DPD 03-Ionization Chambers PDF

03 - Ionization chambers
Jaroslav Adam
Czech Technical University in Prague
Version 2
Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 1 / 130

Principle of operation
Charged particle getting through a volume of a gas or noble liquid

Interaction proceed through ionization and end excitation of the molecules, electron-ion pairs
are created
Ion can be created directly by the incident particle, or by the δ-electrons, when the energy
from the primary particle if first transferred to the electron which acquires enough energy to
make further ionization
Electric field is applied by the electrodes, electrons and ions drift to them
If the field is high enough, drifting electrons can also ionize the gas (proportional counters)
After further increase of the field strength, electrons emit UV light on the anode
(Geiger-Muller counter)
Electronic signal at the output, pulsed or current regime
Position sensitivity by segmenting one of the electrodes (xy ) and by timing measurement (z)

Ionization detectors without amplification

Number of ion pairs
Minimum energy W to be transferred from the incident particle to create at least one ion pair
Quantified as average energy loss to create the pair
Given by the least tightly bound shell, W = 10 - 25 eV
Non-ionizing energy loss (excitation) makes number of pairs lower
Fully stopped 1 MeV particle produces 30 000 ion pairs
Number of pairs is important for resolution

Energy dissipation per ion pair (the W-Value)

Fano factor
Fluctuation in number of pairs affect the energy resolution

√
The simplest approach postulate Poisson statistics for number of ion pairs (σ = N)
Fano factor makes correction to predicted variance to get observed variance
Fano factor = 0 if all incident energy converted into pairs, no statistical fluctuation
√
In gases Fano factor < 1, Poisson distribution valid but fluctuations are smaller than N
Significant in pulse mode

Principle of ionization chamber
Figure : Planar ionization chamber
Suppose two metallic electrodes at distance D covering volume of a gas or noble liquid
Voltage V applied to anode (thousands of kV)
Number of electrons n− given by the number of minimum-ionizing-particles (mip)
n dE
n− = Dρ (1)
W dx
ρ is the density and dE/dx is energy loss per g cm−2

Charge carriers in gas/liquid volume
Several processes applies to the ion pairs

Drift movement by external electric field
Diffusion due to random thermal movement
Charge transfer
Recombination

Drift movement
Electrostatic force moves the charges, positive ions opposite to electrons and negative ions
Drift of electrons characterized by drift velocity in electric field E = V /D
dx µe V µe
vd (e) = = E= (2)
dt p pD
Electron mobility µe given in unit of bar cm2 V−1 s−1 , p is the gas pressure
Mobility of ions is about 1000 less than of electrons
Description with mobility provides calculation of readout times
ms for ions, µs for electrons

Saturation of the drift velocity
Figure : Electron velocity vs. filed
No increase in drift velocity after reaching it’s maximum, only in some gases
Hydrocarbons, argon-hydrocarbon mixtures
In non-saturation gases, E/p proportionality holds up to high fields

Diffusion
Thermal movement with mean free path of about 10−6 - 10−8 m

More important for electrons since their thermal velocity is bigger
Point-like collection of electrons form Gaussian spatial distribution widening with time
Widening in one direction x, y or z given by diffusion coefficient D
√
σ= 2Dt (3)
D is given by kinetic gas theory or the process is described by a transport model

Charge transfer collisions
Electron transfer from neutral gas molecule to positive ion in mutual collision
Significant in mixtures, net positive charge transfered to species with lowest ionization energy
Negative ion can be formed by capturing of free electron (oxygen)

Recombination
Free electron captured by positive ion making ordinary neutral atom

Positive and negative ions recombine, most probable compared to electron and ion case
Original charge is lost, no contribution to final signal
Recombination rate given by density of positive and negative species n+ and n− and
recombination coefficient α
dn+ dn−
= = −αn+ n− (4)
dt dt

Columnar (initial) recombination
Electron-ion pairs created in column along particle trajectory

Recombination of electron with it’s parent ion
Mainly for heavy ionizing particles (low energy α), minimal for mip
Independent of interaction rate
Recombination may occur with neighboring ion when electrons are drifting in electric field
Depends on the angle between incident particle and electric field

