Units: Pipe and Tubing Sizes and Ratings In this subsection pipe and tubing sizes are

generally quoted in units of inches. To convert inches to millimeters, multiply by 25.4. Ratings
are given in pounds. To convert pounds to kilograms, multiply by 0.454.

Pressure-Piping Codes The code for pressure piping (ASMEB31) consists of a number of
sections which collectively constitute the code. Table 10-18 shows the status of the B31 code as
of July 2005. The sections are published as separate documents for simplicity and convenience.
The sections differ extensively. The Process Piping Code (ASME B31.3) is a subsection of the
ASME code for Pressure Piping B31. It was derived from a merging of the code groups for
chemical-plant (B31.6) and petroleum-refinery (B31.3) piping into a single committee. Some of
the significant requirements of ASME B31.3, Process Piping (2004 edition) are summarized in
the following presentation. Where the word code is used in this subsection of the Handbook
without other identification, it refers to the B31.3 section of ASME B31. The code has been
extensively quoted in this subsection of the Handbook with the permission of the publisher. The
code is published by and copies are available from the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME). Three Park Avenue, New York, New York 10016–5990. National
Standards The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and the American
Petroleum Institute (API) have established dimensional standards for the most widely used
piping components. Lists of these standards as well as specifications for pipe and fitting
materials and testing methods of the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM),
American Welding Society (AWS) specifications, and standards of the Manufacturers
Standardization Society of the Valve and Fittings Industry (MSS) can be found in the ASME
B31 code sections. Many of these standards contain pressure-temperature ratings which will be
of assistance to engineers in their design function. The use of published standards does not
eliminate the need for engineering judgment. For example, although the code calculation
formulas recognize the need to provide an allowance for corrosion, the standard rating tables for
valves, flanges, fittings, etc., do not incorporate a corresponding allowance. Judgments regarding
the suitability of these components are left to the designer. The introduction to the code sets forth
engineering requirements deemed necessary for the safe design and construction of piping
systems. While safety is the basic consideration of the code, this factor alone will not necessarily
govern final specifications for any pressure piping system. Designers are cautioned that the code
is not a design handbook and does not do away with the need for competent engineering
judgment.

Government Regulations: OSHA Sections of the ASME B31 code have been adopted with
certain reservations or revisions by some state and local authorities as local codes.
The specific requirements for piping systems in certain services have been promulgated as
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulations. These rules and regulations
will presumably be revised and supplemented from time to time and may include specific
requirements not addressed by the B31 sections.

International Regulations ASME piping codes have been widely used throughout the world for
the design of facilities falling within their defined scopes. Although the use of ASME codes is
widely acceptable in areas outside the United States, it is essential to identify additional local or
national codes or standards that may apply. Such documents may require qualified third-party
review and approval of project specifications, facility design, fabrication, material
documentation, inspection, and testing. For example, within the European Community, such
requirements are imposed by the Pressure Equipment Directive 97/23/EC (also known as the
PED). These requirements must be recognized early in the project to avoid costly error.

CODE CONTENTS AND SCOPE

The code prescribes minimum requirements for materials, design, fabrication, assembly, support,
erection, examination, inspection, and testing of piping systems subject to pressure or vacuum.
The scope of the piping covered by B31.3 is illustrated in Fig. 10-127. It applies to all fluids
including fluidized solids and to all services except as noted in the figure. The code also excludes
piping systems designed for internal gauge pressures at or above zero but less than 0.105 MPa
(15 lbf/in2) provided the fluid handled is nonflammable, nontoxic, and not damaging to human
tissues, and its design temperature is from −29°C (−20°F) through 186°C (366°F). Refer to the
code for definitions of non-flammable and nontoxic. Some of the more significant requirements
of ASME B31.3 (2004 edition) have been summarized and incorporated in this section of the
Handbook. For a more comprehensive treatment of code require ments engineers are referred to
the B31.3 code and the standards referenced therein.

SELECTION OF PIPE SYSTEM MATERIALS

The selection of material to resist deterioration in service is outside the scope of the B31.3 code
(see Sec. 25). Experience has, however, resulted in the following material considerations
extracted from the code with the permission of the publisher, the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York.

