 Occurrence of groundwater and aquifer types

The groundwater zone can be visualized as a natural reservoir or sytem of reservoir

in unconsolidated sediment or rock with a capacity equaling the volume or·pores or
openings that are filled with water

Water is held in soils by both molecular attraction and capil1arity acting against the
force of gravity, Molecular atraction tends to hold water in a thin film on the surface
of each soil particle. Capilarty holds water in the pores between soil particles.

an aquifer is a saturated geologic material that yields water in sufficient quantity to

be economically useful. To be considered an aquifer, a geologic material must
contain pores or open spaces that are filled with water and the interslices must be
sufficiently connected to transmit water toward a well.

Geologic units that do yield some water but which usually do not produce enough to
meet even modest demands are called aquitards

The term aquifuge generally refers to a geologic material which contains no

interconnected openings or interslices and which therefore neither absorbs nor
transmits water

Aquiqlude is a geological formation, which is porous but not permeable

ENERGY CONTAINED IN GROUNDWATER

There is two primary environments of groundwater environment: unconfined and

confined aquifer.

Unconfined aquifer : aquifer which is not overlain by any confining layer but has a
confining layer at its bottom is called unconfined aquifer. It is normally exposed to
the atmosphere and its upper portion is partly saturated with water

Confined aquifer : It is also called artesian aquifer. It is a type of aquifer overlain as

well as underlain by confining layers. The water within the aquifer is therefore held
under pressure. It is sometimes called pressure aquifer also.

AQUIFER PROPERTY
An aquifer performs two important functions: it stores water and it transmits water.

Storage Two important properties of an aquifer that are related to the storage of
wallet are porosity and specific yield.

Porosity: The porosity of a water-bearing formation is the amount of open space

within a specified volume of geologic material. lt is defined as the volume of void
(open spaces) per total unit volume of geologic material. There is to two types of
porosity, primary ( open spaces between grain) secondary (porosity inclues opening
in rock or soil)
SPECIFIC YIELD

When water is drained from a saturated material under the force of gravity. The
material release only part of the total volume stored in its pores. The quantity of
water that a unit volume of unconfined aquifer provides by gravity drainage is
termed specific yield

SPECIFIC RETENTION

Some water is retained in pores by molecular attraction and capillarity. The amount
of water that a unit volume of aquifer retains after gravity drainage occurs is its
specific retention.

STORAGE COEFFICIENT
The storage coefficient is the volume of water taken into or released from storage,
per unit change in head peer unit area.

HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
Hydraulic conductivity is the property of a water bearing geological material that
relates to its ability to transmit water at a standard temperature and density, also
known as as the coefficient of permeability.

GROUNDwATER FLOw
Two basic types of flow occur in groundwater ( laminar & turbulent ) laminar flow
very dominant at very low velocity but as velocity increase turbulent flow begins.

TRANSMISSIVITY
Coefficient of transmissibility defined it as the rate of flow in gallons per minute
through the vertical section of an aquifer under a hydraulic gradient
Three general methods are used to estimate transmissivity : the first method is based
on observation of the decline in groundwater levels during an aquifer test. Second
method involves estimating hydraulic conductivities of the materials in an aquifer,
the estimation is determined using a grain size analysis of samples collected from the
aquifer (cutting or cores), the third method involves the testing of samples from an
aquifer using a permeameter. Of these three methods the transmissivity calculated
from aquifer tests is the most representative of hydraulic conditions within an aquifer

GRAIN SIZE and HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY

Hydraulic conductivity varies not only with porosity but also with the size
distribution and continuity of pores.

SEDIMENT SIZE CLASSIFICATION

Grain size classification using wentworth scale

The term effective size defined as the particle size where 10% of the sediment is
finer and 90% coarser.
SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION AND HYDROGEOLOGICAL LOGGING

Exploration drilling method

-sonic drilling : using high frequency mechanical vibrations to advantage drilling
tools through various geological formation and the method is well suite for collecting
core samples of unconsolidated formtions.
-dual wall percussion hammer drilling : equipped with a single cylinder diesel
powered pile driving hammer, the hammer advances dual wall drillpipe equipped
with an open face drill bit. As the pipe is advanced high preasure filtered air is
injected in the annulus of the dual wall drill pipe
-hollow stem auger drilling
Hollow stem auger commonly are used for relatively shallow groundwater
exploration purpose in unconsolidated material.
-Direct push drilling: use a combination of a hydraulically powered percussion
hammer, a downward hydraulic push and the static weight of the vehicle. They not
generate drill cutings.
-wireline core drilling: this method used to drill relatively small diameter core holes
in bedrock, the resulting sample is a long solid cylinder of rock that geologist can
characterize of rock type, fracture density and other attributes.