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INTERNSHIP REPORT

ON

Shakar Ganj Sugar Mill Bhone Pvt Ltd (Jhang)

SUBMITTED BY
MUTEE ULLAH
ID: BETF14E025

DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION


COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF SARGODHA
SARGODHA, PAKISTAN
2014-2018
Undergraduate Internship Report

INTERNSHIP REPORT
ON
Complete Process of Shakar Ganj Sugar Mill Bhone Pvt Ltd (Jhang)
SUBMITTED BY
MUTEE ULLAH
(ID: BETF14E025)

SUBMITTED TO

DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION


COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF SARGODHA
SARGODHA, PAKISTAN
2014-2018

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of


Bachelor of Science in Electrical Technology

APPROVED BY

ACADEMIC ADVISOR
XYZ

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT
XYZ

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Approval Letter

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Acknowledgement

In the name of Allah, the most beneficent, the most merciful

I thank Allah Almighty for giving me inspiration, time, patience and strength to
complete this work. With Allah will and mercy I have been able to achieve all this.
This report is the result of collective efforts of a number of important and valued
people who directly or indirectly supported and assisted me during my internship
period. To these people I owe my gratitude and thanks.

I wish to express my deep and sincere appreciation and thankfulness to GM (E&I)


Mr. Anees shb, Manager Mr. Arslan shabbir, , and special thanks to engineers Mr.
Mudasir, Mr. Ali, and all the staff of engineering department.

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Executive Summary

Over the summer of 2018, I was granted the opportunity to be employed by


Shakarganj Mills Limited (SML) as an Internee. Under the supervision of
Electrical and Instrumentation department, I undertook 06 month internship
that expanded my kowledge and my way of thinking.
Shakarganj Mills Limited (SML) is a project of Mian Altaf Group of Pakistan. It is
being set up over an area of 156 acres at Bhone.
My main training was based within the Electrical discipline and primarily
involved practical understanding basic theories under the supervision of
concerned Engineers.

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Training Schedule
The following table contains my training schedule in XYZ Company Limited. My internship
started on 00 December, 2017 and ended on 11 May, 2018.
Date Division Time Instructor
26-12-11 Engr Arslan Shahid
Sugar Plant Operation 9am to 5pm
27-12-11 Foreman Mr.Khurram
Power Plant operations
to 9am to 5pm
28-12-11
Foreman Mr .Khurram
29-12-11 Foreman Mr.Yousaf
Distribution & Utilization
to 9am to 5pm
01-01-12

02-01-12 Instrumentation & Control Mr.Naseem


to 9am to 5pm
04-01-12
05-01-12 Mr.Nadeem khokhar
Bio fuel plant Operation
to 9am to 5pm
08-01-12
09-01-12 Engr Mr. Iqbal
to Bio power Plant operation 9am to 5pm
11-01-12

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List of Abbrevations

CT = Current Transformer
PT = Potential Transformer
CB = Circuit Breaker
MW = Mega Watt
LPT = Low pressure turbine
IPT = Intermediate pressure turbine
HPT = High pressure turbine
ONAN = Oil Natural Air Natural, without pumps and fans
ONAF = Oil Natural Air Forced, without pumps for oil, with fans for air
TG= Turbine Generator
OCB= Oil circuit Breaker
VCB= vacume circuit breaker
ACB= Air circuit Breaker
ID= induced Fan
FD=Forced draft Fan
SD = Secondary draft fan

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER - 1 COMPANY PROFILE .................................................................................................... 12

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................................................. 12

BACKGROUND OF SHAKAR GANJ MILL BHONE ..................................................................................................... 12

COMPANY OBJECTIVE ..................................................................................................................................................... 13

GENERATION DETAILS .................................................................................................................................................... 13

FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE ............................................................................................................................................ 14

OBJECTIVE OF THE INTERNSHIP.................................................................................................................................... 14

FUTURE PROJECT OF SML ................................................................................................................................................ 14

CHAPTER - 2 DETAIL OF ALL HOUSES .................................................................................. 24

POWER HOUSE ..................................................................................................................................................................... 24


MILL HOUSE .......................................................................................................................................................................... 25
PROCESS HOUSE .................................................................................................................................................................. 25
FILTER HOUSE ...................................................................................................................................................................... 26
BOILER HOUSE ...................................................................................................................................................................... 26

CHAPTER - 3 DETAIL OF ALL EQUIPMENTS ................................................................................................ 30

GENRATORS........................................................................................................................................................................... 30
TRANSFORMERS ................................................................................................................................................................... 31
ELICTRIC MOTRS .................................................................................................................................................................. 31
CIRCUIT BREAKERS ................................................................................................................................................ 36

CHAPTER - 4 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................ 54

MY ACHIEVEMENTS ............................................................................................................................................................ 54

PROBLEM FACED .................................................................................................................................................................. 54

RECOMMENDATIONS .......................................................................................................................................................... 54

DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................................................................................... 55

REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................................................... 55

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LIST OF TABLE
Table 1-1: Generation details of APSCL .................................................................................................................. 13
Table 1-2: Financial performance of APSCL........................................................................................................... 14
Table 1-3: Salient feature of the 225MW future project ......................................................................................... 15
Table 1-4: Salient feature of the 450MW future project ........................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.15
Table 1-5: Salient feature of the 450MW (North) future project ........................................................................... 15

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List of Figures
Figure 2-1: Forced draft fan...................................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 2-2: Gas flow meter ........................................................................................................................................ 17
Figure 2-3: Water filter house ................................................................................................................................... 18
Figure 2-4: Burner room with water tube boiler ..................................................................................................... 20
Figure 2-5: Steam turbine ......................................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 3-1: Design diagram of CCPP in APSCL ..................................................................................................... 24
Figure 3-2: Combustion chamber in CCPP ............................................................................................................. 25
Figure 3-3: Diesel engine of CCPP ............................................................................................................................ 26
Figure 3-4: Fuel annex room in CCPP ..................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 3-5: Design of Steam Generation process in CCPP ..................................................................................... 29
Figure 4-1: A typical bus bar of APSCL .................................................................................................................. 30
Figure 4-2: A typical CT ............................................................................................................................................ 31
Figure 4-3: A typical PT ............................................................................................................................................ 31
Figure 4-4: Bushing of transformer .......................................................................................................................... 32
Figure 4-5: Silica gel in a cylinder ............................................................................................................................. 32
Figure 4-6: Insulator used in APSCL ....................................................................................................................... 33
Figure 4-7: Isolator used in APSCL .......................................................................................................................... 33
Figure 4-8: Double bus-bar arrangement ................................................................................................................. 34
Figure 4-9: Double bus bar transmission arrangement of APSCL ........................................................................ 35
Figure 4-10: SF6 circuit breaker ............................................................................................................................... 36
Figure 4-11: Oil circuit breaker ................................................................................................................................ 36
Figure 5-1: Generator in APSCL .............................................................................................................................. 38
Figure 5-2: Over current protection ......................................................................................................................... 39
Figure 5-3: Stator Winding Protection. .................................................................................................................... 40
Figure 5-4: Over current protection ......................................................................................................................... 41
Figure 5-5: Negative sequence protection ................................................................................................................ 42
Figure 5-6: Reverse power Protection use in APSCL .............................................................................................. 42
Figure 5-7: Minimum impedance and Distance protection..................................................................................... 44
Figure 5-8: Stator ground fault protection ............................................................................................................... 44
Figure 5-9: Earth fault protection of field circuit by potentiometer method & the relay used in APSCL .......... 45
Figure 6-1: Total output unit measure meter ........................................................................................................... 46
Figure 6-2: Control unit 1 &2 ................................................................................................................................... 46
Figure 6-3: Control unit 3 & 4 .................................................................................................................................. 47
Figure 6-4: Combine cycle control unit .................................................................................................................... 47
Figure 6-5: Feed water drum level control ............................................................................................................... 48
Figure 6-6: Safety valve used in APSCL ................................................................................................................... 49
Figure 6-7: Typical pressure gauge........................................................................................................................... 50
Figure 6-8: Flame detector. ....................................................................................................................................... 51
Figure 6-9: Junction box used in APSCL ................................................................................................................. 52
Figure 6-10: Fire alarm used in APSCL ................................................................................................................... 52

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CHAPTER – 1
Company Profile:

I did my internship at Shakar Ganj Sugar mill Bhone from 26th of December 2017 to 11th of
May 2018 and this internship report is the result of those 120 days attachment with the SML.

INTRODUCTION:

ABOUT SHAKARGANJ :
Shakarganj Limited is a Pakistani industrial company in the sugar, foods, and textiles industries established in 2005.

