysubduction
zone which, accordingto
intersections. It is suggestedthat the control of Dewey and Bird (1970; Fig. 14), is marked by
porphyry copper emplacementby extinct transform ophiolitecomplexes,and extendedwestwardsfrom
faults and major structural intersectionsis not uni- the southernshoreof the Black Sea. It might be
versally applicable,and is subordinateto a funda- conjecturedthat all the porphyryore depositsin the
mental dependenceon elongate zones of plate con- Alpide belt were generatedduring phasesof sub-
vergence. In Chile, for example, the linear, longi- ductionrelatedto theclosure
of thewesternTethyan-
tudinal array of porphyrycopperdeposits(Fig. 1) Indian Ocean.
providesstrongsupportfor a subduction-zone origin, In the caseof orogenicbeltsin whichthe collision
and no indicationof control by structural intersec- of continents with island arcs or with other con-
tions is evident (Sillitoe, unpublished). In the tinentshas contributedto their development,
as in
southwestUnited States, the less regular, disperse the Alpine-Mediterranean system, calc-alkaline
pattern of porphyry copper deposits may be ex- igneousrocksand associated ore depositsmay have
plained in terms of partial fusion and consequent beenconcealedby overthrustslicesor by flyschde-
magma and metal generationover a greater down- positsduring or after collision.
dip extension of the underlying subductionzone;
this situation might be expectedif the subduction Concluding Remarks
zone were flat-dippingand imbricateas invokedby In termsof the plate tectonicmodeloutlinedabove
Lipman, Prostkaand Christiansen(1971). It is not for the genesisof porphyryore deposits,several
denied,however,that lineamentsmay haveinfluenced suggestionsfor explorationmay be made. A con-
locallythe uprise of magmaand includedmetals. sideration of the distribution of Mesozoic-Cenozoic
subductionzones(Fig. 2) indicatesseveralareasas
The SouthwestPacificBelt potentialporphyryprovinces,in additionto the oro-
In view of the youngages(Table 1) suggested for genic belts of western America and their southward
the porphyry copper depositsin Bougainvilleand continuation
into the AntarcticPeninsula.Probably
Taiwan, it seemsprobablethat their formation is the most obviousof theseregionsare Japan• and
linked to Benioff zonesoccupyingpositionsclosely New Zealandwhereporphyrydepositshavenot yet
similar to thosecurrently active (Fig. 2). If the beendiscovereddespiteextensiveexploration.A re-
porphyrycopperdepositsin West Irian and Papua- centcompilationof agesof magmatismin islandarcs
New Guinea prove to be post-Miocenein age, then (Mitchell and Bell, 1970) showsthat Upper Creta-
they would seem to be related to the southward ceous-Eocene or mid-Tertiary periodsof volcanism
underthrustingof the Pacificplate (Fig. 2). On the accompanied by intrusionare represented,in addi-
other hand, if the depositswere formed in pre- tion to in islandarcs where porphyrycopperde-
194, RICHARD H. SILLITOE

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