UNIT-1

Introduction and Electrical Current and Voltage

Electrical energy is the invisible form of energy, whose presence cannot be seen, but can be felt by its various
effects. As per law of conservation of energy, “Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, but can be
transformed from one form to another form of energy.” Similarly, electrical energy also not created, it is transformed
from other sources of energy. They are given below,
{(Q1. State sources of electrical energy.) - 5marks
 Sources of electrical energy :
The available sources of electrical energy can be broadly classified into two categories. They are,
1. Conventional / Non-renewable energy sources:
The energy sources, which are available in the limited amount for the utilization, are called as
conventional energy sources.
A. Water power / Hydro power :
 Generated in hydro-electrical generating stations, using ‘water’ as fuel.
 Example: Sharavati, Tungabhadra, Bhadra, Nagjeri, etc.
B. Thermal power :
 Generated in thermal generating stations, using ‘coal’ as fuel.
 Example: Raichur TPS (Thermal power station), Ramagundam TPS, Nayveli TPS, etc.
C. Diesel power :
 Generated in diesel generating stations, using ‘diesel’ as fuel.
 Used in many private industries as alternative energy source.
D. Nuclear Power :
 Generated in nuclear power plants, using radioactive material ‘uranium’ as fuel.
 Example: Kaiga nuclear plant, Tharpur nuclear plant, Kalpakam nuclear plant, etc.
2. Non-conventional/ Renewable energy sources:
The energy sources, which are available in abundant (large) amount for utilization, are called as non-
conventional energy sources.
A. Solar power :
 Generated using solar cells, and sunlight as source of energy.
B. Wind power :
 Generated using wind turbines, and naturally flowing high speed wind as source of energy.
C. Tidal power :
 Generated using hydro-turbines and sea tides as source of energy.
D. Geo-thermal power :
 Generated using steam turbines, and hot springs of gas/water coming out of earth as sources of energy.
…………..1}

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{(Q2. State the applications of electrical energy.) -5marks
 Applications of electrical energy :
1. Lighting application: Used for domestic and industrial lighting like CFL lamps, incandescent lamps, mercury
lamps, flood light, etc.
2. Heating application: Used for domestic and industrial heating applications like Electric iron, electric stove,
electric furnaces, etc.
3. Cooking application: Used for cooking purposes like electric stove, toaster, electric oven, etc.
4. For water supply: Used for domestic, irrigation (agriculture) and industrial water supply.
5. Transportation application: Used for trains, trams, lifts, elevators, trolleys, etc.
6. Telecommunication application: Used in telecommunication field for telephones, radio, television, telex,
telegraphy, etc.
7. Cooling applications: Used in air conditioning of buildings, room cooling, vacuum cleaning, refrigeration,
cold storage, etc.
8. Other applications: Used for grinding, milling & crushing applications.
……..2}
{(Q3. State the effects of electrical energy/ current.) -5marks
 Effects of electrical energy:
1. Heating effect: This effect is obtained by passing current through thick wires of high resistance like
nichrome, tungsten, manganin, etc.
2. Lighting effect: This effect is obtained by passing current through thin wires of high resistance, which makes
them white hot to emit light.
3. Magnetic effect: This effect is obtained by passing current through a coil which is wound round a soft iron
piece.
4. Chemical effect: This effect obtained by passing current through electrodes dipped in electrolytic solution.
5. Sound effect: This effect is obtained by using magnetic effect of electrical energy.
6. Mechanical effect: This effect is obtained by converting electrical energy into mechanical energy by means
of electrical motors to perform mechanical works.
7. Cooling effect: This effect is obtained by using combination of electrical energy and cooling agent to
maintain required temperature in the system.
…….3}
{(Q4.State and explain advantages of electrical energy.) -5marks
 Advantages of electrical energy:
1. It is free from fumes, ashes and smokes and hence is very clean and healthy.
2. It is easy to control.
3. It can be transmitted more easily and efficiently.
4. It can be easily converted to other forms of energy.
5. It is not hazardous to health.
6. It travels at the speed of light.
………..4}