This Shakarganj Limited group has the following Production Units:

 Sugar Mills
 Bio Fuel
 Particle Board
 Food Products
 Crescent Hadeed Limited

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND:
Shakarganj’s history dates back to2005. The company was incorporatedon 20
september with the object of setting up a sugar mill in district Jhang in district of
punjab. Commencement of business certificates was issued on 23 February 1970.A mill with a
design capacity of 8000 TCD was planned and ordered for supply of equipment was placed with
Messrs. Stork-Werkspoor sugar B.V., of Netherlands. Letter of credit was opened on 31
December 1969 and 10 January 1970. Construction of building started in March 1971.The
implementation of the project got delayed due to war in 1971 resulting in breakup of the country.
Some shipment of machinery was delayed. Insulation of equipment stated on 1st January 1972 and
project commenced trial operation on 7 January 1974. Public offer of shares was made on 21 may,
1979.Even since the team at shakarganj has never looked back. The sugar factory has been expanded
to a capacity of 10000 TCD extendable to 14000 TCD and has become the largest sugar factory in the
country. Shakarganj realized the need for research and setup shakarganj sugar research institute
in 1983. This was to strengthen research activities in sugar cane agriculture, sugar
manufacturing and engineering. Shakarganj has diversified into utilization of co-products, with the
addition of a distillery in 1986and particleboard plant in 1991.shakarganj took a major step in co-
generation of electricity for sale to the national grid in 1983.Balancing and modernization of sugar
plant was carried out between 1976 and 1980and plant capacity was upgraded to 2000 TCD.
By 1986 the capacity was increased to 5000TCD(total cane / day). The team at
shakarganj recognized technological advancements and kept constantly in step with the
latest innovation and development in sugar industry. A modern distillery based on Bio still technology
was added in 1986. The distillery unit went into production on 20 September, 1986 with an installed
capacity of 45000 liters of industrial alcohol per day. In 1990 a particle board plant with a daily
production capacity of 30 cubic meter was added to convert surplus bagasse into value added

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products. In 1991 work initiated on doubling the capacity of the plant with the provision to further
extend the capacity to 14000 TCD. Entire designing and engineering work was done in house by the

shakarganj team. The program was completed in 1992. It pushed the mill capacity to
10000TCD extendable to 14000 TCD. This made shakarganj, Pakistan’s largest sugar mill. Shakarganj
took a major step in co-generation of electricity for sale to national grid. Agreement with Water
and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) was signed on 25 July1993 at Lahore making
shakarganj the first private sector power supplier in Pakistan. Shakarganj took care of 12.86
percent of Jhang City’s power requirement during crushing season. Since 1995, 2 MW
electricity is being supplied to a neighboring textile company.

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Company Objective
i. To carry out the business of electric power generation
ii. To supply and sell electricity to SML Power Development Board through National
Grid.
iii. To undertake projects to increase the power generation of SML to meet the
growing demand of electric power in the country.
iv. To increase the net worth of the company.

Financial Performance
Despite adversities SML maintained a substantial progress during the year 2017-81, increase
revenue by 5.8% over the last year resulted increase the net profit ,before interest and tax to PKR
1408 million as against PKR 749 million of 2009-10 a 87% increase .The profit growth was at
a phenomenal rate of 146.49%. A comparative detail of financial result of 2009-10 is given
below:

Table 1-2: Financial performance of APSCL

Description of item 2010-11 2009-10 In taka increase and


increase/(decrease)%

Sales 6621,164,145 6,258,110,680 5.80


Fuel cost 3,197,188611 4,013,874,956 (20.35)
Operating profit 1,163985,710 686,691,441 69.5
Non-Operating profit 244,175,566 61,863,776 294.7
Net profit 962,250,119 391,5490,49 145.75
Provision for taxation 345,908,849 141,500,000 144.46
Net profit after tex 616,341,270 250,049,049 146.49

Objective of the Internship


The main goal of this internship is to gather practical knowledge and experience about power
station. In this internship report, I focused on generation process, protection strategy and
maintenance of individual section and control unit of SML Power Station Company Ltd. I tried
to give a complete overview of SML Power Station Company Limited in this report.

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Future Project of SML
SML is a power generation company and its position is second in the country. It is SML
challenges to replace outlived inefficient plants. To cope up the growth of the demand and its
business. SML have under taken the following some important high efficient projects given
below: [3]

CHAPTER - 2 POWER HOUSE

Power House:
Power House is established to provide electricity not only to Sugar production department
but also to all the departments of mill and it also supplies electricity to colony of mill. Power
house is under control of Electrical & Instrumentation Department (E&I) containing highly
qualified engineers. The house contains four HT and one LT turbo generators .A turbo
generator is a generator in which steam turbine is used to run the rotor. The MVA rating of
HT generators are 6MW each and MVA rating of LT generator is 2MW.
The two HT generators are condensing and other two are back pressure.LT generator is also
backpressure.
The total installed capacity of power house is 26 MW. There is also a new power plant (ETP)
whose installed capacity is 8 MW.ETP has 4 biogas generators. The rating of each generator is
2MW.
The main function of power house is to supply the power to different houses .Power
house also supplies power to ETP, Ujala and takes power from WAPDA which is used if
generators are switched off. The detail of each component used in power house is given
below. The rating of each turbine and generator is given under:

Back Pressure Turbine # 01,


QINGDAO JIENENG STEAM TURBINE Co. Ltd.
 Model B6-2.35/0.245, B6-2.35/0.392
• Rated power 06MW
• Inlet temperature 325 C
• Rated Speed 3000 rpm
• Inlet Pressure 2.35 Mpa
• Outlet Pressure 0.245,0.392 Mpa
Generator # 01, 02
SICHUAN DONGFENG ELECTRICAL MACHINARY Co. Ltd.
• Rated power 6000 KW
• Rated Voltage 11000 KV
• Rated Current 393.6 A
• Rated Excitation Voltage 117 V
• Rated Excitation Current 251 A
• Rated Speed 3000 rpm
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• Rated Frequency 50 Hz
• Rated Power Factor 0.8
Turbine # 3
HANGZHOU STEAM TURBINE
• Rated Power 2200 KW
• Rated Speed 1500 / 5269 rpm
• Gear Ratio 3.51
• Weight 3000kg
 Type B2-2.4/0.4

Generator # 03:
SOMER
• Rated Voltage 440 V
• Rated Current 351 A
• Power Factor 0.75
• Speed 1500 rpm
Condensing Turbine # 04,05
QINGDAO JIENENG STEAM TURBINE Co. Ltd
 Model C6-2.40/0.392
• Rated Power 6 MW
• Rated Temperature 350 C
• Rated Speed 3000 rpm
• Inlet Pressure 2.40 Mpa
• Exhaust Pressure 0.392 Mpa
Generator# 04, 05
SICHUAN DONGFENG ELECTRICAL MACHINARY Co. Ltd.
• Rated power 6 MW
• Rated Voltage 11000V
• Rated Current 393.6 A
• Speed 3000 rpm
• Frequency 50 HZ
• Phase Number 03
• Rated Excitation Voltage 117 V
• Rated Excitation Current 251 A
• Power Factor 0.8

When a turbine is attached to the electric generator, the kinetic energy (i.e.
motion) of steam pushes against the fan-type blades of the turbine causing the
turbine and therefore the attached rotor of the electrical generator to spin and
produce electricity.

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Steam Flow Diagram of Power House:

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Turbine

Figure 2-5: Steam turbine

A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized and
converts it into rotary motion. The turbine mainly consists of nozzle and rotary and fixed blade
wheel. The steam is expanded from a high pressure to a low pressure either in nozzles or in the
blade where it is transformed into the mechanical work. The steam power plant of APSCL has a
casing around the blades that contains and controls the working fluid.

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2.19 Sections of steam turbine
The steam turbines used in Ashuganj Power Station Company Ltd (APSCL) are kept in three
different sections or chambers. The size and characteristics of the blades of the turbines in these
sections are different from each other.

i. High Pressure Turbine (HP): From the super heater the high speed steam first enters to
the high pressure turbine. The blades in the high pressure turbine are the smallest of all
turbine blades; this is because the incoming steam has very high energy and occupies a
low volume. The blades are fixed to a shaft and as the steam hits the blades it causes the
shaft to rotate.

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Intermediate Pressure Turbine (IP): From the boiler re-heater the steam enter into the
intermediate pressure turbine. The steam has expanded and has less energy when it enters this
section, so here the turbine blades are bigger than those in the high pressure turbine. The blades
are fixed to a shaft and as the steam hits the blades it causes the shaft to rotate. From here the
steam goes straight to the next section of turbine set.
ii. Low Pressure Turbine (LP): From the intermediate pressure turbine steam enters into
the low pressure turbine and continues its expansion. The blades of the turbine of this
section are larger than the previous two sections but the energy of steam is lesser than the
previous two sections.

2.20 Operation and maintenance


When warming up a steam turbine for use, the main stream stop valves have a bypass line to
allow superheated steam to slowly bypass the valve and proceed to heat up the lines in the
system along with the steam turbine. Any imbalance of the rotor can lead to vibration, which in
extreme cases can lead to a blade breaking away from the rotor at high velocity and being ejected
directly through the casing. To minimize risk it is essential that the turbine be very well balanced
and turned with dry steam - that is, superheated steam with minimal liquid water content. If
water gets into the steam and is blasted onto the blades, rapid impingement and erosion of the
blades can occur to leading imbalance and catastrophic failure. Also, water entering the blades
will result in the destruction of the thrust bearing for the turbine shaft. To prevent this, along
with controls and baffles in the boilers to ensure high quality steam, condensate drains are
installed in the steam piping leading to the turbine.