General Considerations* Following are some general considerations which should be evaluated
when selecting and applying materials in piping:
1. The possibility of exposure of the piping to fire and the melting point, degradation
temperature, loss of strength at elevated temperature, and combustibility of the piping material
under such exposure.
2. The susceptibility to brittle failure or failure from thermal shock of the piping material when
exposed to fire or to fire-fighting measures, and possible hazards from fragmentation of the
material in the event of failure.
3. The ability of thermal insulation to protect piping against failure under fire exposure (e.g., its
stability, fire resistance, and ability to remain in place during a fire).
4. The susceptibility of the piping material to crevice corrosion under backing rings, in threaded
joints, in socket-welded joints, and in other stagnant, confined areas.
5. The possibility of adverse electrolytic effects if the metal is subject to contact with a dissimilar
metal.
6. The compatibility of lubricants or sealants used on threads with the fluid service.
7. The compatibility of packing, seals, and O-rings with the fluid service.
8. The compatibility of materials, such as cements, solvents, solders, and brazing materials, with
the fluid service.
9. The chilling effect of sudden loss of pressure on highly volatile fluids as a factor in
determining the lowest expected service temperature.
10. The possibility of pipe support failure resulting from exposure to low temperatures (which
may embrittle the supports) or high temperatures (which may weaken them).
11. The compatibility of materials, including sealants, gaskets, lubricants, and insulation, used in
strong oxidizer fluid service (e.g., oxygen or fluorine).
Specific Material Considerations—Metals* Following are some specific considerations which
should be evaluated when applying certain metals in piping.
1. Irons—cast, malleable, and high silicon (14.5%). Their lack of ductility and their sensitivity to
thermal and mechanical shock.
2. Carbon steel, and low and intermediate alloy steels.
a. The possibility of embrittlement when handling alkaline or strong caustic fluids.
b. The possible conversion of carbides to graphite during long time exposure to temperatures
above 427°C (800°F) of carbon steels, plain nickel steel, carbon-manganese steel, manganese
vanadium steel, and carbon-silicon steel.
c. The possible conversion of carbides to graphite during long time exposure to temperatures
above 468°C (875°F) of carbon-molybdenum steel, manganese-molybdenum-vanadium steel,
and chromium-vanadium steel.
d. The advantages of silicon-killed carbon steel (0.1% silicon minimum) for temperatures above
482°C (900°F).
e. The possibility of damage due to hydrogen exposure at elevated temperature (see API RP941);
hydrogen damage (blistering) may occur at lower temperatures under exposure to aqueous acid
solutions.
f. The possibility of stress corrosion cracking when exposed to cyanides, acids, acid salts, or wet
hydrogen sulfide; a maximum hardness limit is usually specified (see NACE MR0175 and
RP0472).
g. The possibility of sulfidation in the presence of hydrogen sulphide at elevated temperatures.
3. High-alloy (stainless) steels.
a. The possibility of stress corrosion cracking of austenitic stainless steels exposed to media such
as chlorides and other halides either internally or externally; the latter can result from improper
selection or application of thermal insulation, or from use of marking inks, paints, labels, tapes,
adhesives, and other accessory materials containing chlorides or other halides.
b. The susceptibility to intergranular corrosion of austenitic stainless steels sensitized by
exposure to temperatures between 427 and 871°C (800 and 1600°F); as an example, stress
corrosion cracking of sensitized metal at room temperature by polythionic acid (reaction of
oxidizable sulfur compound, water, and air); stabilized or low-carbon grades may provide
improved resistance.
c. The susceptibility to intercrystalline attack of austenitic stainless steels on contact with liquid
metals (including aluminum, antimony, bismuth, cadmium, gallium, lead, magnesium, tin, and
zinc) or their compounds.
d. The brittleness of ferritic stainless steels at room temperature after service at temperature
above 371°C (700°F).
4. Nickel and nickel-base alloys.
a. The susceptibility to grain boundary attack of nickel and nickelbase alloys not containing
chromium when exposed to small quantities of sulfur at temperatures above 316°C (600°F).
b. The susceptibility to grain boundary attack of nickel-base alloys containing chromium at
temperatures above 593°C (1100°F) under reducing conditions and above 760°C (1400°F) under
oxidizing conditions.
c. The possibility of stress corrosion cracking of nickel-copper Alloy 400 in hydrofluoric acid
vapor in the presence of air, if the alloy is highly stressed (including residual stresses from
forming or welding).
5. Aluminum and aluminum alloys.
a. The compatibility with aluminum of thread compounds used in aluminum threaded joints to
prevent seizing and galling.
b. The possibility of corrosion from concrete, mortar, lime, plaster, or other alkaline materials
used in buildings or structures.
c. The susceptibility of Alloy nos. 5083, 5086, 5154, and 5456 to exfoliation or intergranular
attack; and the upper temperature limit of 66°C (150°F) shown in Appendix A to avoid such
deterioration.
6. Copper and copper alloys.
a. The possibility of dezincification of brass alloys.
b. The susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking of copper-based alloys exposed to fluids such as
ammonia or ammonium compounds.
c. The possibility of unstable acetylide formation when exposed to acetylene.
7. Titanium and titanium alloys. The possibility of deterioration of titanium and its alloys above
316°C (600°F).
8. Zirconium and zirconium alloys. The possibility of deterioration of zirconium and zirconium
alloys above 316°C (600°F).
9. Tantalum. Above 299°C (570°F), the possibility of reactivity of tantalum with all gases except
the inert gases. Below 299°C, the possibility of embrittlement of tantalum by nascent
(monoatomic) hydrogen (but not molecular hydrogen). Nascent hydrogen is produced by
galvanic action, or as a product of corrosion by certain chemicals.
10. Metals with enhanced properties. The possible loss of strength, in a material whose
properties have been enhanced by heat treatment, during long-continued exposure to
temperatures above the tempering temperature.
11. The desirability of specifying some degree of production impact testing, in addition to the
weld procedure qualification tests, when using materials with limited low-temperature service
experience below the minimum temperature stated in ASME B31.3 Table A-1.