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 ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AND CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
 Concept of electric charge:
The most basic unit in an electrical circuit is electric charge. We all know that, an atom consists of three
basic units; they are ‘electron’, ‘proton’ & ‘neutron’. The proton has 1.602x10-19 C charge on it, the electron has -
1.602x10-19C charge on it and the neutron has zero charge.
It means the amount of charge carried by 6.242x1018 electrons is equal to 1C. This is found by a scientist
named “Charles Augustin de Coulomb”.
{(Q5. State and explain electric current and voltage) -5marks
 Electric current (I) :
 “The rate of flow of electrons or charges in an electrical circuit, in a particular direction, is called as
electric current.” And is represented as ‘I’.
 The practical as well as SI unit of current is ‘Ampere’ and its unit symbol is ‘A’.
 The equation for the current can be give as,
I = Q / t ….. Amperes or Coulombs/sec
 One Ampere is the amount of charges flows through cross-sectional area of conductor in a unit time.
 Current is measured in ‘Ammeter’.
 Electrical voltage or Potential difference (V) :
 “The difference of electrical pressure between two points of a circuit is called as electrical voltage or
potential difference.” And it is represented as ‘V’.
 The SI unit of potential difference (p.d) is ‘Volt’ and its unit symbol is ‘V’.
 One volt is defined as the force to move one coulomb of charge to required point.
 Voltage is measured in ‘Voltmeter’.
………5}
 Current flow in a circuit , EMF and voltage :
Electrons in a circuit always flow from negative terminal to the positive terminal of the battery (e.m.f.
source) in a circuit. But the direction of flow of conventional current is in opposite to direction of electrons,
direction of conventional current represents the flow of protons in a circuit (when electrons flow from one atom
to other atom, the vacant places i.e. protons seems to be flow in reverse direction).
{(Q6. Differentiate between E.M.F (Electro-Motive Force) and P.D (Potential Difference).) -5marks
 Difference between E.M.F and P.D :
1. E.m.f. is the source of electric pressure but p.d. is the electric pressure difference between any two points
of circuit.
2. P.d. does not exist without e.m.f. but e.m.f can be present without p.d.
3. P.d. can be found in only closed circuits but e.m.f. is there in both closed and open circuits.
4. E.m.f. is the P.d. between terminals of energy source in the circuit.
……6}
 Electric Potential :
Electric potential at any point in an electric field or electric circuit is, the work done in bringing a unit
positive charge from infinity to that point. In this definition ‘infinity’ means, the region where there is no effect
of any electrical field. The SI unit of electrical potential is ‘V’.
 Positive potential: A body is said to be at positive potential if it is capable of sending charges to earth,
when it is connected to it. Here, earth is considered as reference and it will be at zero potential.
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  Negative potential: A body is said to be at negative potential when it is capable of receiving charges from
earth, when it is connected to it.
{(Q7.What is an electric circuit? What are the requirements of a good electrical circuit?) - 5marks
 Concept of electric circuit:
“Electric circuit is the path to flow of electrons which consists of various elements to form a closed circuit”.
OR “The current path flows from supply points through load to complete the path.”
Requirements of a good electrical circuit are,
(i) Source: To set up electrical pressure for the flow of current.
(ii) Switch: To control the circuits operations (on/off).
(iii) Fuse: To protect the circuit and its components from electrical abnormalities.
(iv) Load: To satisfy the need of circuit.
……7}
Circuit Elements
(A) Active elements: The elements of the circuit which possess their own energy and deliver it to other elements
of circuit are called as active elements. Ex: Energy sources like Battery, cell, A.C. Source, etc.
(B) Passive elements: The elements of the circuit which does not possess their own energy and receive it from
other elements of circuit are called passive elements. Ex: All loads and protective devices.
{(Q8.Draw and explain (i) open circuit (ii) closed circuit & (iii) short circuit.) - 5marks
Types of circuits:
1. Closed Circuit: The circuit in which the current completes its path starting from the supply points to load is
called closed circuit.

2. Open Circuit: The circuit in which the circuit does not have complete path to circulate the current is called
as open circuit.

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 The first circuit represents open circuit which has open switch and the second circuit represents the open
circuit which has broken line.
3. Short Circuit: The circuit in which both terminals of the source are connected to each other without passing
through the load is called short circuit.

Load

Shorted

Switch
Cell
……..8}

{(Q9.Draw an electrical circuit showing (i)switch(ii)protective device(iii) load (iv)voltage source) - 5marks

D.C. Circuit

A.C. Circuit

……..9}

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{(Q11. Give SI symbols of A.C. Source, D.C. Source, Fuse, Switch and load.) - 5 marks

Symbols:

1. - A.C. Source 2. - D.C. Source or Battery

3. - Closed switch - Open switch

4. - Fuse 5. - Load
………11}
{(Q12. Draw symbolic representation of electrical energy sources/ active elements.) - 5 marks

- Constant voltage source

- Constant current source

- A.C. Source

- Generator

- Cell

- D.C. Source or Battery

- Controlled voltage source

- Controlled current source

…….12}

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{(Q13. Draw symbolic representations of protective device and loads / passive elements.) - 5marks

- Fuse

- Reusable Fuse

- Resistor (IEC- International Electro-technical Commission)

- Resistor (IEEE- Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineering)

- Capacitor

- Inductor
…..13}

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 UNIT-2
D.C. Circuits and Resistance and Temperature effects
1. State and explain Ohm’s law.
Ohm’s Law:
A German scientist George Siemon Ohm has conducted many experiments and came to a conclusion from his
experiments. That statement is known as Ohm’s Law.
This law establishes a relation between current (I) and potential difference (V) in a circuit.
“The current flowing in a current carrying conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference between
any two points of the conductor, when temperature and other physical parameters are constant.”
i.e. IαV
 I = V/R….. A
Where, I = Current flowing in the conductor in Amperes; V = Potential difference between two points of the
conductor in Volts; and R = Resistance or proportionality constant of Ohm’s law in Ω.
By transferring the parameters of above eqn. we can get,
I = V / R ….A
V = I R ….V
R = V / I ….Ω
This is also called Magic triangle of Ohm’s law.

------------------------------------------------------Extra information------------------------------------------------------
Derivation oh Ohm’s Law:
From basic definition of current, we have,
I=q/t ….a
From electron theory the eqn. of current can be given as,