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Mill House:
Mill house contains crushers. Weighing of cane, its crushing is done here .Crushers
Milling Machine
separate the bagasse and juice.
In mill house, it is first unloaded from
trolleys and is send to Dump-in carrier,
where further process takes place. Electric
hoist is driven by back type motor.
Then cane is passed through leveler, it
maintains the quantity of cane. After that,
it passed through cane fiberizer that
fiberize the cane .Next step in mill house
is then top pass the cane through
magnetic bar which separates the magnetic Magnetic Bar
pieces. Magnetic bar contains transformer
that magnetizes and attract the iron pieces.
After that juice is extracted from cane. Mill
house has its separate control unit. Here all
the motors are controlled. Control room
contains a transformer of 2500 KVA which
transforms 11KV/440V. There is also
another supply of 440V which is used in
shutdown when generators are switched off.
When juice is extracted from cane then the baggase is carried out with the help of this carrier.
It takes the baggase to boilers where it is used as fuel to run the boilers. Baggase is also used in
making boards.
Mill house contains high horse power induction motors i.e. squirrel cage and wound rotor. One
line& process diagram of mill house is given as.

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Process Diagram of Milling House:

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Process House:
After extraction of cane juice from cane (stored in storage tank, last
stage of cane processed in mill house) is further sent to process house where
this cane juice after passing through several processes is converted into sugar
with several waste extractions i.e. mud, molasses etc which are further sent to
their respective sections i.e. molasses to distillery plant.
From mill house juice comes into process house through juice pipe line. After
passing through juice line this juice is drained into primary heater. In primary
heater this juice is heated up to 65-70 C. The basic purpose to heat juice in
primary tank is to stop bacterial growth in juice. In primary heater juice is
heated with help of steam (usually exhaust steam from turbines). This clear
juice further flows towards evaporator. Evaporator section consists of vapor
cells and series of quads. The juice is entered into the vapor cell through
bottom and exhaust steam is treated on side of vapor cell to evaporate the
gases through juice. After various sub processes, juice starts crystallizing. And
residue is also obtained called molasses.
In process house, 3000KVA transformer is used to transform HT to LT.
An auxiliary supply LT supply is also given to process house which is used in
off season.

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Filter House:
From process house, sugar comes to filter house. Filter house contains
centrifuges. They filter the sugar from molasses. Molasses, also known as
treacle, is a dark brown viscous liquid obtained as a by-product in the
processing of cane sugar. It can be boiled again to crystallize out some of the
rich sucrose content of the liquid. This, however, is not economical. Three
types of motors are used in filter house i.e. DC motor, Induction-squirrel cage
and Induction-wound rotor. The motors used in centrifuge are of 220KW, in
which two motors are DC and one is AC, and these motors are controlled
through inverters. The transformer of filter control room is of 3000kva

Boiler House:
In boiler house, steam is made by burning bagaas in kiln. There are five
boilers in sugar mill. In each boiler, first water which is to be converted into
steam is filtered. After that it is boiled by burning bagaas in kiln. There are
three fans used in boiler house i.e. ID fan SD fan & FD fan.
ID fan is used as a exhaust fan to remove gases from kiln.
FD fan is used to blow bagaas in kiln. It supplies excess of air from bottom of
dumping grid for efficient combustion of bogaas. Through this fan positive
pressure is given.
Slipring induction motor is used in ID,FD& SD fans of rating 132KW and
219KW because it has high starting torque.
A transformer of 3000KVA is use in control room of boiler house which is
used for voltage transformation

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CHAPTER - 3 DETAIL OF ALL EQUIPMENTS

Generator:
In electricity generation, an electric generator
is a device that converts mechanical energy to
electrical energy. The reverse conversion of
electrical energy into mechanical energy is done
by a motor; motors and generators have many
similarities. A generator forces electrons in the
windings to flow through the external electrical
circuit. It is somewhat analogous to a water
pump, which creates a flow of water but does
not create the water inside. The source of
Turbo Generator
mechanical energy may be a reciprocating or
turbine steam engine, water falling through a turbine or waterwheel, an internal
combustion engine, a wind turbine, a hand crank, compressed air or any other source of
mechanical energy.
Like motor, a generator also has stator and rotor. Rotor winding is field winding
because main magnetic field is produced in Rotor and stator winding is armature because
main emf is induced in stator.
Working Principle:
Generator works on the principle of Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic induction.
According to law, Supply is given to rotor which produces rotatory magnetic field. This field
induces emf in stator winding.
Synchronous Generator Construction:
A DC current is applied to the rotor winding, which then produces a rotor magnetic
field. The rotor is then turned by a prime mover (eg. Steam, water etc.) producing a
rotating magnetic field. This rotating magnetic field induces a 3-phase set of voltages
within the stator windings of the generator. “Field windings” applies to the windings that

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produce the main magnetic field in a machine, and “armature windings” applies to the
windings where the main voltage is induced. For synchronous machines, the field windings
are on the rotor, so the terms

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“rotor windings” and “field windings” are used interchangeably. Generally a synchronous
generator must have at least 2 components: a)Rotor Windings or Field Windings a.Salient
Pole b.Non Salient Pole b)Stator Windings or Armature Windings. The rotor of a
synchronous generator is a large electromagnet and the magnetic poles on the rotor can
either be salient or non salient construction. Non-salient pole rotors are normally used for
rotors with 2 or 4 poles rotor, while salient pole rotors are used for 4 or more poles rotor.
Excitation:
An electric generator or electric motor that uses field coils rather than permanent magnets
will require a current flow to be present in the field coils for the device to be able to work.
If the field coils are not powered, the rotor in a generator can spin without producing any
usable electrical energy, while the rotor of a motor may not spin at all. Thus a DC supply is
given to rotor to produce magnetic field. This method is called excitation.
There are three methods of excitation
 Through slip Ring and brushes
 Through Brushless Exciter
 Through Pilot Exciter.
a. Through slip Ring and brushes:
In this method excitation is done by giving DC supply to rotor through brushes. In
rotor, a slip ring is mounted. DC supply is given to that slip ring through brushes.
Slip rings are metal rings completely encircling the shaft of a machine but insulated
from it. One end of the dc rotor winding is tied to each of the 2 slip rings on the shaft of the
synchronous machine, and a stationary brush rides on each slip ring.
A “brush” is a block of graphite like carbon compound that conducts electricity freely
but has very low friction; hence it doesn’t wear down the slip ring. If the positive end of a
dc voltage source is connected to one brush and the negative end is connected to the other,
then the same dc voltage will be applied to the field winding at all times regardless of the
angular position or speed of the rotor.
Small synchronous machines – use slip rings and brushes.
Some problems with slip rings and brushes:

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 They increase the amount of maintenance required on the machine, since the
brushes must be checked for wear regularly.
 Brush voltage drop can be the cause of significant power losses on machines with
larger field currents.

b. Through Brushless Exciter:


A brushless exciter is a small ac generator with its field circuit mounted on the stator
and its armature circuit mounted on the rotor shaft. The 3-phase output of the exciter
generator is rectified to direct current by a 3-
phase rectifier circuit also mounted on the
shaft of the generator, and is then fed to the
main dc field circuit. By controlling the small
dc field current of the exciter generator
(located on the stator), we can adjust the
field current on the main machine without
slip rings and brushes. Since no mechanical
contacts occur between the rotor and stator,
a brushless exciter requires less
maintenance.
A brushless exciter circuit:
A small 3-phase current is rectified
and used to supply the field circuit of the
exciter, which is located on the stator. The
output of the armature circuit of the exciter
(on the rotor) is then rectified and used to
supply the field current of the main machine.
c. Through Pilot Exciter:
To make the excitation of a generator
completely independent of any external
power sources, a small pilot exciter can be

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used. A pilot exciter is a small ac generator with permanent magnets mounted on the
rotor shaft and a 3-phase winding on the stator. It produces the power for the field circuit
of the exciter, which in turn controls the field circuit of the main machine. If a pilot exciter
is included on the generator shaft, then no external electric power is required.
A brushless exciting scheme that includes a pilot exciter. The permanent magnet of
pilot exciter produces field current of exciter which intern produces field current of the
main machine.
Even though machines with
brushless exciters do not need slip
rings and brushes, they still include the
slip rings and brushes so that an
auxiliary source of dc field current is
available in emergencies.
The Speed of Rotation of a
Synchronous Generator:
Synchronous generators are by definition synchronous, meaning that the electrical
frequency produced is locked in or synchronized with the mechanical rate of rotation of the
generator. A synchronous generator’s rotor consists of an electromagnet to which direct
current is supplied. The rotor’s magnetic field points in the direction the rotor are turned.
Hence, the rate of rotation of the magnetic field in the
machine is related to the stator electrical frequency by:

Power and Torque in Synchronous Generators:


A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy; hence the input

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power will be a mechanical prime mover, e.g. diesel engine, steam turbine, water turbine or
anything similar. Regardless of the type of prime mover, the rotor velocity must remain
constant to maintain a stable system frequency. The power-flow diagram for a
synchronous generator is shown:

Protection of Synchronous Generator


from Faults:
The generating units, especially the
larger ones, are relatively few in number and
higher in individual cost than most other
equipments. Therefore, it is desirable and
necessary to provide protection to cover the
wide range of faults which may occur in the modern generating plant.
Some of the important faults which may occur on an alternator are.
 Failure of prime-mover
 Failure of field
 Over current
 Over speed
 Overvoltage
 Unbalanced loading
 Stator winding faults
a. Failure of prime-mover:
When input to the prime-mover fails, the alternator runs as a synchronous motor and
draws some current from the supply system. This motoring condition is known as “inverted
running”.
It can be switched manually.
b. Failure of field:
The chances of field failure of alternators are undoubtedly very rare. Even if it does
occur, no immediate damage will be caused by permitting the alternator to run without a

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field for a short-period. It is sufficient to rely on the control room attendant to disconnect
the faulty alternator manually from the system bus-bars. Therefore, it is a universal practice
not to provide automatic protection against this contingency.
c. Over current:
It occurs mainly due to partial breakdown of winding insulation or due to overload on
the supply system.
It can be overcome by designing high value of internal impedance alternator.
d. Over speed:
The chief cause of over speed is the sudden loss of all or the major part of load on
the alternator. Modern alternators are usually provided with mechanical centrifugal devices
mounted on their driving shafts to trip the main valve of the prime-mover when a
dangerous over speed occurs.
e. Over-voltage:
The field excitation system of modern alternators is so designed that over- voltage
conditions at normal running speeds cannot occur. However, overvoltage in an alternator
occurs when speed of the prime-mover increases due to sudden loss of the alternator load.
In case of steam turbine, control governors are very sensitive to speed variations. They
exercise a continuous check on over speed and thus prevent occurrence of overvoltage on
generating unit.
f. Unbalanced loading:
Unbalanced loading means that there are different phase currents in the alternator.
Unbalanced loading arises from faults to earth or faults between phases on the circuit
external to the alternator. The unbalanced currents, if allowed to persist, may either
severely burn the mechanical fixings of the rotor core or damage the field winding.
g. Stator winding faults:
These faults occur mainly due to the insulation failure of the stator windings. The
main types of stator winding faults, in order of importance are:
 fault between phase and ground
 fault between phases
 inter-turn fault involving turns of the same phase winding

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Parallel Operation of AC
Generators:
Reasons for operating in
parallel:
 Handling larger loads.
 Maintenance can be done
without power disruption.
 Increasing system
reliability.
 Increased efficiency.
Conditions required for
Paralleling:
Conditions are as follows:
 RMS line voltages must be equal.
 The generators to be paralleled must have the same phase sequence.
 Generator output phase angles must be the same.
 The oncoming generator (the new generator) must have a slightly higher
operating frequency as compared to the system frequency.

Methods of Synchronizing Generator with Power Net:

Suppose that generator G2 is to be connected to the running system as shown below:


a. Using Voltmeters, the field current
of the oncoming generator should be adjusted until its terminal voltage is equal to the line
voltage of the running system.
b. Check and verify phase sequence to
be identical to the system phase sequence. There are 2 methods to do this:
i. Alternately connect a small
induction motor to the terminals of each of the 2 generators. If the motor rotates in the

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same direction each time, then the phase sequence is the same for both generators. If the
motor rotates in opposite directions, then the phase sequences differ, and 2 of the
conductors on the incoming generator must be reversed.
ii. Another way is using the 3 light bulb method, where the bulbs are stretched across
the open terminals of the switch connecting the generator to the system (as shown in the
figure above). As the phase changes between the 2 systems, the light bulbs first get bright
(large Phase difference) and then get dim (small phase difference). If all 3 bulbs get bright
and dark together, then the systems have the same phase sequence. If the bulbs brighten in
succession, then the systems have the opposite phase sequence, and one of the sequences
must be reversed.
iii. Using a Synchroscope – a meter that measures the difference in phase angles (it does
not check phase sequences only phase angles).

c. Check and verify generator frequency to be slightly higher than the system frequency.
This
is done by watching a frequency meter until the frequencies are close and then by
observing changes in phase between the systems.

d. Once the frequencies are nearly equal, the voltages in the 2 systems will change phase
with

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respect to each other very slowly. The phase changes are observed, and when the phase
angles are equal, the switch connecting the 2 systems is
LT Generator HT Generator
shut.
Generators Used in SML:
In SML, Turbo generators are being used. Turbo generators are those generators in
which stem turbine is used as a prime mover. There are four high tension and one low

tension generators. There is also one low tension diesel generator available which is used
at time of needed. There is also a biogas plant whose installed capacity is 9.248 MW. In ETP
eight biogas engine generators are installed and power rating of each generator is 1.156
MW.
The power rating of HT generator is 6MW and LT turbo generator is 2MW. The power
rating of Diesel generator 1641.2 KW.
The total installed capacity in SML is 36.848 MW.

Steps for Synchronizing Turbo generator with Power Net in SML:

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Step1:
Synchronizing Panel
Run turbine at 3000rpm.
Step2:
Place the selector switch on HWJT
excitation panel on following position.
Control Power Supply ON
Fan Control ON
Fan Power Supply Plant
DC Excitation Switch ON
Step3:
Press the “Button Exciting” on the
generator control panel and check the
following on HWJT.
Generator Voltage 100V
Exciting Transformer Voltage 170V
TG Voltage 11KV
Synchronizing Relay
TG Frequency 50Hz
Step4:
Operate net VCB and check
voltage/frequency on control signal screen
voltage /frequency.
Step5:
Mark corresponding switch
Power net voltage 11KV
Frequency 50Hz
Step6:
On the synchronous switch ISTK on
control signal screen to start “Compose
synchronous Meter” for voltage and
frequency matching power net.
Step7:

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Place “Transfer Switch for Handy and Synchronous” on “Manual” position.


Step8:
Match V and F with power net using “Speed and Voltage Adjustment Switch”.
Step9:
When above conditions are fulfilled and needle of “Compose Synchronous Meter” is
on “S “position then press synchronizing push to close VCB then mark the “Control Switch
for Closing” on generator control panel for VCB closing indication.
Step10:
When power net load is shifted 80% to TG, then off the power net VCB.
Step11:
After computation, mark the “Corresponding Switch” off and place “T/F Switch” for
handy and “Automatic Synchronous” on auto position

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Transformer:
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to
another through inductively coupled conductors—the transformer's coils.
A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux
in the transformer's core, and thus a varying magnetic field
through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field
induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in
the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction.
If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric
current will flow in the secondary winding and electrical
energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through
the transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the
induced voltage in the secondary winding (VS) is in proportion
to the primary voltage (VP), and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the
secondary (NS) to the number of turns in the primary (NP) as follows:

By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a


transformer thus allows an alternating current (AC) voltage to
be "stepped up" by making NS greater than NP, or "stepped
down" by making NS less than NP.
History:
Faraday's experiment with induction between coils of wire
The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction was
discovered independently by Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry in 1831. The relationship
between electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" and magnetic flux was formalized in an
equation now referred to as "Faraday's law of induction":

.
Where:

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is the magnitude of the EMF in volts


ΦB is the magnetic flux through the circuit (in webers)
Basic principles:
The transformer is based on two principles: firstly, that an electric current can
produce a magnetic field (electromagnetism) and secondly that a changing magnetic field
within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic
induction). Changing the current in the primary coil changes the magnetic flux that is
developed. The changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in the secondary coil.
Induction law
The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's law of
induction, which states that:

Where VS is the instantaneous voltage, NS is the number of turns in the secondary coil
and Φ equals the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil.
Basic Construction
An elementary transformer consists of a soft iron or silicon steel core and two
windings, placed on it. The windings are insulated from both the core and each other. The
core is built up of thin soft iron or low reluctance to the magnetic flux. The winding
connected to the magnetic flux. The winding connected to the supply main is called the
primary and the winding connected to the load circuit is called the secondary. Although in
the actual construction the two windings are usually
wound one over the other.
In case of three phase transformer three separate
cores are used and both primary and secondary
windings are done on same core for each phase.
Usually primary connection is in delta and secondary
connection is in star in case of three phase distribution
transformers. But in Case of transmission
Transformers, both primary and secondary is in delta. As we have discussed that both
primary and secondary winding are done on the same core, first LT winding is done and

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then over LT winding HT winding is done.