Volume recombination
Recombination during drift towards electrodes

Unlike initial/columnar recombination, this depends on irradiation rate
Suppressed by fast charge separation and collection -> high electric field

Ionization current, DC ion chamber
Constant irradiation rate creates constant formation of ion pairs

Steady-state current is measure of the rate
Supposing negligible recombination and efficient charge collection
Figure : Planar ionization chamber

Current-voltage characteristics
Electric field by external voltage

Current in the circuit equal to ionization current at equilibrium
Increasing voltage begins to separate the charges that would recombine
High electric field makes recombination negligible
After ion saturation, all charges are collected, on increase in current when increasing the
voltage
Standard operation of ion chambers, current in the circuit is an indication of the rate of ion
pairs formation

Saturation current
Recombination, especially columnar recombination require high voltage
Volume recombination important at high irradiation intensity
Higher voltage required to get true saturation current

More important in neutron measurement, where heavy fragments are detected
With chambers filled by ambient air, recombination depends on humidity

Perturbations in current due to diffusion
Imbalance in steady-state situation supposing uniform production of ions within the chamber
Larger concentration of positive ions close to cathode, opposite for electrons close to anode
Gradient in concentration formed, diffusion opposite to drift
Perturbation in measured current in planar chamber given by
∆I kT
− = (5)
I eV
is ratio of average energy of charge carrier, kT /e ≈ 2.5 × 10−2 V at room temperature

close to one for ions, but several hundreds for electrons

Losses of saturation current due to diffusion
close to one for ions, but much larger, several hundreds for electrons
Minimized by high voltage
Columnar recombination not fully eliminated
Separate measurements of ionization current as a function of voltage
1/I as a function of 1/V to determine true saturation current

Operation of DC ion chamber
No special requirement on gas since negative charge can be collected as free electrons as
well as negative ions
Only recombination could affect the amount of charge, suppressed by high enough voltage
Few centimeters and tens of hundreds of volts sufficient to reach saturation
Air for gamma-ray exposure, denser gases like Argon to increase ionization density
Pressure about 1 atmosphere, higher to increase sensitivity

Geometry of ionization chamber
Electric field given by geometry of electrodes

Uniform electric field with planar geometry
U0
Cylindrical geometry with electrical field as E(r ) = r ln(ra /ri )
Figure : Cylindrical ionization chamber

Insulators
Small values of ionization current, < 10−12 A

Resistance of insulator at least 1016 Ω to keep leakage current below 1% for U = 100 V
Leakage by moisture absorbed on surface suppressed by the guard rings and smooth surface
of insulators
Plastics or ceramic for higher irradiation

Measurement of gamma-ray exposure with ion chambers
Amount of charge in air-filled ionization chamber

Charge is measure of exposure, ionization current gives exposure rate
Requires to measure ionization of all secondary electrons, mean free pairs several meters
compensation for secondary electrons needed

Compensation by free-air ionization chamber
Collimated X-rays, compensation in horizontal direction

Compensation of electrons escaping the sensitive volume by electrons emerging elsewhere
Up to gamma-ray of 100 keV

Air equivalent compensation
Reduces space requirements for higher gamma-rays energies, wall thickness less than 1 cm
Exposure rate given by saturation current Is and mass M in active volume
Is
R= (6)
M

DC chambers for radiation survey
Radiation monitoring
Saturation current in closed volume of several cm3
Dose measured by charge integration
Initial charge on the chamber, drop in voltage measures total integrated ionization charge

Ionization dosimeter
Cylindrical air capacitor, initially charged at some voltage V0

Discharged by the radiation
Voltage reduction measures absorbed dose

Calibration of radiation source
Saturation current depends only on geometry, long time stability

Current from unknown source compared with standard under same geometry
Chambers with thousands of cm3
Pressured gas for higher sensitivity

Geometry for calibration of gamma-ray sources
Calibration for gamma-ray sources, ionization current for small displacement of the source

Measurement of radioactive gases
Radioactive gas as constituent of fill gas, sampled as continuous flow