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 I=nAev ….b
Where, I = current through conductor; q=charge in C; t= time in sec; n=no.of electrons in unit volume;
e= charge of electron (1.6x10-19C); A = Area of cross-section of conductor; v=drift velocity of electron in the conductor;
From Newton’s III law, F = ma ….c
From electron theory, F=eE …d
Where, F = force; m=mass; a=acceleration; E=electric field applied per unit length. (i.e. E =V / l)
And also we have, a=v/t => v=at ….e
From ‘c’ &’d’, ma = e E => a=eE/m ….f
From ‘e’ & ‘f’, v=eEt/m => v= e V t / m l ….g (because E= V / l)
By substituting ‘g’ in ‘b’, I = n A e (e V t / m l)
 I = n A t e2 V / m l
 I = (ne2t / m) (A / l) V
Here, value of ‘ne t’ is constant for any particular material and is denoted as constant ‘P ‘(rho) also called as
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specific resistance.
 I =( P ) (A / l) V
Here, for any material with fixed parameter length and area does not changes, therefore ’ P x A / l’ is considered
as constant and denoted by proportionality constant ‘R’ (resistance).
 I= RV
Here, it gives the complete derivation of Ohm’s law.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------
2. What are the limitations of Ohm’s law?
Limitations of Ohm’s law:
1. It holds good only at constant temperatures. It fails in the environment where temperature changes quickly.
2. It cannot be applied to electrolytes. Because electrolytes deals with chemical reaction and transfer of ions.
3. It cannot be applied to semiconductors. Because it uses external dopants for conduction.
4. It cannot be applied to vacuum tubes and discharge lamps. Because they deal with reaction of gaseous
elements.
5. It cannot be applied to complex circuits.
3. What are the applications of Ohm’s law?
Applications of Ohm’s law:
1. It can be applied for both A.C. and D.C. circuits.
2. It can be applied for only simple circuits.
3. This can be applied to either to a whole circuit or part of a circuit.
4. It can be applied for system at constant temperature.
4. Explain laws of resistance.
The resistance R offered by a conductor depends on fallowing factors:
1. It is directly proportional to length of the conductor.
2. It is inversely proportional to area of cross-section of the conductor.
3. It depends on the nature of the material.
4. It also depends on the temperature of the conductor.
From Laws of resistance, R α length and R α (1 / area of cross-section)

 R α (l / a)
 R = P (l / a)
Where P = proportionality constant = specific resistance (rho) in Ω-cm

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5. Define (i) Resistance (ii) Specific resistance or resistivity and mention their units.
(i) Resistance: It can be defined as the property of a substance, due to which it opposes the flow of electrons
through it. The unit of resistance is Ohm (Ω).
One Ohm resistance is defined as the opposition offered to permit one Ampere of current to flow through a
conductor, when one volt of p.d. is connected across its terminals.
From Ohm’s law, R = V/I => 1 Ohm = (1 volt / 1 amperes)
(ii) Specific resistivity: Specific resistivity of a material is defined as, the resistance between two faces of a unit
cube of that material.
From laws of resistance, R = P (l / a) => P = R (a / l), when l = 1 meter and a = 1 meter2
 R = P (Only when a & l = 1)
6. What are the factors on which the resistance of a material depend?
Factors on which the resistance of material depends is,
1. Length of the material – Resistance varies directly as its length.
2. Area of the material – Resistance varies inversely as its area.
3. Temperature of the surrounding – Resistance varies with the surrounding temperature as per the material
property.
4. Nature of the material – The resistance varies from material to material.
7. Derive the total resistance / equivalent resistance / effective resistance when three resistors are connected in ,
(i) Series
(ii) Parallel
(i) Derivation for series resistive circuit.

When two or more circuit elements (resistance) are connected end to end, so as to form a chain, as shown in
fig. it constitute a series circuit.
In fig. three resistance are connected in series (R1, R2 & R3), across a supply of E volts. It is seen that the current
flowing through all the resistance and the whole circuit is same (I). When current flows through the circuit, there will
be drop across each resistors. And according to Ohm’s law, the drop is given by,
V1= Drop across resistor R1 = IR1
V2= Drop across resistor R2 = IR2
V3= Drop across resistor R3 = IR3
The voltage applied to the circuit is given by the total drop across each resistors,
E = V1 + V2 + V3
But according to Ohm’s law, we have
E = V = IR => R = (E/I) = (V/I)
E =IR1 + IR2 + IR3
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E = I (R1 + R2 + R3)
E/I = R1 + R2 + R3
Req= R1 + R2 + R3
Therefore, the total equivalent or effective resistance of a series resistive circuit is the sum of individual resistances
connected in series.
Points to remember in a series resistive circuit:
a. The current through each resistor is same.
b. Total voltage applied to circuit is equal to sum of drop across each resistive element.
(ii) Derivation for parallel resistive circuit.

When all the elements of the circuit are connected in such a way that, the starting ends of all elements are
connected together to a common point and the finishing ends of all the elements are connected together to another
common point, is called as parallel circuit.
Let us consider, three resistive elements are connected in parallel, namely R1, R2&R3. But the drop across
each resistances is same, because they are connected in parallel. And the main current ‘I’ is divided as I1, I2&I3.
So we can write,
I = I1+I2+I3
In this circuit, the voltage drop across each resistances is same and is given by,
V = I1 R1 = I2 R2 = I3 R3
From Ohm’s law, we have… I = V/R
Similarly, I1 = V/R1; I2 = V/R2; I3 = V/R3
Therefore,
(V/ Req) = (V/R1) + (V/R2) + (V/R3)
(V/Req) = V {(1/R1) + (1/R2) + (1/R3)}
(1/Req) = (1/R1) + (1/R2) + (1/R3)
Therefore, the reciprocal of total equivalent or effective resistance of a parallel resistive circuit is given by sum of
reciprocals of individual resistances of the parallel circuit.
Points to remember in parallel circuit:
a. The voltage drop across each parallel branch is same.
b. The sum of all branch current is equal to the main current of the circuit.