Caution. Transformer must not be connected to a direct
source. If the primary winding of a transformer is connected to
a dc supply mains, the flux produced will not vary but remain
constant in magnitude and therefore no emf will be induced in
the secondary winding except at the moment of switching on.
Thus the transformer can not be employed for raising or
lowering the dc voltage. Also there will be no back induced emf
in the primary winding and therefore a heavy current will be
drawn from the supply mains which may result in the
HT Transformer
burning out of the winding.
Main Parts of Transformer:
a) Bushings:
Bushings are insulatora, which insulates the body of transformer from supply.
Size of bushing depends upon the rated voltage.
b) Arcing Horns:
Used when bushing fails. Air is ionised when
fault occur and 11kv is given to primary through
horns.
c) Conserctive Tank:
When oil is heated, it expands. To avoid any
further damage a tank is used so that hot oil enter BucholezRelay

in it. This tank is called conservative tank.


d) Breather:
Breather is connected with conservative tank.
The purpose of Breather is to supply fresh air free
of moisture to transformer. There is silica gel
inside breather to absorbe moisture.
e) Cooling fins:
They are thin tubes outside the transformer.

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These fins are


used for cooling.
f) Core:
Core is a ferromagnetic material on which winding is done.
g) Bucholz Relay:
Buchholz relay is a gas-actuated relay installed in the oil immeresed transformer for the
protection of incipient(slow developing) faults in the transformer.
Within the transformer,due to fauls,heat produced causes decomposition of some
transformer oil,Hydrogen gas is produced,being lighter it tries to go to the conservative &
get entraped in the Buchholz relay chamber,when sufficient gas is get accumulated,it exerts
pressure to make the contacts of mercury switch to give an alarm,in this way transformer
is being protcted,
h) Tap Changer:
Tap changer is used to change the input( Primary) voltage.
It has two types.
 OLT(Of Load) : In this taping is done after turning the primary supply off.
 ULT(Under Load) : In this Taping is done without turning the primary supply
off.
i) Cooling fans:
Used in high rated transformers to cool the oil of transformer.
j) Oil Gauge:
It is used to measure pressure of mineral oil which is used as a insulator in
transformer.
k) Temperature Gauge
It is used to measure temperature of mineral oil which is used as a insulator in
transformer.
l) Lifting lugs:
Used to lift the transformer.
Transformer Cooling methods:
There are four methods to cool the transfomer.

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 ON: Oil Natural


 AN: Air Natural
 ONAN: Oil Natural Air Natural
 ONAF: Oil Natural Air Force
 OFAN: Oil Forced Air Natural
 OFAF: Oil Forced Air Forced
Energy losses
Losses in transformers vary with load current, and may be expressed as "no-load" or
"full-load" loss. Winding resistance dominates load losses, whereas hysteresis and eddy
currents losses contribute to over 99% of the no-load loss. Transformer losses are divided
into losses in the windings, termed copper loss, and those in the magnetic circuit, termed
iron loss. Losses in the transformer arise from:
a. Winding resistance:
Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the conductors. At
higher frequencies, skin effect and proximity effect create additional winding resistance
and losses.
b. Hysteresis losses:
Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to
hysteresis within the core. For a given core material, the loss is proportional to the
frequency, and is a function of the peak flux density to which it is subjected.
c. Eddy currents
Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors, and a core made from such a material
also constitutes a single short-circuited turn throughout its entire length. Eddy currents
therefore circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flux, and are responsible for
resistive heating of the core material. The eddy current loss is a complex function of the
square of supply frequency and Inverse Square of the material thickness. Eddy current
losses can be reduced by making the core of a stack of plates electrically insulated from
each other, rather than a solid block; all transformers operating at low frequencies use
laminated or similar cores.
d. Magnetostriction:

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Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to physically


expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field, an effect known as
magnetostriction. This produces the buzzing sound commonly associated with
transformers, and can cause losses due to frictional heating.
e. Mechanical losses:
In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating
magnetic field causes fluctuating forces between the
primary and secondary windings. These incite
vibrations within nearby metalwork, adding to the
buzzing noise, and consuming a small amount of
power.
f. Stray losses:
Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its magnetic
fields is returned to the supply with the next half-cycle. However, any leakage flux that
intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformer's support structure will
give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat. There are also radiative losses due to
the oscillating magnetic field, but these are usually small.
Transformers Used in SML and Their Rating:
Different types of transformers are used in SML.
a. Instrument Transformers:
Instrument transformers are used for measuring voltage and current in electrical power
systems, and for power system protection and control. Where a voltage or current is too
large to be conveniently used by an instrument, it can be scaled down to a standardized,
low value. Instrument transformers isolate measurement, protection Current Transformers
and control circuitry from the high currents or voltages present on the
circuits being measured or controlled.
Acurrent transformer is a transformer designed to provide a current in its
secondary coil proportional to the current flowing in its primary coil.
CT used in SML has rating 150/5, 200/5,500/5.
Avoltage transformers (VTs), also referred to as "potential transformers" (PTs), are

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designed to have an accurately known transformation ratio in both magnitude and phase,
over a range of measuring circuit impedances. A voltage transformer is intended to present
a negligible load to the supply being measured. The low secondary voltage allows
protective relay equipment and measuring instruments to be operated at lower voltages.
PT used in SML has rating 11000/100,
b. Distribution Transformers:
These transformers are used for distribution. These transformers step down the
voltage. In SML 8 distribution transformers are used. One is of 4000KVA (11000v/440v,
209.94A/55564.82A) and others are of 3000 KVA (11000V/440V, 157.46A/3963.46A) and
2500KVA.
c. Excitation Transformer:
This transformer is step down transformer. This transformer is used in excitation of turbo
generator. Excitation transformer transforms 11000V AC in to 178V AC.
d. Neutral Grounding Transformer: NGR

This type of transformer is often called NGT. It is used to step down the turbo
generator fault current. When fault occur, current flows through NGT, it step down the
faulty current.

LT Distribution Panels:
Electricity distribution is the final stage in the delivery (before retail) of electricity to end
users. A distribution system's network carries electricity from the transmission system and
delivers it to consumers. Typically, the network would include medium-voltage (less than
50 kV) power lines, electrical substations and pole-mounted transformers, low-voltage
(less than 1 kV) distribution wiring and sometimes
electricity meters.
In SML, The 440v distribution supply for
different houses goes through distribution panels. A
distribution panel contains three phase bus bar
system. Supply is taken by connecting cables with
these busbars. The busbars rating of LT panel are
6300A.

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In SML, each house has its own sub distribution pannel

Electric motors:
An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy, very
typically through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors.
The reverse process, producing electrical energy from mechanical energy, is
accomplished by an alternator, generator or dynamo. Many types of electric motors can be
run as generators, and vice versa.
Electric motors are found in applications as diverse
as industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine tools,
household appliances, power tools, and disk drives. They
may be
powered by LT Busbars

direct
current (e.g.,
a battery
powered
portable
device or

motor vehicle), or by alternating current from a central electrical distribution grid. The
smallest motors may be found in electric wristwatches. Medium-size motors of highly

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standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for


industrial uses. The very largest electric motors are used for propulsion of large ships.

History:
The conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic
means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. The first electric
motors
The first commutator-type direct current electric motor capable of turning
machinery was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832.
In 1888 Nikola Tesla invented the first practicable AC motor and with it the
polyphase power transmission system.
Application of electric motors revolutionized industry. Industrial processes were no longer
limited by power transmission using shaft, belts, compressed air or hydraulic pressure.
Instead every machine could be equipped with its own electric motor, providing easy
control at the point of use, and improving power transmission efficiency. Electric motors
applied in agriculture eliminated human and animal muscle power from such tasks as
handling grain or pumping water. Household uses of electric motors reduced heavy labor
in the home and made higher standards of convenience, comfort and safety possible. Today,
electric motors consume more than half of all electric energy produced.

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Comparison of Different Types of motors:

Type Advantages Disadvantages Typical Typical


Application Drive
AC Induction Least expensive Rotation slips Fans Uni/Poly-
(Shaded Pole) Long life from frequency phase AC
high power Low starting
torque
AC Induction High power Rotation slips Appliances Uni/Poly-
(split-phase high starting from frequency Stationary Power phase AC
capacitor) torque Tools
Universal High starting Maintenance Drill, blender, Uni-phase
motor torque, compact, (brushes) vacuum cleaner, AC or Direct
high speed Medium lifespan insulation blowers DC
AC Rotation in-sync More expensive Industrial motors Uni/Poly-
Synchronous with freq Clocks phase AC
long-life Audio turntables
(alternator) tape drives
Stepper DC Precision High initial cost Positioning in DC
positioning Requires a printers and floppy
High holding controller drives
torque
Brushless DC Long lifespan High initial cost Hard drives DC
low maintenance Requires a CD/DVD players
High efficiency controller electric vehicles
Brushed DC Low initial cost Maintenance Treadmill Direct DC or
Simple speed (brushes) exercisers PWM
control Medium lifespan automotive motors
(seats, blowers,
windows)

AC Motors:

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AC Motors are those driven by supplying AC electrical Power to Stator


winding.
AC Motors are of two types.
 Synchronous
 Asynchronous(Induction)

Synchronous electric
motor:
A synchronous electric motor is an AC
motor distinguished by a rotor spinning with
coils passing magnets at the same rate as the alternating current and resulting magnetic field
which drives it. Another way of saying this is that it has zero slip under usual operating
conditions. Contrast this with an induction motor,
which must slip to produce torque. A
synchronous motor is like an induction motor
except the rotor is excited by a DC field. Slip rings
and brushes are used to conduct current to rotor.
The rotor poles connect to each other and move
at the same speed hence the name synchronous
motor.