Ionization current I given by average energy deposition per gas disintegration Ē and total
activity α
Ēαe
I= (7)
W
Principle of smoke detectors where ionization current from internal alpha source decreases
due to presence of the smoke in sampled air

Remote sensing of ionization
Positive and negative ions in the air survive for minutes before recombination
Flow of air is transported to a chamber outside the source of radiation
LRAD - Long Range Alpha Detector:
Sample of alpha-contaminated material in container, air flowing though it
Positive and negative ions carried into an ion chamber

Pulse mode operation
Each radiation quantum provides with distinguishable signal pulse

Application in radiation spectroscopy
Alpha spectrometry
Neutron detection

Equivalent circuit of ion chamber
Chamber is represented by it’s capacity C

Voltage V0 on load resistor R
Drifting charges from ionization create induced charge on electrodes
Voltage drops from equilibrium V0 , giving output pulse VR
Slow return to equilibrium according time constant RC
If RC > time to collect all charges, amplitude of the pulse measures the original charge

Equivalent circuit of ion chamber
The ion chamber behaves as parallel connection of resistor and capacity, called RC circuit
Time dependence of voltage V given by

capacity C and resistivity R
dV V
C =I= (8)
dt R
Response to initial charge giving voltage V0

is
V (t) = V0 e−t/RC (9)

Electron sensitive mode
Time to collect electrons ∼ µs, time for ions ∼ ms

Collection of all charges would require RC of orders of >ms
This would mean low pulse rate only and interference from microphonic signals
For electron sensitivity, RC between electron and ion collection time
Negative ions no longer allowed

Pulse shape in planar chamber
Constant electric field E = V /d

Uniform equipotentials parallel to electrode surfaces
Ions supposed to be formed at equal distance x where electric potential is Ex

Pulse shape of electron and ion collection
Derivation of VR (t) based on energy conservation

RC long enough to collect all charges
Energy in capacitance 1/2CV02 is energy source to move the charges
Drift velocity v − for electrons and v + for ions, n0 is number of ion pairs
1 1
CV02 = n0 eEv + t + n0 eEv − t + CVch 2
(10)
2 2
Vch V0
V0 + Vch ' 2V0 and ' (11)
d d
n0 e +
VR = (v + v − )t (12)
dC
After collecting the electrons (time t − ≡ x/v − )
n0 e +
VR = (v )t (13)
dC

After collecting the ions (time t + ≡ (d − x)/v + )
n0 e
VR = [(d − x) + x] (14)
dC
n0 e
VR = (15)
C
If RC t + , maximum amplitude of the pulse is
n0 e
Vmax = (16)
C
Independent of position of incident ionization


Pulse shape in electron sensitive operation
Pulse shape given by electrons

Amplitude sensitive to position of incident radiation
n0 e x
V |elec = · (17)
C d
Monoenergetic radiation produces a range of pulses

Removed by dividing the ion chamber by adding a grid

Gridded ion chamber
Designed to remove amplitude position dependency

All interactions between the grid (Frisch grid) and the cathode
Grid at intermediate potential and transparent for electrons
Grid-anode voltage drops after electrons pass through the grid

Electron signal in gridded ion chamber

Electron signal in gridded ion chamber
With RC larger than electron collection time and grid-anode spacing d, signal on load resistor
is
n0 e −
VR = v t (18)
dC
Maximum voltage is
n0 e
Vmax = (19)
C
Allows to operate at short RC

Pulse independent of position of incident radiation
But signals of order of < 10−5 V
Can not be measured directly, amplification needed

Statistical limit to energy resolution
Number of charges n0 and fano factor F gives statistical limit

Supposing fully stopped α at energy E = 5.5 MeV in gas with W = 30 eV/ion pair and
F = 0.15
Ed
n0 = = 1.83 × 105 ion pairs (20)
W
Standard deviation as square root of variance

p
σn0 = Fn0 = 166 (21)

Statistical limit to energy resolution
FWHM of Gaussian distribution for n0 and particle energy
FWHM(n0 ) = 2.35σn0 = 390 (22)