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8. Define temperature coefficient of resistance and mention its unit.
Temperature coefficient of resistance (α):
The temperature coefficient of resistance of a material, at any given temperature is the change in the
resistance per ohm per degree centigrade change in temperature from the given temperature.
Let us consider, T1 = Initial temperature in oC; T2 = Final temperature in oC;
R1 = Resistance of material at T1oC in Ω; R2 = Resistance of the material at T2oC in Ω;
Then the temperature coefficient of resistance at T1oC is given by,
α1 = Increase in resistance per degree centigrade of temperature / Initial temperature
α1 = Change in resistance / (Change in temperature x Initial temperature)
α1 = (R2 – R1) / {(T2 – T1) x R1} ……. /oC similarly, α2 = (R1 –R2) / {(T1 –T2) x R2} …. /oC
Simplifying this equation we get,
R2 = R1 {1 + α1 (T2 – T1)} ……. Ω similarly, R1 = R2 {1 + α2 (T1 - T2)} …. Ω
α2 = Temperature coefficient of resistance at T2 C o

If the ‘α’ has positive value, then the material is said to have positive temperature coefficient of resistance.
If the ‘α’ has negative value, then the material is said to have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Note: The temperature coefficient of resistance varies as per the resistance.
If Rt = Final resistance at toC t = Final temperature in oC
Ro = Initial resistance at 0oC 0oC= Initial temperature
Then Rt = Ro (1 + αo t) ….Ω similarly, Ro = Rt (1 – αt t) …..Ω
Where αo = Temperature coefficient of resistance at 0 C o

From this equation we get,

αo = (Rt –Ro) / (Ro t) ….. /oC similarly, αt = (Ro – Rt) / (Rt (-t)) …… /oC
=> αt = (Rt – Ro) / (Rt t) …… /oC
Therefore, αt = αo / (1 + αo t) and αo = αt / (1 – αt t)
9. What is effect of temperature on resistance?
The effect of temperature on resistance,
1. On conductors OR pure metals: When the temperature of the conductor material increased, the resistance of the
conductor also increases. The conductors have positive temperature coefficient of resistance.
2. On insulators, semiconductors and non-metallic conductors: When the temperature of these type of materials is
increased, the resistance decreases. These materials have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
3. On some high resistive alloys: When temperature of some high resistive alloys like tungsten or manganin
remains constant for a considerable range of temperature. These materials have zero temperature coefficient of
resistance.
10. What is positive temperature coefficient and negative temperature coefficient?
Positive temperature coefficient of resistance: Resistance of certain material increase with increase in temperature.
Such materials are said to have positive temperature coefficient of resistance.
For example, resistance of all metallic conductors increases linearly, with the increase in temperature. Hence
they have positive temperature coefficient of resistance.

Negative temperature coefficient of resistance: Resistance of certain material decreases with increase in
temperature. Such materials are said to have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
For example, resistance of all insulating materials, semi-conductors & non-metallic conductors like carbon
have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.

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Positive temperature coefficient graph Negative temperature coefficient graph

Problems:
11. Three resistors 4Ω, 12Ω&6Ω are connected in parallel. If the total current taken is 12 A, find the current through
each resistor.

12. Find resistance of a bulb which takes 2A when connected to 230V supply.

13. Calculate the resistance of a copper wire having length of 2 Km & a cross section of 22 mm 2. Assume resistivity
as 18x10-9Ωm.

14. Three resistors of 30Ω, 40Ω&50Ω are connected in series across a voltage source of 100 V, find the (i) total
resistance (ii) voltage drop across each resistor.

15. Find the total current when 100Ω, 200Ω and 150Ω resistance are connected in parallel across a potential source
of 600V.

16. Three resistors of 10Ω, 20Ω & 30Ω are connected in parallel across voltage supply of 50 V, find I, I 1, I2& I3.

17. A wire 50cm long and having a diameter of 0.05m is in a room at 20 oC. The specific resistance of the material of
wire is 2µΩ-cm while its temperature is 0.004 at 20oC. Calculate the resistance of wire at 20oC. If the temperature
of the room rises to 25oC, find the new resistance of wire.

18. A tungsten lamp has a resistance of 25Ω at 0oC, what would be its resistance at 100oC? Assume the temperature
coefficient is 0.004 /oC at 0oC.

19. A copper wire has a resistance of 150Ω at 2850oC, what is the resistance at 20oC? Given the temperature
coefficient of resistance is 0.0049 per oC at 0oC.

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 UNIT-3
Work, Power & Energy

1. Define & mention SI units of i)Work ii) Mechanical power iii) Mechanical energy
(i) Work:
‘When a body is moved through certain distance, against certain force, then work is said to be done.’ The S.I
unit of work is Joules or Newton-meter.
If a body is moved through a distance ‘D’ meters, against a force of ‘F’ Newton, then the work done is given
by, W=FxS N-m or Joules
(ii) Mechanical Power:
‘Power is the rate of doing work’ or ‘Work done per unit time is called power’.
The S.I. unit of the power is N-m/sec or Joules/sec.
Power = (Work done in N-m / Time in seconds) N-m/sec or Joules/sec
N-m/sec or J/sec is very small unit of power. So bigger unit is used in practical is called ‘H.P’ (Horse Power).
1 HP = 75 Kg-m/sec = 735.6 N-m/sec.
(iii) Mechanical energy:
‘The total amount of work done or power utilized during certain period is called energy.’ The unit of energy
is also Joules or Newton-meter.
Energy = Power in N-m/sec x Time in sec N-m or Joules.
---------------------------------------------------Extra information--------------------------------------------------------------------
A. We experience many types of forces in our day-to-day life. Gravitational force is one of the major force.
‘Each and every body on earth is attracted by the earth, with certain force. This force of attraction on the body is called earth’s
gravitational force. Sometimes it is also called as weight of the body.’
By Newton’s laws of motion, If a body of mass 1Kg is moving with an acceleration of 1 m/s 2, then the force applied to move the body is
given by 1Newton, i.e. F = m x a = 1 Kg x 1m/s2 = 1 Newton.
Similarly the gravitational force also exerts some force on free body on earth’s surface. If we consider a body of mass ‘m’ moving towards
earth’s surface with an acceleration due to gravitational force ‘g’. The gravitational force is given by, F =m x g Newton.
But we know that, acceleration due to gravity, g =9.81 m/s2. Therefore, Force on a body on the earth’s surface is given as,
F= m x 9.81 N. i.e. the force applied due to gravity on a body of 1Kg mass on the earth’s surface is given by, F= 9.81Newton.
Gravitational force is also measured in Kg-Wt. 1Kg-Wt is the force applied on a body of 1 Kg on earth’s surface. Therefore,
1Kg-Wt = 9.81 N. But in practical we omit ‘Wt.’ from ‘Kg-Wt.’ and call it as only ‘Kg’ or ‘Kgf’. i.e. 1Kg = 9.81N.
B. In olden days mechanical power is compared with working capacity of Horse. A young and energetic Horse can do a work of
4500 Kg-m/minute or 75 Kg-m/sec.
2. Define i) Electrical energy ii) Electrical power and mention their units.
(i) Electrical energy or electrical energy:
‘When certain charge is transferred from one point to another point in an electrical circuit, against a potential
difference, then electrical work is said to be done or electrical energy is said to be expanded.’
The unit of electrical energy is Joule or Watt-second.
If a charge of ‘Q’ coulombs is transferred in a circuit, against a potential difference of ‘V’, then the electrical
energy is given by,
E = Q.V Joule But we know that, I = Q/t => Q = It
Therefore, E = V I t Joule or Watt-second Where, I = Current in amperes and t = Time is seconds.
But, V I = W = P (power) => E = P t = W t Joule or Watt-second
Practically, Watt-second is a smaller unit of energy, so a larger unit kWh (Kilo Watt Hour) is used for
measurements. 1 kWh = 1000 Watt x (60x60) seconds = 3600000 Watt-seconds = 3.6x106 Watt-seconds.
1 kWh is also called as ‘Board of trade unit’ (BOTU) or simply a Unit.
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(ii) Electrical Power :
‘The rate at which electrical energy is expended or electrical work is done is called electrical power.’
The unit of electrical power is Joules/second or Watt.
Electrical Power = (Work done in Watt-second / Time in seconds)
P = E / t = V I t / t = V I Watts.
Or P = V2 / R = I2 R Watts According to Ohm’s law, V= I R => I = V / R