Asynchronous(Induction
motor):
An induction motor (IM) is a type of asynchronous AC motor where power is supplied to the
rotating device by means of electromagnetic induction.
Induction Motor Working Principle:
When 3 phase ac supply is given to the stator, it produces revolving magnetic field in the
stator winding, that induces voltage in the rotor winding(Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction) as a result of rotor current ,rotor magnetic field is produced that interacts with the
stator magnetic field and tries to chase it, in doing so rotor starts turning
Induction Motor is of two types.
 Squirrel Cage

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 Slip Ring(Wound rotor)

Squirrel Cage Induction Motor:


The most common rotor is a squirrel-cage rotor. It is made up of bars of either solid copper
(most common) or aluminum that span the length of the rotor, and are connected through a
ring at each end. The rotor bars in squirrel-cage induction motors are not straight, but have
some skew to reduce noise due to vibrations and harmonics. The name squirrel cage
induction motor is because the rotor bars with short circuit rings resemble a squirrel cage
(hamster wheel).

Slip Ring Induction Motor:


The stator coil is exactly the same as a 3 phase induction motor. The difference
being the rotor which has 3 phase wiring in star point or delta connection and also has

the slip rings connected to the wiring of the


rotor. When these slip rings are shorted, the rotor behaves similarly to squirrel-cage
rotor; slip rings are also connected to external resistance to produces high- resistance
rotor circuit which provide high starting torque at zero speed of motor.

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Advantages of Slip Ring Induction Motor:

 Wound rotor induction motor qualities.


 Excellent starting torque for high inertia loads.
 Low starting current compared to squirrel cage INDUCTION MOTOR.
 Higher maintenance of brushes and SLIP rings compared to squirrel cage MOTOR.
 This motor is suited for starting high inertial loads. A high starting resistance makes
the high pull out torque available at zero speed
 The motor Are mainly used for Overhead cranes, Elevators in buldings, Pumps under
pressure and large fans in industry,in SML ID & FD fans in BOILER & Cutter motor in
MILL House has Slip ring induction motors.

Why Induction Motors Are Widely Used In Industries:

 It is becoming very popular the utilization of squirrel cage induction motors with
variable frequency drives (VFD's) in the Industry.
 Induction motors are preferred in industries due to:
 Speed variation can be achieved by invertors.
 Rugged construction
 Low manufacturing cost
 Heavy load inertia starting.
 High starting torque requirements.
 Low starting current requirements.

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 High efficiency at low speed.


 High power factor.
 The induction motor with VFD’s
(invertors) replaces with advantage
today the DC motors, and wound rotor
motors in industries,
 In industries, induction motors are
being used in industrial drives such as:
tube mills, crushers, blowers, graders,
cutters, rotary calcimine kilns,
compressors, feeders, pumps, fans, wind
tunnels, furnaces conveyer belts and other equipment with similar workings.
 AC induction motors for industrial applications range in size from 1 hp to 100,000 hp.

Methods of Starting induction Motor:


The methods of starting induction motor arte given as,
 Direct-on-line (DOL) starting
 Star Delta Starters
 Variable frequency drives (VFD, invertors)
 Resistance starters (for slip ring induction motor)
 Autotransformers
 Series reactor starters

a- DOL (Direct On Line Starter):


In direct on line starter, DC motor
is started without controlling its speed.
In this supply is directly given to motor
and for protection an overload relay,
magnetic contactor and a circuit breaker
is used. One line diagram of DOL is given
as.
b-Star/Delta Starter:
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Whenever a big heavy electric motor is started, we need to start it slowly to prevent the
rotor overheating and drawing an enormous current(inrush current,5 to 10times the normal
motor current). When the windings of a 3-phase motor are connected in STAR the current is
reduced to only root three of the normal running current that is taken when it is connected in
DELTA. Once the motor picks up speed, with the help of timers, at set time, the connection is
changed to DELTA so that the motor runs at full
speed and torque from then on. It's a bit like using the
gears of an automobile. Star/delta starter figure is
given as

Starting Characteristics:
 Starting current is approximately 30% of normal.
 Starting torque is approximately 25-30% of normal.

Applications:
 Where load torque during acceleration is very low.
 May be used for partial acceleration.
 Used more often for European motors.

c- Variable Frequency Drives (VFD, invertors):


In this method, a solid state variable frequency inverter is used to start the motor. With the
variable frequency power source, the motor can supply full load torque at full load current for

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the duration of the acceleration. The initial applied frequency is very low, and the frequency is
gradually increased to the running speed desired.
Starting Characteristics:
Can be programmed similarly to the solid state starter to respond to current limits,
speed control, or internal ramping function. Current and torque are a function of the
programming.
Applications:
Usually used only when the inverter is necessary to supply variable frequency as a
speed control. Generally, is too expensive to use just for starting purposes, but may be
because it does have the very best starting characteristics relative to the burden it places on
the power system during acceleration.

d- Resistance Starters:
This process is normally used to control speed of slip ring induction motor. In this resistance
is connected with the rotor of motor by using carbon brushes. By varying speed of rheostat,
motor speed can be controlled.

e- Auto-Transformer:
In this method, an auto-transformer is placed in series with the motor during staring. The
transformer action reduces the voltage applied to the motor terminals. Because of the
transformer action, the line current is less than the motor current. For a given starting current
on the line side, the motor terminal voltage can be
higher than for other reduced voltage start
methods. Thus, this method gives the highest
motor torque per line ampere.
Starting Characteristics:
 Motor terminal voltage less than line voltage
(by transformer ratio).
 Motor current exceeds line current (by
inverse of transformer ratio).
 Starting torque is reduced by the square of the terminal voltage.
Applications:

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 Where complete acceleration at reduced amperes is needed.


 Where line ampere reduction requirements are severe, and load torque is not minimal.

f- Series Reactor Starters:


In this method, a voltage-dropping resistance is placed in series with the motor during
starting. The impedance seen by the power system then is that of the resistance plus that of
the motor.
Starting Characteristics:
 Motor terminal voltage is reduced from line voltage.
 Motor current equals line current.
 Starting torque is reduced by the square of
the terminal voltage.
Applications:
 Usually on low voltage (less than 600 v).
 Where current reduction requirements are
low, or where load torque during
acceleration is minimal.
 Not often used with large motors because of the high heat loss in the resistors.
 May be used for full acceleration or for system voltage recovery.

DC Motors:
A DC motor is designed to run on DC electric power. The most common DC motor types
are the brushed and brushless types, which use internal and external commutation
respectively to create an oscillating AC current from the DC source—so they are not
purely DC machines in a strict sense.
Brushed DC Motors:
DC motor design generates an oscillating current in a wound rotor, or armature, with a
split ring commutator, and either a wound or permanent magnet stator. Carbon Brushes are
used to supply dc to commutator which is attached with rotor.
There are three types of brushed motors.

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A: shunt
B: series
C: compound
Brushless DC Motors:
Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the brushless design. In
this motor, the mechanical "rotating switch" or commutator/brushgear assembly is replaced
by an external electronic switch synchronized to the rotor's position. Brushless motors are
typically 85-90% efficient or more (higher efficiency for a brushless electric motor of up to
96.5% were reported by researchers at the Tokai University in Japan in 2009),[17] whereas DC
motors with brush gear are typically 75-80% efficient.
They have several advantages over conventional motors:
 The motor can be easily synchronized to an internal or external clock, leading to
precise speed control.
 Brushless motors have no chance of sparking, unlike brushed motors, making them
better suited to environments with volatile chemicals and fuels. Also, sparking
generates ozone which can accumulate in poorly ventilated buildings risking harm to
occupants' health.
 Brushless motors are usually used in small equipment such as computers and are
generally used to get rid of unwanted heat.
 They are also very quiet motors which is an advantage if being used in equipment that
is affected by vibrations.
Modern DC brushless motors range in power from a fraction of a watt to many kilowatts.
Larger brushless motors up to about 100 kW rating are used in electric vehicles. They also
find significant use in high-performance electric model aircraft.

Uses:
Electric motors are used in many, if not most, modern machines. Obvious uses would be
in rotating machines such as fans, turbines, drills, the wheels on electric cars, locomotives and
conveyor belts. Also, in many vibrating or oscillating machines, an electric motor spins an
irregular figure with more area on one side of the axle than the other, causing it to appear to
be moving up and down.