FWHM(E) = 2.35σn0 · W = 11.7 keV (23)
Relative energy resolution to the deposited energy
2.35σn0 W
R= = 0.123% (24)
Ed
Good theoretical resolution can not be achieved due to electronic noise

Charged particle spectroscopy with pulse-type ion chamber
Some advantages vs. semiconductor or scintillator detectors

Arbitrary size and geometry
Gas dielectric cable 3500 m long was used as a beam-loss monitor at SLAC
Gas pressure to adjust stopping power or effective thickness
Radiation resistant, simple design
Low level alpha particles, cross sectional area 500 cm2
Bragg curve spectroscopy: analysis of pulse shape from incident particle parallel to the field,
can distinguish particle species

Alpha spectroscopy with ionization chamber
Fisch grid ionization chamber filled by argon allows to separate two uranium isotopes

Proportional counters

Charge multiplication in the gas
Late 1940s, effect of gas multiplication

More ion pairs compared to ionization chamber
Low energy X-rays
Neutron detection
Pulse mode most common operation

Avalanche formation
Kinetic energy of the electron sufficient to make secondary ionization

Field at least 106 V m−1
Gas multiplication: secondary electrons also ionize after acceleration
Townsend avalanche
dn
= αdx (25)
n
α is the first Townsend coefficient of the gas

Depends on electric field
For constant field (parallel plate geometry), solution is exponential increase in electron
density:
n(x) = n(0) exp(αx) (26)

Townsend coefficient vs. field

Regions of operation

Cylindrical geometry
Field with anode wire radius a, cathode inner radius b and applied voltage V is
V
E(r ) = (27)
r ln(b/a)

Field as a function of radius

Avalanche from a single electron, MC transport model

Simulation of avalanche
Winkler et al. Am. J. Phys., Vol. 83, 733-740 (2015)

Development of the avalanche

Construction design
Figure : Cross sectional view, dimensions in cm

Beverage can design, Winkler et al. Am. J. Phys., Vol. 83, 733-740
(2015)

2π proportional counter

4π proportional counter

Fill gas
Gases without significant electron attachment

Oxygen or electronegative impurities must be removed in flow-counters
Sealed counters more convenient to use, but may have limited lifetime
Polyatomic gas (methane) to prevent photon-induced effects, component called quench gas
Most common proportional gas is 90% argon + 10% methane (P-10 gas)
Penning effect - component with ionization energy lower than excitation energy of principal
gas

Quenching in proportional detectors

Gas multiplication factor
Single electron response by avalanche created by one electron outside multiplication region
Total charge by n0 original pairs with gas multiplication factor M is
Q = n0 eM (28)
In cylindrical geometry, Townsend coefficient α depends on the radius (and on the field)
Z rc
ln M = dr α(r ) (29)
a
α is higher closer to the anode where the field is stronger

Parametrizations of α on the field use experimental data

Gas multiplication factor vs. voltage

Space charge effects
Reduction of the field near anode due to positive ions

Self induced effects resulting from high gas gain, does not depend on pulse rate
General space charge effect is cumulative for different avalanches, also for lower gain
M should just satisfy signal-to-noise requirement to prevent space charge effects
Simple check by varying the voltage and looking for suppression of large pulse amplitudes

Energy resolution
Fluctuations in n0 and in multiplication

Variance of pulse amplitude given by ion pair fluctuation and single-electron multiplication
variations
Furry distribution of number of electrons in a given avalanche, probability of ionization
depends only on E
Polya distribution for higher fields, ionization depends on electron’s history, not only on E
Distribution of pulse amplitude approaches Gaussian for large n0 (more than 20)

Energy resolution
Low energy photons have resolution close to statistical limit
Fractional standard deviation of the peak (FWHM/2.35), P-10 gas at 1 atm pressure
Open circles: standard tungsten anode
Full circles: improved uniformity

Systematic variations in gas multiplication factor

Time characteristics of the signal pulse
Output pulse is sum of drift time of free electrons to reach multiplication region and
multiplication time required for the avanlache
Drift time greater than multiplication time