Practically, Watt is very smaller unit of power, so a large unit kW is used for measurements. 1kW= 1000 Watt.

3. Convert mechanical units into electrical units.

Conversion of some mechanical units to electrical units given as below,
Energy:
Mechanical unit  Newton-meter or kg-meter or Joules
Electrical unit  Watt-seconds or kWh or Joules
Conversion of mechanical energy to electrical energy 
W.k.t., 1 N-m = 1 W-sec = 1 J we also have, 1 kWh = 3.6x106 W-sec
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1 N-m = (1 / 3.6x10 ) kWh => 1 W-sec = (1 / 3.6x106) kWh
1 N-m = 27.7 x 10-8 kWh

Work:
Mechanical unit  Newton-meter or Kg-meter or Jules
Electrical unit  Watt-second or kWh or Joules
Conversion of mechanical work to electrical work 
W.k.t., 1 kg-m = 9.81 N-m = 9.81 W-sec we also have, 1W-sec = 27.7x10-8 kWh
1 kg-m = 9.81 x (27.7x10-8) kWh
1 kg-m = 273x10-8 kWh
Power:
Mechanical unit  N-m/sec or Joule/sec or HP or kg-m/sec
Electrical unit  Watt or kW or Joule/sec
Conversion of mechanical power to electrical power 
W.k.t., 1 N-m/sec = 1 W = 1 J/sec
We also have, 1 kg-m/sec = 9.81 W = 9.81 N-m/sec
And also we have, 1 HP = 75 kg-m/sec
1 HP = 75 x 9.81 W or N-m/sec
1 HP = 735.6 W 1kW = 1000 W
1 HP = 0.7356 kW
4. State and explain Joule’s law of heat.
Whenever current flows through a material (conductor or semiconductor), heat is developed. Flow of electron is
nothing but the drift (sliding) of electrons in a conductor, in a particular direction. Electrons moving in conductor
collide with other electrons and atoms of that material and that’s why friction is developed. This friction between
electrons and atoms leads to production of heat energy in the material.
‘Joules law of heat states that, the amount of heat produced in a conductor is directly proportional to,
1. The square of current flowing in the conductor. i.e. H α I2
2. The resistance of the conductor. i.e. H α R
15
 3. The time duration of the electron flow or current flow in the conductor. i.e. H α t’
i.e. H α I2 R t
H = I2 R t Joules
Or H=VIt Joules
Or H = V2 t / R Joules
Or H=Wt Joules
S.I. unit of heat is Kilo Joule (kJ).
Or H = I2 R t / 1000 k.Joules
Or H = I2 R t / J k.Calorie
Where, J = Mechanical equivalent of heat = 4200 J / k.Calorie = 4.2 kJ/kC
H = I2 R t / 4200 kC
5. Define heat energy and specific heat. And mention their units.
i) Heat energy(H):
When the electrons in a material collide with other electrons or atoms by means of external force applied on them
(may be electrical or mechanical) which creates friction, this friction produces a form of energy called heat energy.
Unit of heat energy is kilo Joule.
ii) Specific heat (S):
Specific heat of a substance is defined as the heat required to raise the temperature of 1kg.of that substance
through 1 unit of temperature (1oC or 1K).It is denoted by ‘S’ and its unit is kJ/kg/oC or kJ/kg/K.