Specific Material Considerations—Nonmetals Following are some considerations to be

evaluated when applying nonmetals in piping.
1. Static charges. Because of the possibility of producing hazardous electrostatic charges in
nonmetallic piping and metallic piping lined with nonmetals, consideration should be given to
grounding the metallic components of such systems conveying nonconductive fluids.
2. Thermoplastics. If thermoplastic piping is used aboveground for compressed air or other
compressed gases, special precautions should be observed. In determining the needed
safeguarding for such services, the energetics and the specific failure mechanism need to be
evaluated. Encasement of the plastic piping in shatter-resistant material may be considered.
3. Borosilicate glass. Take into account its lack of ductility and its sensitivity to thermal and
mechanical shock.

METALLIC PIPING SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Metallic pipe systems comprise the majority of applications. Metallic pipe, tubing, and pipe
fittings are divided into two main categories: seamless and welded. Both have advantages and
disadvantages in terms of economy and function. Specifications governing the production of
these products dictate the permissible mechanical and dimensional variations, and code design
calculations account for these variations.

Seamless Pipe and Tubing Seamless pipe and tubing may be formed by various methods. A
common technique involves piercing solid round forgings, followed by rolling and drawing.
Other techniques include forging and boring, extrusion, and static and centrifugal casting.
Piercing frequently produces pipe with a less uniform wall thickness and concentricity of bore
than is the case with products produced by other methods. Since seamless products have no weld
joints, there is no reduction of strength due to weld joint efficiency.

Welded Pipe and Tubing These products are typically made by forming strips or plate into
cylinders and seam-welding by various methods. Manufacturing by welding permits the
production of larger diameter pipe than is possible with seamless manufacturing methods, as well
as larger diameter/wall thickness ratios. While strip and plate thickness may be more closely
controlled than is possible for some seamless products, the specifications governing production
are not always more stringent for welded products.
Weld quality has the potential of making the weld weaker than the base material. Depending on
the welding method and the degree of nondestructive examination required by the product
specification or dictated by the designer, the code assigns a joint efficiency ranging from 60 to
100 percent of the strength of the base material. Although some welding methods have the
potential of producing short sections of partially fused joints that may develop into small leaks in
corrosive conditions, proper matching of the weld method and the type and extent of
examination will result in highly reliable joints that are suitable for use in critical services. Welds
must be considered when developing specifications for bending, flaring or expanding welded
pipe or tubing.

Tubing. Tubing sizes typically reflect the actual outside diameter of the product. Pipe is
manufactured to nominal diameters, which are not the same as the actual outside diameters for
sizes 12 in and smaller. Facilities within the scope of the ASME B31 codes nearly exclusively
use pipe, rather than tubing, for applications external to equipment. Tubing is commonly
classified as suitable for either mechanical or pressure applications. Tubing is available in size
and wall thickness combinations not normally produced as pipe. Tubing wall thickness (gauge) is
specified as either average wall or minimum wall. Minimum wall is more costly than average
wall, and because of closer tolerances on thickness and diameter, tubing of either gauge system
is generally more costly than pipe. Tubing having outside diameters of 23⁄8, 27⁄8, 31⁄2, and 41⁄2
in are commonly available; however, these sizes are generally considered to be nonstandard for
typical piping applications.

Methods of Joining Pipe Piping joints must be reliably leaktight and provide adequate
mechanical strength to resist external loads due to thermal expansion, weight, wind, seismic
activity, and other factors. Joints for pipe buried in soil may be subjected to unique external loads
resulting from thermal expansion and contraction, settlement, and other factors. Joint designs
that permit rotation about an axis perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the pipe may be
advantageous in certain situations. Disassembly frequency and ease should be considered when
selecting joining methods. Ideally the method for joining piping system components provides
minimum installed cost, maintains its integrity throughout the lifetime of the facility, provides
restraint against axial thrust due to internal pressure, provides strength against external loads
equal to that of the pipe, permits unrestricted flow with minimum pressure drop, and is free from
crevices that may be detrimental to the product or contribute to corrosion or erosion problems.
Joint design and selection generally involves compromising between the ideal and practical. A
number of manufacturers produce patented or “proprietary” joints that embody many ideal
characteristics.
Some are excellent products and are well suited to special applications. Valves and fittings are
often available with proprietary joints that have gained wide acceptance; however, consideration
should be given to the possible impact on product delivery time and cost.