Equivalent circuit of proportional counter seen by developing signal
Derivation of pulse shape utilizes energy conservation of charge moving across the capacitor
Most of the pulse amplitude from positive ion drift
Collection time of all ions long, hundreds ms, but large fraction of signal developed early of
ion drift, fraction of µs
Spread in electron drift times (ionizations along radius) makes spread in rise time of output
pulse

Time development of output pulse
Solid curve represents initial ionization at fixed radius (constant drift time)
Dashed line is for uniform ionization along the radius
Rise time minimized by high electric field in drift region and gases with high electron drift
velocity

Shaping of the output pulse
Pulse shape with different time constants

T is total drift time of positive ions from anode to cathode
Sauli, Principles of operation of multiwire proportional and drift chambers, CERN 77-09 (1977)
Electron drift velocity

Variations of pulse rise time
Pulse shaping with short time constant removes slow component of rise time
Amplitude less than of full collection, effect of balistic deficit
Shape of pulse would vary with radial position of original ion pairs
Minimized by shaping time larger than variation in rise time
Can be used to separate signal α events from electron background

Spurious pulses
Satellite afterpulses from secondary processes following desired signal

Removed by amplitude discrimination since correspond to single-electron avalanche
Effect increases with high value of gas multiplication
Optical photons by excited atoms within the avalanche, low energy electron at cathode
surface through photoeffect

Operating voltage
Signal pulse for every particle with enough energy deposit

Sensitivity to more than one avalanche to suppress space charge effects and spurious pulses
Lower values of multiplication factor, some number of original ion pairs to create detectable
signal
Counting curve to select appropriate operating voltage (counting rate vs. voltage at same
source condition), looking for flat region

Alpha counting
Monoenergetic charged particles of range less than dimensions of the chamber

Beta counting
Range greater than chamber dimensions, smaller pulses compared to alpha

4π counter for absolute beta activity
Greater range advantage for mechanical source backing in 4π counter

Mixed alpha and beta sources
Two readout channels for alpha and beta

Separation by amplitude
Background from cosmic rays or ambient gamma (most sources) does not affect alpha
window

X-ray and gamma-ray sources
Fraction of incident photons absorbed in 5.08 cm of proportional gases at 1 atm pressure

Full absorption of low energy X-ray photons, full energy peaks in pulse spectrum
Small signal (∼ keV photons, W = 25 − 35 eV) enhanced by internal gas multiplication

Response function for low-energy X-rays
Characteristic X-rays after photoabsorption of primary radiation may escape without

interaction
Suppressed with K-shell energy above incident X-ray energy
Requirements to entrance window, beryllium or aluminum 50 - 250 µm

Fluorescence gating
Electronic separation of photoelectric absorption of incident photon and absorption of

consequent characteristic X-ray
Proportional counter as series of independent cells, X-ray absorbed in different cell
Two pulses in time coincidence corresponding to full absorption, escape peak avoided

Parallel plate avalanche counters
Heavy charged particles which would impose radiation damage to solid state detectors
Parallel plate electrodes, proportional gas at low pressure
Particle species separation by specific energy loss
For gap of 1 mm, fast component from electrons in ns with high field, time resolution 160 ps

Position-sensitive proportional counters
Avalanche occurs around small portion of anode wire length

Position of avalanche is indicator of axial position in cylindrical geometry

Charge division method
Anode with significant resistance per unit length

Two amplifiers at the ends, sum related to conventional pulse, proportion to the position of the
interaction
Alternatively relative rise time could be analyzed, longer rise time for pulse far from amplifier

Multiwire proportional counters (MWPC)
Cathode plates and anode wires positive vs. cathode

Electrons are collected at one of the wires, avalanche at a particular wire
Large negative pulse at anode where avalanche was collected, smaller positive pulses at
neighboring anodes

Electric field lines in MWPC
Field by equidistant grid of anode wires between two parallel cathode plates
High field region only in immediate vicinity of the anodes

Enlarged view of the field around the anode wires in MWPC
Wire spacing 2 mm, wire diameter 20 µm
Sauli, Principles of operation of multiwire proportional and drift chambers, CERN 77-09 (1977)
Readout of MWPC
Each wire is connected to preamp and processed independently