6. Define and explain i) Efficiency of a system ii) Thermal efficiency of a heating system
iii) Heat absorbed by a body
i) Efficiency of a system:
Efficiency of a system or an equipment is defined as the ratio of the power output to the power input of the
equipment or system.
It is denoted by, ‘η’ (eta) and is expressed as, the percentage of the input power.
% η = (Power output / power input) x 100
In any system, Power input = Power output + Losses
Similarly, Power Output = Power input – losses
Therefore, % η = {Power output / (Power output + Losses)} x 100
Or % η = {(Power input – losses) / Power input) x 100
ii) Thermal efficiency:
Thermal efficiency of a heating system is defined as the ratio of heat absorbed (utilized) by the body to the heat
produced by the system.
i.e. % ηth = (Heat utilized / Heat produced by system) x 100
% ηth = {Heat utilized / (Heat utilized + Heat loss)} x 100
iii) Heat absorbed by a body:
Heat absorbed by the volume of a mass when surrounding temperature is changed is called heat absorbed by a
body (H).
i.e. H = m S (t2 – t1) kJ
H = m S (t2 – t1) / J = m S (t2 – t1) / 4.2 kC
Where, m = mass in kg; S = Specific heat in kJ/kg/ C; t2 = final temperature in oC; t1 = initial temperature in oC.
o

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7. A house fitted with 4 lamps, each of 40W capacity & a T.V. of 60 W are used on average for 4 hours per day. Find
the kWh consumed in a month of 30 days & also electricity bill at the rate of Rs.2 per unit.

8. An electric kettle rated 500W, 230V was found to take 15 minutes to bring 1kg of water at 25oC to boiling point
of 100oC. Determine the heat efficiency of kettle. Assume S= 4.9 kJ/Kg/oC

9. A motor of 1HP works for 4hrs per day. Find the monthly energy consumption for a month having 30 days. Also
find the monthly electricity bill if the cost per unit is Rs.2.

10. A house is fitted with 5 lamps of 100 Watts each, one electric press of 220 V drawing 2A of current, 4 fans of 110
Watts each & a heater of 1120 Watts. If all the appliances work for 2 hours a day, find the electricity bill for the
month of September. Electrical energy is supplied at Rs.2 per kWh.

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 Unit – 4
Electrostatics

1. Define electric charge, electric field, electric flux, electric field intensity & flux density.
a. Electric charge (Q): ‘A body is said to have charge, if it has either excess of electrons or deficit of electrons than
the number of protons in it.’ OR ‘It is the quantity of electricity, which when placed in air from an equal and
similar charge with a unit length distance, repels it with a force of 9x109N.’
It is represented by Q and it is expressed in Coulombs (C) (Note: Uncharged body will have equal no.of electrons
and protons in it)
b. Electric field: ‘The space or region around a charged body, where electric force of line exist’ OR ‘The region in
which electric stress exists or the forces acts’, is called as electric field or electro-static field.
c. Electric flux (Ψ): ‘The electrostatic force of electric field is represented by some imaginary lines of force, which
exists in electrostatic field is called as electric flux.’ These lines of force are measured in Coulombs and electric
flux is represented by ‘Ψ’ (phsi). These lines of force are always normal (perpendicular) to the surface of the
charged body.
d. Electrostatic field intensity OR field strength OR electric intensity (E): ‘It is the force experienced by a unit
positive charge, placed at a point in an electrostatic field.’ It is represented by ‘E’, and expressed in
‘Newton/Coulomb’.
F
E = -------------- N/C
Q
e. Flux density (D): ‘Electric flux density is defined as the no.of flux per unit area, emerging normal to the surface.’
Means, total no.of electric flux lines in a unit area of the surface of charged body, which are perpendicular to the
surface of that body. Its unit is Coulomb/ meter2. And is represented by ‘D’.
Ψ
D = ---------- C/m2
A
-----------------------------------------------------------Extra information------------------------------------------------------------
------- Electric intensity in an electric point at any point is also defined as equal to no.of lines of force passing
normally through a unit cross section at that point.
i.e. E = (Q/ε) / A = Q / (ε A) but we also have, D = Q/A
Therefore, E = D / ε V/m
------ Electric intensity at any point in an electric field is equal to the potential gradient at that point.
i.e. E = -dv / dx V/m
-----------------------------------------------------Extra information---------------------------------------------------------------

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2. Define i) One Coulomb and ii) types of charges iii) methods of charging a body
i) One Coulomb of charge : ‘A body is said to have one coulomb of charge if it has excess(more than required)
or deficit (less than required) of 6.242x1018 no.of electrons than the no.of protons in it.
ii) There are two types of charges,
a) Positive charge: If the body has deficit of electrons, then it is called positive charge.
b) Negative charge: If the body has excess of electrons, then it is called negative charge.

iii) Methods of charging a body:

a. Charging by friction – When two uncharged bodies are rubbed with each other, the both bodies get
charged by friction created between them (due to exchange of excited electrons in the outermost shell of
the atoms).
b. Charging by conduction – When an uncharged body is placed in contact with a charged body (which has
excited electrons in it), then that body gets charged by conduction of electrons from charged body to
uncharged body.
c. Charging by induction – When an uncharged body is placed in the electrostatic field of a highly charged
body without touching it, then that uncharged body gets charged by process of induction in which the free
charges of highly charged body are jumped to uncharged body which is kept in electric field of that body
with the help of surrounding medium where that bodies are kept.
3. State and explain laws of electrostatics OR Coulomb’s laws.
First Law:
Like charges of electricity repel each other.