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Electric motors are also popular in robotics. They are used to turn the wheels of vehicular
robots, and servo motors are used to turn arms and legs in humanoid robots. In flying robots,
along with helicopters, a motor causes a propeller or wide, flat blades to spin and create lift
force, allowing vertical motion.
Motors Used In SML:
In SML, three types of motors are used
 Induction Motors
 DC Motors
 Tappered Rotor Motor
Induction Motors are widely used in SML. They are used in all houses of SML. All the
induction motors used have different purposes. Squirrel cage induction motors are widely
used in SML. The speed of this type induction motor is controlled by using inverters. And type
of starting of this type of motor is DOL and wye/delta.
Slip ring inductions motors are used in boiler house of SML .They are used because they
have high starting torque. In SML induction motors are of 132KW and 290KW.
Speed of Slip Ring motor is controlled here by connecting rheostat with the rotor of motor
Only two DC motors are used in SML. They are used in filter house and it is of 220KW.
Tappered motors are used to lift crane used in SML to lift heavy loads. Main specialty of this
motor is that rotor has breaks on it.

Power Factor:

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The power factor of an AC electric power system is defined as the ratio of the real
power flowing to the load to the apparent
power,[1][2] and is a dimensionless number
between 0 and 1 (frequently expressed as a
percentage, e.g. 0.5 pf = 50% pf). Real power is
the capacity of the circuit for performing work
in a particular time. Apparent power is the
product of the current and voltage of the circuit.
Due to energy stored in the load and returned to
the source, or due to a non-linear load that
distorts the wave shape of the current drawn
from the source, the apparent power will be
greater than the real power.
In an electric power system, a load with low power factor draws more current than a
load with a high power factor for the same amount of useful power transferred. The higher
currents increase the energy lost in the distribution system, and require larger wires and
other equipment. Because of the costs of larger equipment and wasted energy, electrical
utilities will usually charge a higher cost to industrial or commercial customers where there is
a low power factor.
It is the factor (%age)at which electric power is being consumed in the load..
A power factor of 0.8 means, 80% of generated power is being consumed in the load and 20%
of the generated power is continuously being bounces back & forth between the source & the
load. (Reactive power) & of no use.
Linear loads with low power factor (such as induction motors) can be corrected with a
passive network of capacitors or inductors. Non-linear loads, such as rectifiers, distort the
current drawn from the system. In such cases, active or passive power factor correction may
be used to counteract the distortion and raise the power factor.
Power Factor Improvement:
 The improvement of power factor means to minimize the reactive component of power
which is not being used by the load..
 this can be done by three methods
 Use of capacitors bank

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 Synchronous condensers.
 Phase advancers
 In SML, Both generation &
distribution levels power factor is
being improved by capacitor banks
operated by automatic power factor
relays.
Methods for Improving Power Factor:
There are three methods to improve the
power factor
 Static Capacitors.
 Synchronous Condensers.
 Phase advancers.
a. Static Capacitors:
In this static capacitor is connected in parallel with the load. The purpose of connecting
static capacitor is to provide leading charging current that reduces the reactive power. If
reactive power is limited then due to this less current is draw and electric charges is reduced.
Fig shows the Static capacitors panels used in SML.
There is a power factor regulator is used. The purpose of power factor regulator is to connect

the capacitors with respect to load


variation. The capacitors are usually connected in delta.

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b. Synchronous Condensers:
By using synchronous condensers, power factor can also be improved. A synchronous
condenser is basically a synchronous motor operating at no load and over exciting state.
To improve power factor, synchronous motor is connected parallel with the load. A
synchronous motor acts as a capacitor when it
is operating at no load. Thus it provides
leading charging current that reduces the
reactive power.
Synchronous condensers are used for high
power loads because it is uneconomical.
c. Phase Advancer:
Phase advancer is also another
technique used to improve the power factor
of induction motor. A phase advancer is an
AC exciter connected on the rotor shaft. A
phase advancer provides a leading current
that reduces the KVAr.

Switch Gear:
The apparatus used for switching, controlling and protecting the electrical circuits and
equipment such as switches, fuses, circuit breaker, relays, CT’s and PT’s etc, is named as
switch gear.
General Protection scheme:
Under normal operating conditions, the contacts remain closed and the circuit breaker
carries the full-load current continuously. In this condition, the e.m.f. in the secondary

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winding of current transformer (C.T.) is insufficient to operate the trip coil of the breaker but
the contacts can be opened (and hence the circuit can be opened) by manual or remote
control. When a fault occurs, the resulting over current in the C.T primary winding increases
the secondary e.m.f. This energizes the trip coil of the breaker and moving contacts are pulled
down, thus opening the contacts
Usually a switch gear contains following
devices.
 Circuit Breaker
 Protective Relays
 Contactors (usually Magnetic)

Circuit Breaker:
A circuit breaker is an automatically-
operated electricalswitch designed to protect
an electrical circuit from damage caused by
overload or short circuit. Its basic function is
to detect a fault condition and, by interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue
electrical flow. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then has to be replaced, a circuit
breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit
breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household
appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire
city.

Operation:
Once a fault is detected, contacts within the circuit breaker must open to interrupt the
circuit; some mechanically-stored energy (using something such as springs or compressed
air) contained within the breaker is used to separate the contacts, although some of the
energy required may be obtained from the fault current itself. Small circuit breakers may be
manually operated; larger units have solenoids to trip the mechanism, and electric motors to
restore energy to the springs.
The circuit breaker contacts must carry the load current without excessive heating, and
must also withstand the heat of the arc produced when interrupting the circuit. When a
current is interrupted, an arc is generated. This arc must be contained, cooled, and

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extinguished in a controlled way, so that the gap between the contacts can again withstand
the voltage in the circuit. Different circuit breakers use vacuum, air, insulating gas, or oil as the
medium in which the arc forms. Different techniques are used to extinguish the arc .
Finally, once the fault condition has been cleared, the contacts must again be closed to restore
power to the interrupted circuit.
Types of Circuit Breaker:
Different types of circuit breakers are available in market. Some of them are following:
 Air Circuit Breaker
 Vacuum Circuit Breaker

 Molded Case Circuit Breaker


 Manture Circuit Breaker
 Oil Circuit Breaker
 Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker
Air Circuit Breaker is used for LT. In this air is used to quench the sparking produced during
ON& OFF.
Vacuum Circuit Breaker is used for HT. It is one of the bet breaker used in market. In
vacuum breaker, vacuum is used to quenched the spark.
Molded Case Circuit Breaker is use for low voltage. It is not efficient circuit breaker.
Manture circuit breaker is also same as molded type. It is also used for low voltage.
In high transmission stations, OIL circuit Breakers are used. Oil is used to minimize the
spark

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Produced during ON &OFF .


An Earth Leakage Circuit
Breaker (ELCB) is a safety device used
in electrical installations with high earth
impedance to prevent shock.Many
electrical installations have relatively
high earth impedance. This may be due
to the use of a local earth rod (TT
systems), or to dry local ground
conditions.In case of earth leakage not
enough current exists to trip a fuse or circuit breaker,in non-technical terms if a person
touches something, typically a metal part on faulty electrical equipment, which is at a
significant voltage relative to the earth, electrical current will flow through him/her to the
earth. The current that flows is too small to trip an electrical fuse which could disconnect the
electricity supply, but can be enough to kill. An ELCB detects even a small current to earth
(Earth Leakage) and disconnects the equipment (Circuit Breaker).
Protective Relays:
A protective relay is a complex electromechanical apparatus, often with more than one coil,
designed to calculate operating conditions on an electrical circuit and trip circuit breakers
when a fault is detected. Unlike switching type relays with fixed and usually ill-defined
operating voltage thresholds and operating times, protective relays have well-established,
selectable, time/current (or other operating parameter) curves. Such relays may be elaborate,

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using arrays of induction disks, shaded-pole magnets, operating and restraint coils, solenoid-
type operators, telephone-relay style contacts, and phase-shifting networks.
Protective Relay is the most important part of switch gear. Different relays are used for
different operating functions. Protection relays respond to such conditions as over-current,
over-voltage, reverse power flow, over- and under- frequency, and even distance relays that
would trip for faults up to a certain distance away from a substation but not beyond that
point.
Some important relays used in common power station is given as.
 Over Current Relay
 VAJ Relay
 MVAJ Relay
 Distance Relay
 Differential Relay
 VAX, MVAX Relay
 CTU Relay
 CME Relay
 Phase Discrepancy Relay
 PT Fuse Failure Relay
Their details are given as.
a. Over Current Relay:
It operates in Phase-Phase or Phase-Ground fault and trip the circuit.
b. VAJ Relay:
It is like a contactor, it operates by receiving various signals from different relays. In
VAJ relay reset is necessary.
c. MVAJ Relay:
It is a magnetic contactor and reset is necessary in this.
d. Distance Relay:
It is being used in high transmission lines. There are various zones made on
transmission lines. It locates the distance of fault from the nearest zone.
e. Differential Relay:
This relay detects the fault between two CT. One CT is connected at HT and other at
LT side.