√
Theoretical position resolution is spacing/ 12, but with pulse amplitude for each wire around
trajectory of the particle, it’s possible to reconstruct centre-of-gravity and improve the
resolution

Two-dimensional MWPC
Cathodes divided into perpendicular strips

Centroid of discharge located by center-of-gravity technique

Multicell proportional counter
Cylindrical independent cells

Coincidence measurement for process selection or background rejection
Microstrip gas chamber (MSGC)
Narrow anode metallic strips (10 µm) on substrate

Quick collection of ions, clearing the space charge

Two-dimensional MSGC
Ionization in fill gas between anodes and drift plane, avalanches by electrons close to anode
Most of signal generated by drift of positive ions away from the anode

Gas electron multiplier (GEM)
Preamplification in gas to allow lower voltage readout of microstrip detector
GEM foil of insulating material, both surfaces covered by metallic cladding

Hole density 50 per mm2
Holes of 140 µm pitch and 70 µm diameter

GEM foil
Insulating material, both surfaces covered by metallic cladding

Simulation of GEM
Light lines - electrons, dark lines - ions, spots - ionization occurence

Cascade of GEM foils
Gain up to 104 - 105 , sensitivity to single electron

Micromegas (micro-mesh gaseous structure)
Two-stage parallel plate avalanche chamber

Ionization above the mesh which is transparent to electrons
Amplification below the mesh in a high field
Avalanche ions collected by the mesh, fast clearing of the space charge
Resistive Plate Chamber (RPC)
Thin gas volume between electrodes of high electrical resistivity
Construction of RPC
Spacers between plates each 10 cm against electrostatic attraction (constant gap size)
Readout of position sensitive RPC
Capacitive coupling of strips to preamps
Time Projection Chamber (TPC) of the ALICE experiment
3D position and dE/dx using volume of 90 m3 of Ne/CO2 /N2 (90/10/5) divided into two
sectors of 2.5 m
Voltage 100 kV on central electrode, drift field 400 V m−1
Electron drift velocity 2.7 cm µs−1 , maximum drift time 92 µs
Readout by MWPC with cathode pad readout mounted in trapezoidal sectors at each end
plate, active area of 32.5 m2
MWPC readout of ALICE TPC, cross sectional view along the wires
Grid of anode wires above pad plane, cathode wire plane and gating grid
Wire geometry and pad size dependent on radial track density, 560 000 readout pads
Anode to cathode distance 2 and 3 mm, gain up to 20 000
Gate opens for electrons from the drift volume by the collision trigger (6.5 µs after the
collision) for the duration of drift time, 92 µs, prevents the space charge of positive ions from
drifting back from multiplication region
MWPC readout, cross sectional view perpendicular to the wires
Particle identification by dE/dx in TPC
Simultaneous measurement of ionization losses and momentum

Parametrization of Bethe-Bloch formula for several particle species
Upgrade of TPC
Expected rate 50 kHz of Pb-Pb, 5 interactions within maximal electron drift time, 10 events
superimposed from past+future time window
Untriggered readout without use of gating grid
Readout by GEM foils instead of MWPC, field 50 kV/cm in the hole
Suppression of back flowing ions
One side segmented to reduce total charge on the foil, segments coupled by resistors
Geiger-Mueller Counters
G-M counter
Introduced in 1928, one of the oldest detectors

Higher field than in proportional counter
One avalanche can create at least one another avalanche, chain reaction
All pulses have same amplitude, 109 - 1010 ion pairs
Pulse amplitude in volts, no need for external amplification
Counting rate limited by dead time
Geiger discharge
Excited molecules of neutral gas in Townsend avalanche, together with positive ions
They emit visible or UV light, may be absorbed by photoeffect at any place of the tube, new
free electron created
Or free electron created by absorption at cathode
New avalanche from the free electron after reaching the multiplication region around anode
Subcritical proportional tube: n00 p 1 with n00 number of excited molecules in typical
avalanche and p the probability of photoabsorption
Geiger discharge with single avalanche multiplication 106 - 100 has n00 bigger, criticality
achieved as n00 p ≥ 1
G-M region
Geiger discharge propagation
New avalanches created close to the original one, new electrons have to reach anode region
Spread of Geiger discharge along the anode wire with propagation velocity 2 − 4 cm µs−1
over entire length of anode, few µs after initiating event
Avalanches at random positions around anode, electrons collected by anode, secondary
positive ions around the multiplication region
Field reduced by space charge of the ions, multiplication reduced, Geiger discharge
terminated
Amount of needed space charge independent of initial ionization, the reason for same pulse
amplitude
Amplitude of Geiger discharge
Amplitude increases with higher applied voltage