Fig.1 Fig.2 Fig.3 Fig.4

st nd
In the above give figures, 1 and 2 fig. shows attraction between unlike charges (i.e. force between positive
and negative). And the 3rd and 4th fig. shows repulsion between two like charges (i.e. force between two negative
charges in fig.3 and force between two positive charges in fig.4)

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Second Law:
The force exerted between two point charges (attractive or repulsive) is,
i) Directly proportional to the product of their strengths. F α (Q1 x Q2)
ii) Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. F α (1 / d2)
If we consider two charges A & B of strength Q1C & Q2 C respectively, separated by a distance of ‘d’ meters, then
the force between that two charges is,
F α (Q1 Q2 / d2)
 F = k (Q1Q2 / d2) Newton
Where, ‘k’ is a proportionality constant. And, k = 1/ (4πε) F/m…. Where ε = absolute permittivity = εo εr.
So k = 1 / (4 x π x εo x εr) εo = 8.854x10-12 F/m
 k = 1 / (4 x 3.142 x 8.854 x 10-12 x εr)
 k = 9x109 / εr
Therefore, F = (9 x 109 x Q1 x Q2) / (εr x d2) N
4. Explain the terms i) absolute permittivity ii) relative permittivity
i) Absolute Permittivity
“Absolute permittivity of a dielectric material indicates the ability of that material to allow electric flux to exist
in that material.” It is denoted by ‘ε’ (epsilon). It is given as flux density existing per unit field intensity.
i.e. ε = D / E Farad/meter
Where, D=flux density and E=field intensity.
And also, ε = εo εr where, ε = absolute permittivity of the medium in which the body is placed.
εo = absolute permittivity of air or vacuum = 8.854x10-12 F/m
εr = relative permittivity of the medium in which the body is placed .
ii) Relative permittivity
“Relative permittivity of a dielectric material is the ratio of the absolute permittivity of the material to the
absolute permittivity of air.” It is represented by, ‘εr’.
i.e. εr = ε / εo It will be a constant number.
5. Define i)Capacitor
ii) Capacitance
iii) Dielectric strength or Breakdown voltage
iv) Dielectric constant
i) Capacitor: It is a device, which stores electricity in the form of electrostatic charges. Any two metallic
plates, separated by a dielectric medium (insulator), represents a capacitor or condenser.

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 ii) Capacitance: It is the ability of the capacitor to store the electric charge, per volt potential difference
across its plates. It is denoted by C. And is measured in ‘Farads’ (F). Since ‘F’ is larger unit, ‘μF’ or
‘μμF’ is used in practical measurement.
μF = 1x10-6 F and μμF = pF = 1x10-12 F
C=Q/V (Farads) or (Coulombs / Volt)& Q = I t
C = It / V Farads
iii) Dielectric Strength OR Break down voltage is, the ability of that material to withstand the voltage per
unit thickness of that material, without breaking down.
OR
It is the maximum voltage which the material can withstand without rupturing the material.
It is measured in KV/cm or KV/mm.
iv) Dielectric constant of a dielectric medium is, the ratio of capacitance of a capacitor with the material as
dielectric to the capacitance of the capacitor with air as dielectric. It is represented by ’K’.
K = Cmaterial / Cair

6. List the factors on which capacitance of a capacitor depends.

Capacitance of a capacitor is,
i) Directly proportional to the area of plates (A)
ii) Directly proportional to the permittivity of dielectric medium (ε)
iii) Inversely proportional to the distance between the plates (d)
i.e. C=εA/d Farads
Where, C = capacitance of the capacitor in F
ε = permittivity of the dielectric medium in F/m
A = area of the capacitor plates in m2
d = distance between the plates of capacitor in m.
7. Derive total capacitance when three capacitors are connected in,
A. series B. parallel
Series Connection
When a number of capacitors are connected in such a way, that the positive plate of one is connected to the
negative plate of other and so on, so as to form a chain, then it is said to be series connection of capacitors.

In the above figure,

C1, C2 & C3 = the capacitance of three capacitors connected in series.
V = Voltage applied to the combination of circuit.
V1, V2&V3 = Voltage across the capacitors C1, C2 & C3 respectively.
Q = Charge on each capacitor in Coulombs = I (current) x t (time)
Cs= Effective capacitance of series combination of capacitive circuit.
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Since the same current flows through each capacitor, the charge stored in each capacitor is same.
Now we have, V = V1+V2+V3 and also we have, V= (Q/C)
Therefore, => (Q/Cs) = (Q/C1) + (Q/C2) + (Q/C3)
=> (1/Cs) = (1/C1) + (1/C2) + (1/C3)
Hence in a series circuit, the reciprocal of the equivalent capacitance of the circuit is equal to, the sum of
reciprocals of individual capacitances in the circuit.
Parallel Connection
When a number of capacitors are connected in such a way, that all the positive plates are connected together
to a common point, and all negative plates are connected together to another common point, then it is said to be
parallel connection of capacitors.

In the above figure,

C1, C2&C3 = Capacitance of capacitors connected in parallel combination.
CP = the equivalent capacitance of a parallel capacitor circuit.
Q1, Q2& Q3 = Charges on each capacitors C1, C2 & C3 respectively.
Q = Total charge supplied to the parallel circuit.
V= Voltage applied to combination of circuit (‘V’ is same across each capacitor, since it is a parallel circuit.)
Now we have,
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 and also we have, Q = CV
=> (CPV) = (C1V) + (C2V) + (C3V)
=> CP = C1 + C2 + C3
Hence in a parallel connection, the total capacitance of the circuit is equal to sum of all capacitances
connected in parallel.

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8. Explain energy stored in a capacitor.
9. Derive an equation for energy stored in a capacitor.
When a capacitor is charged, energy is supplied by the source, during the entire period of charging. This energy
is stored in the dielectric field of the capacitor as electrostatic charges.
The energy stored in the capacitor or the energy supplied by the source is nothing but the work done in
transferring the charge on to the capacitor. Because, when the capacitor is charged, its voltage gradually builds up
against the supply voltage.
Consider a capacitor of capacitance C Farads,
Let, v = Voltage across the capacitor at an instant of t seconds
dv = increase in the voltage during a small time dt seconds
i = Charging current at that instant
Then, i = C (dv/dt) Amps [we have, Q = CV = It => I = CV/t, for instantaneous values, i= C (dv/dt)]
Instantaneous value of power supplied to the capacitor is given by,
P = iv Watts
P = v C (dv/dt) Watts
Energy supplied to capacitor during short interval of time dt seconds is,
E = W = v C (dv/dt) x dt Joules (We know that, E = P x t Joules)
=> W = v C dv Joules
Therefore, Total energy stored when potential difference is raised from 0 to V volts,
W = 0ʃV C v dv = C 0ʃVv dv
=> W = CV2 / 2 Joules and also we have, Q = CV => C = Q/V => V = Q/C
2
W= Q / 2C = QV/2 Joules