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f. VAX, MAX Relay:


This relay indicates when DC supply fails or tripping coil fails.
g. CTU Relay:
Like an over current relay, it has plug setting on right side. It trips the circuit in case of
Phase-Phase or Phase-Ground fault.
h. CME Relay:
This relay gives indication when DC supply is earthed.
i. Phase Discrepancy Relay:
If during operation, poles of circuit breaker are not closed properly then it gives
indication on the panel as well as trip the circuit.
j. PT Fuse Fault Relay:
It is connected at the secondary of PT. If PT fuse fails, then it gives indication.
Generator Protection Scheme:
Following Relays are used in SML to protect the generator from damage.
 Current Relay
 Earthing Relay
 Anti trip Relay
 Intermediate Relay
 Multi Voltage Relay
 Over Voltage Relay
 Time Relay
 Negative Sequence Relay
 Differential Relay
 Overload Signal
 Earthing of Stator Signal
 Low Exciting Signal
 Turbine Protection signal
 Reverse Power Relay

Magnetic Contactors:

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Contactor is an electrically controlled switch (relay) used for switching a power circuit.
An electro magnetic contactor is a contactor driven by an electric control signal. A type of
contactor that is operated remotely through solenoid action.
Or
A type of starter for AC induction motors that combines a magnetic contactor and an
overload relay. Magnetic motor starters can be operated remotely.
Operating principle:
Unlike general-purpose relays, contactors
are designed to be directly connected to high-
current load devices. Relays tend to be of lower
capacity and are usually designed for both
normally closed and normally open applications.
Devices switching more than 15 amperes or in
circuits rated more than a few kilowatts are
usually called contactors. Apart from optional
auxiliary low current contacts, contactors are
almost exclusively fitted with normally open
contacts. Unlike relays, contactors are designed
with features to control and suppress the arc
produced when interrupting heavy motor
currents.
When current passes through the electromagnet,
a magnetic field is produced, this attracts the
moving core of the contactor. The electromagnet
coil draws more current initially, until its
inductance increases when the metal core enters the coil. The moving contact is propelled by
the moving core; the force developed by the electromagnet holds the moving and fixed
contacts together. When the contactor coil is de-energized, gravity or a spring returns the
electromagnet core to its initial position and opens the contacts.
Most motor control contactors at low voltages (600 volts and less) are air break
contactors; i.e., ordinary air surrounds the contacts and extinguishes the arc when
interrupting the circuit. Modern medium-voltage motor controllers use vacuum contactors.

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Motor control contactors can be fitted with short-circuit protection (fuses or circuit breakers),
disconnecting means, overload relays and an enclosure to make a combination starter.

Applications:
Lighting control:
Contactors are often used to provide central control of
large lighting installations, such as an office building or retail
building. To reduce power consumption in the contactor coils, latching contactors are used,
which have two operating coils. One coil, momentarily energized, closes the power circuit
contacts, which are then mechanically held closed; the second coil opens the contacts.

Magnetic starter
A magnetic starter is a contactor designed to provide power to electric motors. The
magnetic starter has an overload relay, which will open the control voltage to the starter coil
if it detects an overload on a motor. Overload relays may rely on heat produced by the motor
current to operate a bimetal contact or release a contact held closed by a low-melting-point
alloy. The overload relay opens a set of contacts that are wired in series with the supply to the
contactor feeding the motor. The characteristics of the heaters can be matched to the motor so
that the motor is protected against overload. Recently, microprocessor-controlled motor
protection relays offer more comprehensive protection of motors.

Overhead Transmission in SML


Power transmission is the movement of energy from its place of generation to a location
where it is applied to performing useful work.
Power is defined formally as units of energy per unit time.

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In SML, Overhead transmission is used to supply power to Crescent Ujala from Power
House and through ETP.
Crescent Ujala is both connected with SML Power House and ETP.
Figure2 shows the transmission tower of SML. There is Wapda incoming and Ujala
outgoing.
Figure1 shows the transmission cables of Ujala feeder and ETP feeder.
Here 11KV transmission line is used for transmission. There is also incoming transmission
line for ETP which is used to supply auxiliary supply if ETP generation has been cut off.
Insulator used in this line is of porcelain.
There is also an underground transmission line of 11KV for Ujala.

Multicore Cables
Introduction:
Electric power can be transmitted or distributed either by overhead system or by
underground cables. The underground cables have several advantages such as less liable to
damage through storms or lightning, low maintenance cost, less chance of faults, smaller
voltage drop and better general appearance. However, their major drawback is that they
have greater installation cost and introduce insulation problems at high voltages compared

with the equivalent overhead system.

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Underground Cables:
An underground cableessentially consists of one or more conductors covered with suitable
insulation and surrounded by a protecting cover.
Construction of Cables:
Figure shows the general construction of a 3-conductor cable. The various parts are:

a. Cores or Conductors:
A cable may have one or more than one core (conductor) depending upon the type of
service for which it is intended. For instance, the 3-conductor cable shown in Fig. 11.1 is used
for 3-phase service. The conductors are made of tinned copper or aluminium and are usually
stranded in order to provide flexibility to the cable.
b. Insulation:
Each core or conductor is provided with a suitable thickness of insulation, the thickness
of layer depending upon the voltage to be withstood by the cable. The commonly used
materials for insulation are impregnated paper, varnished cambric or rubber mineral
compound.
c. Metallic sheath:
In order to pro- tect the cable
from moisture, gases or other
damaging liquids (acids or alkalis) in
the soil and atmosphere, a metallic
sheath of lead or aluminum is
provided over the insulation as
shown in Fig. 11.1
d. Bedding:
Over the metallic sheath is
applied a layer of bedding which
consists of a fibrous material like
jute or hessian tape. The purpose
of bedding is to protect the metallic sheath against corrosion and from mechanical injury
due to armoring.

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e. Armouring:
Over the bedding, armoring is provided which consists of one or two layers of
galvanized steel wire or steel tape. Its purpose is to protect the cable from mechanical injury
while laying it and during the course of handling. Armoring may not be done in the case of
some cables.
f. Serving:
In order to protect armouring from atmospheric conditions, a layer of fibrous
material (like jute) similar to bedding is provided over the armouring. This is known as
serving.
It may not be out of place to mention here that
bedding, armouring and serving are only
applied to the cables for the protection of
conductor insulation and to protect the
metallic sheath from mechanical injury.
Classification of Cables:
Cables for underground service may be
classified in two ways according to
 The type of insulating material used in
their manufacture
 The voltage for which they are
manufactured. However, the latter
method of classification is generally
preferred, according to which cables
can be divided into the following
groups:
 Low-tension (L.T.) cables — upto
1000 V
 High-tension (H.T.) cables — upto 11,000 V
 Super-tension (S.T.) cables — from 22 kV to 33 kV
 Extra high-tension (E.H.T.) cables — from 33 kV to 66 kV
 Extra super voltage cables — beyond 132 kV
A cable may have one or more than one core depending upon the type of service for

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which it is intended. It may be single-core, two-core, three-core, four-core etc. For a 3-phase
service, either 3-single-core cables or three-core cable can be used depending upon the
operating voltage and load demand.
In SML, Low tension and high tension cables are used. In high tension lines three core
armoured cable is used and in low tension lines multi core cable is used.

(Multi Core Cable)


Armoured cable or SWA (steel wired
armoured) cable is the accepted standard for
underground installations. This wire can be
buried in the ground or can be fastened to
exterior walls using cleats. The galvanized
steel wire protects the wire from accidental
damage caused by digging etc. Armoured
cable comes in several different variables.
(PVC ArmouredCable )
The galvanized steel wire can be used as
an additional earth and sometimes is used as
the only earth, although this is not recommended.
Armoured cable is often used if there's a risk of the cable getting pinched, chafed or otherwise
damaged.

Lying of Underground Cables:


The reliability of underground cable network depends to a considerable extent upon the
proper laying and attachment of fittings i.e., cable end boxes, joints, branch connectors etc.
There are three main methods of laying underground cables viz., direct laying, draw-in system
and the solid system.
Direct lying:

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This method of laying underground cables is (Direct lying) simple and cheap and is
much favoured in modern practice. In this method, a trench of about 1·5 metres deep and 45
cm wide is dug. The trench is
covered with a layer of fine sand (of
about 10 cm thickness) and the
cable is laid over this sand bed. After
the cable has been laid in the
trench, it is covered with
another layer of sand of about 10 cm
thickness.
The trench is then covered with
bricks and other (Draw-in System) materials in order
to protect the cable from
mechanical injury.
It is a simple and less costly method. It is a clean and safe method as the cable is invisible
and free from external disturbances .It cannot be used in congested areas where excavation is
expensive and inconvenient. This method of laying cables is used in open areas where
excavation can be done conveniently
Draw-in system:
In this method, conduit or duct of glazed stone or cast iron or concrete are laid in the ground
with manholes at suitable positions along the cable route. The cables are then pulled into
position from manholes. Figure shows section through four-way underground duct line.
Repairs, alterations or additions to the cable network can be made without opening the
ground.
Solid system:
In this method of lying, the cable is laid in open pipes or troughs dug out in earth along the
cable route. The troughing is of cast iron, stoneware, asphalt or treated wood. After the cable
is laid in position, the troughing is filled with a bituminous and covered over. Cables laid in this
manner are usually plain lead covered because troughing affords good mechanical protection.

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References:

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