More space charge needed to reduce the field below criticality
Overvoltage defined as voltage above minimum required for Geiger discharge initiation
Fill gases
Same requirements as for proportional counters since charge multiplication is needed (no
negative ions...)
Noble gases, helium, argon, quenching component
n00 increases with E/p (electric field to gas pressure), G-M as sealed tube with pressure less
than atmospheric
Voltage 500 - 2000 V for anode of 0.1 mm diameter
Quenching
Slow drift of positive ions after Geiger discharge termination to the cathode, neutralization
with electron from cathode surface
Energy needed = sum of gas ionization energy and energy to extract the electron from
cathode (work function)
If (gas ionization energy) = 2 × (work function), another free electron emerges from the
cathode surface
At least one free electron from cathode with large amount of positive ions
Will drift towards anode to make new Geiger discharge
Cycle would repeat, continues output of multiple pulses
No problem for proportional counters, number of ions smaller, only spurious pulses
External quenching
Needed any method to prevent excessive multiple pulsing

Reduction of high applied voltage for some fixed time after the pulse below gas multiplication
Time greater than transit of positive ions to the cathode (hundreds of ms) and transit time of
free electron (few µs)
Value of R selected high enough (108 Ω), so RC is of ms
Several ms for anode to return to nominal operating voltage, low counting rate
Internal quenching
Component of quench gas added to primary fill gas, concentration 5 - 10 %

Smaller ionization potential, more complex molecular structure
Multiple pulsing prevented by charge transfer collisions, positive charge of primary gas ion
transfered to quench gas molecule, original ion neutralized before reaching cathode
Ions of quench gas at cathode with some concentration of quench component
At cathode, the excess energy dissociates the more complex molecule, emission of free
electron suppressed, no additional avalanches
Organic molecules, ethyl alcohol, ethyl formate
Limit of 109 counts due to consumption of quench gas
Problem avoided by halogens as quench gas (chorine, bromine), spontaneous recombination
after dissociation
Limit to lifetime then by contamination of reaction products from the discharge and polymer
deposition on anode surface
Shape of the output pulse
Signal of multiple avalanches from secondary electrons

Spread in time for them to reach multiplication region
Rise time of few µs
Electric field distorted from the space charge of positive ions
Fast rise and slow rise from ions drift, time constant less than 100 µs to eliminate slow
component
Loss in amplitude tolerated due to large amount of charge
Delay in response by drift of original electrons to multiplying region, applies for timing with
G-M as time uncertainty
Dead time
Drift of positive ions outwards, recovery of field in multiplying region

After drift to some distance, the field permits new Geiger discharge, lower intensity in the
beginning
First pulses reduced in amplitude
Full field and full amplitude after all ions neutralized at the cathode
Dead time = time between initial pulse and second Geiger discharge, regardless of the
magnitude, 50 - 100 µs
Resolving time = time for pulse of amplitude high enough to be registered, dead time may
include also recovery time in practical application
Recovery time = time to return to the original state, pulse of full amplitude
Dead time behavior
Geiger counting plateau
Dependence of measured counting rate on voltage with constant rate from radiation source
Counter threshold Hd , no pulses if amplitude is below
Onset of continues discharge
Corona discharge by irregularities on anode wire or quenching failure