10. List the types of capacitors based on,

1. Dielectric material used 2. Operation of capacitor
TYPES OF CAPACITORS
1. Based on Dielectric medium
a. Mica Capacitor : Used in radio and communication system
b. Oil filled metal Capacitor: Used in high voltage applications
c. Ceramic Capacitor: Used in radio and communications
d. Paper capacitor: Used in power supplies and filtering circuit
e. Plastic capacitor: Used in power supplies and filtering circuits
f. Electrolytic capacitor: Used in motor circuits, for coupling of electric circuits, in time delay circuits, etc.
2. Based on operation of capacitor
a. Fixed type capacitor: Capacitance whose value is fixed and cannot be varied is called fixed capacitor.
Ex: Mica capacitors, Ceramic capacitors, etc.
b. Adjustable type capacitor: Capacitors whose capacitance value can be adjusted to certain values are called
as adjustable capacitors. Ex: Trimmers and padders in Radio for alignment and coupling.
c. Variable capacitors: Capacitors whose capacitance can be continuously varied is called as variable
capacitors. Ex: Gang condenser in radios for tuning radio stations.

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11. List the applications of capacitors.
Applications of capacitors:
1. In fluorescent lamp sets, in parallel with supply to improve power factor.
2. In single phase motors, to get split phase to start the motor.
3. In power supply system to improve power factor.
4. In filtering circuit of rectifiers to remove A.C component.
5. In communication devices like radio, T.V., etc. for coupling purpose.
6. In petroleum cars: to reduce sparking in ignition system.
7. In time delay relays: to adjust the time delay.

12. Find the energy stored when three capacitors 100µF, 120µF & 130µF are connected across the supply
of 230 V supply.

13. Three capacitors 8µF, 10µF & 12µF are connected in series. Calculate the equivalent capacitance.

14. Tree capacitors of 8µF, 10 µF & 12µF are connected in parallel. Calculate the equivalent capacitance.

15. A capacitance has a charge of 1000µC & is connected across a 100V AC 50Hz supply. Calculate the
capacitance and energy stored in the capacitor.

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 Unit – 5
Faraday’s laws of electrolysis

1. Differentiate between primary and secondary cells with examples.

Primary Cells Secondary Cells

They have higher internal resistance They have comparatively lower internal resistance

These cells cannot be reused after discharging These can be recharged and reused again and again

They start discharging as soon they get a conducting These are charged before they are put to use
path
Have short life Have long life

Have small size and light weight Have large size and heavy in weight

Have very less capacity Have large capacity

2. Explain need of grouping of cells in series and parallel combination.

Need of grouping of cells in series and parallel combination
A. When the load needs more amount of the current to drive the load:
Consider, we have ‘n’ number of cells, each having rating of 2V and 1A. And we have to drive a load, which
requires a potential difference of 2V and 2A. Then, we can connect two cells in parallel to get required current (2A)
to drive the load, by connecting the cells as shown below.

B. When the load needs more amount of potential difference to transfer the charges through it:
Consider, we have ‘n’ number of cells, each having rating of 2V and 1A. And we have a load, which requires a
potential difference of 4V to drive the load. Then two cells are connected in series, as shown below to get the
required potential (4V).

25
 C. When more p.d. and current to drive the load:
Consider, we have ‘n’ number of cells, each of rating 2V and 1A. And we have a load which requires 4V and 2A.
Then we can make a combination of cell like, two group of cells connected in parallel, each group having two
cells connected in series, as below to get required p.d.(4V) and current (2A).

3. Explain the chemical action during discharging in a lead –acid battery.

4. Explain with a neat sketch the construction of a lead-acid battery.

5. Differentiate between a cell and a battery.

Cell Battery

Cell is a basic unit for storing of charge Battery is group of cells

Cell consists of only one positive plate and one negative It is the combination of cells arranged in series, parallel
plate, immersed in electrolytic solution. or series-parallel combination.

6. Twelve cells, each of e.m.f. 2V and internal resistance 0.5Ω, are connected in series across an
external resistance of 4.5 Ω. Determine ,
i) The current supplied by the battery ii) terminal voltage of the battery

26
7. A battery consists of 4 cells, each of e.m.f. 1.46 V. The cells are connected in parallel to an external
resistance of 0.525 Ω. If the current supplied by the battery is 0.8 A. Find the internal resistance of
each cell.

UNIT-6
Electrical engineering materials

1. What are the applications of copper conductor?

2. List the properties of insulating materials.
3. List applications of resistor materials.
4. State the applications of magnetic materials.
5. State characteristics of a good conducting material.
6. Compare properties of copper & aluminum conductors.
7. What are resistor materials? Mention their uses with examples.
8. State properties of nichrome material & mention their applications.
9. State properties of good insulating materials.

27
10. Explain the terms
i) Ferromagnetic
ii) Paramagnetic
iii) Diamagnetic
11. Differentiate between soft and hard magnetic materials.
12. Mention the properties and compositions of silicon steel.
13. State the different types of conductor material.
14. State the different types of resistor materials.
15. State on different types of insulating material.
16. State on the different types of magnetic materials.
17. State properties of good conductor materials.
18. State the applications of good conductor materials.
19. State the properties of resistor material.
20. State the applications of good resistor materials.
21. State the applications of insulating materials.
22. State the properties of magnetic materials.
23. State the applications of magnetic materials.

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