Decrease of voltage needed
Operating voltage just sufficient for the flat region, reduces quench gas consumption
Low amplitude tail causes some slope of the counting curve
Hysteresis in counting curve due to charges on insulators
Linearity of the plateau measures quality of G-M
Organic quenched tubes have slope of 2 - 3 % with change in voltage by 100 V
Halogen quenched tubes have greater slope, but larger lifetime and lower operating voltage
End-window Geiger tube
Fine anode wire, less requirements on uniformity of the wire and of the electric field
Cylindrical cathode of metal or glass with metallized inner surface
Thin window for short-range particles, differential pressure
More robust window for beta or gamma
Other design of Geiger tube
Wire loop anode in cathode of arbitrary volume

Needle counters - sharply pointed needle, field as 1/r 2 (1/r for cylindrical geometry), used
for smaller active volume
Source in counting volume for low-energy particles
14 C detection by gas mixture of CO2 with counter gas for high counting efficiency
Counting electronics
R is load resistance for signal development

Cs is capacitance of the tube and wiring, parallel with R
RCs ∼ few µs for fast-rising component
Coupling capacitor Cc to block high voltage on the tube, only signal pulse transmitted, RCc
larger than pulse duration
Counting efficiency for charged particles
100 % for any charged particle entering the active volume since a single ion pair triggers full
Geiger discharge
Effective efficiency given by the window of the tube, absorption or backscattering
For alpha counting window with 1.5 mg/cm2
Efficiency for neutrons
Rare application for neutron detection

Low capture cross section for Geiger gases
Gamma-ray discrimination not possible, all pulses have same size
Neutron-induced reactions detected by proportional counters, large amplitude from such
reactions
Counting efficiency for gamma rays
Interaction in solid wall of the counter, secondary electron needs just to emerge into active
volume
1 - 2 mm of innermost layer of the wall
Efficiency increased with high-Z material of the cathode (bismuth Z = 83)
Low-energy gamma may interact with fill gas, xenon and krypton (high-Z) enhance the
efficiency up to 100 % for photon energies 10 keV
Counting efficiency for gamma rays

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DPD 03-Ionization Chambers PDF

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03 - Ionization chambers

Czech Technical University in Prague

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 1 / 130

Charged particle getting through a volume of a gas or noble liquid

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 2 / 130

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 3 / 130

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 4 / 130

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 5 / 130

Fluctuation in number of pairs affect the energy resolution

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 6 / 130

Figure : Planar ionization chamber

ρ is the density and dE/dx is energy loss per g cm−2

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 7 / 130

Several processes applies to the ion pairs

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 8 / 130

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 9 / 130

Figure : Electron velocity vs. filed

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 10 / 130

Thermal movement with mean free path of about 10−6 - 10−8 m

D is given by kinetic gas theory or the process is described by a transport model

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 11 / 130

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 12 / 130

Free electron captured by positive ion making ordinary neutral atom

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 13 / 130

Electron-ion pairs created in column along particle trajectory

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 14 / 130

Recombination during drift towards electrodes

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 15 / 130

Constant irradiation rate creates constant formation of ion pairs

Figure : Planar ionization chamber

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 16 / 130

Electric field by external voltage

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 17 / 130

Higher voltage required to get true saturation current

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 18 / 130

 is ratio of average energy of charge carrier, kT /e ≈ 2.5 × 10−2 V at room temperature

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 19 / 130

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 20 / 130

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 21 / 130

Electric field given by geometry of electrodes

Figure : Cylindrical ionization chamber

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 22 / 130

Small values of ionization current, < 10−12 A

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 23 / 130

Amount of charge in air-filled ionization chamber

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 24 / 130

Collimated X-rays, compensation in horizontal direction

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 25 / 130

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 26 / 130

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 27 / 130

Cylindrical air capacitor, initially charged at some voltage V0

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 28 / 130

Saturation current depends only on geometry, long time stability

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 29 / 130

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 30 / 130

Radioactive gas as constituent of fill gas, sampled as continuous flow

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 31 / 130

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 32 / 130

Each radiation quantum provides with distinguishable signal pulse

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 33 / 130

Chamber is represented by it’s capacity C

Jaroslav Adam (CTU, Prague) DPD_03, Ionization chambers Version 2 34 / 130

Time dependence of voltage V given by

is ratio of average energy of charge carrier, kT /e ≈ 2.5 × 10−2 V at room temperature

If RC t + , maximum amplitude of the pulse is