MU Civa 2016 PDF

CIVA 2016
User Manual
27-05-2016
27-05-2016
CIVA2016 User Manual
CIVA 2016: User Manual
The information contained in this document is the ownership of CEA and should be considered as confidential. 2 / 1153
27-05-2016
Table of Contents
1.GENERALITIES ................................................................................................................. 7
1.General introduction to CIVA ...................................................................................... 7
2.Starting with CIVA ....................................................................................................... 8
2.1.Modules ............................................................................................................. 8
2.2.Examples to begin with ..................................................................................... 8
2.3.Using CIVA ........................................................................................................ 9
3.Desk panels ............................................................................................................... 14
3.1.Default toolbar ................................................................................................. 14
3.2.Common menus .............................................................................................. 31
3.3.UT menu ......................................................................................................... 32
3.4.UT-Analysis menu ........................................................................................... 33
3.5.GWT menu ...................................................................................................... 33
3.6.ET menu .......................................................................................................... 34
3.7.RT/CT menu .................................................................................................... 34
3.8.History menu ................................................................................................... 35
4.Display Panel ............................................................................................................ 36
4.1.Civa Manager .................................................................................................. 37
4.2.Scan Explorer .................................................................................................. 43
4.3.Model ............................................................................................................... 45
4.4.3D View ........................................................................................................... 47
4.5.2D CAD Editor ................................................................................................ 67
4.6.Analysis ........................................................................................................... 94
2.ULTRASONIC TESTING ................................................................................................ 105
1.UT Modeling - Theory ............................................................................................. 105
1.1.Beam computation theoretical model ............................................................ 105
1.2.Inspection simulation models ........................................................................ 127
1.3.Athena theoretical model .............................................................................. 162
1.4.Fidel 2D theoretical model ............................................................................ 163
2.UT - Active Model Setup ......................................................................................... 169
2.1.Specimen ....................................................................................................... 169
2.2.Probe ............................................................................................................. 237
2.3.Inspection ...................................................................................................... 290
2.4.Array Settings ................................................................................................ 340
2.5.Flaw ............................................................................................................... 413
2.6.Raypath display ............................................................................................. 435
3.UT - Beam computation .......................................................................................... 447
3.1.Active model setup ........................................................................................ 447
3.2.UT Beam Computation parameters .............................................................. 448
3.3.UT Beam Computation sequencing .............................................................. 460
3.4.UT Beam Computation Imaging .................................................................... 462
3.5.UT - Beam analysis ...................................................................................... 476
4.UT - Inspection Simulation ...................................................................................... 500
4.1.Active Model Setup ....................................................................................... 500
4.2.Simulation settings ........................................................................................ 500
4.3.Computation Sequencing .............................................................................. 522
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4.4.Results and Imaging ..................................................................................... 524

5.UT - ANALYSIS ....................................................................................................... 525
5.1.Data Sources ................................................................................................. 525
5.2.UT Data Imaging ........................................................................................... 533
5.3.UT Analysis tools .......................................................................................... 568
6.Athena2D computation ............................................................................................ 671
6.2.Simulation settings ........................................................................................ 672
6.3.Athena2D imaging ......................................................................................... 681
7.Composites .............................................................................................................. 684
7.1.Active Model Setup for Composites .............................................................. 684
7.2.Beam Computation and Inspection Simulation ............................................. 691
7.3.Inspection Simulation with Fidel 2D .............................................................. 692
3.ELECTROMAGNETIC TESTING ................................................................................... 697
1.ET Modeling - Theory ............................................................................................. 697
1.1.Computation Theory ...................................................................................... 697
1.2.Application of VIM and BEM to the planar geometry .................................... 716
1.3.Application of VIM and BEM to the cylindrical geometry ............................... 720
1.4.Computation definition ................................................................................... 722
2.ET - Active Model Setup ......................................................................................... 724
2.1.Specimen ....................................................................................................... 724
2.2.Probe ............................................................................................................. 728
2.3.Inspection ...................................................................................................... 770
2.4.Flaw definition ............................................................................................... 777
2.5.Acquisition ..................................................................................................... 786
3.ET - Field Computation ........................................................................................... 789
3.1.ET Field Computation - Active Model Setup ................................................. 789
3.2.Computation Parameters panel ..................................................................... 791
3.4.ET Field Computation Imaging ...................................................................... 793
3.5.Probe response ............................................................................................. 816
3.6.EMAT source computation ............................................................................ 820
4.ET - Inspection Simulation 3D ................................................................................ 827
4.2.Computation parameters ............................................................................... 827
4.4.Imaging and data analysis ............................................................................ 831
5.ET - Inspection Simulation 2D cylindrical ................................................................ 871
5.2.Computation parameters ............................................................................... 877
5.4.Imaging .......................................................................................................... 878
4.RADIOGRAPHY TESTING ............................................................................................ 879
1.RT Modeling - Theory ............................................................................................. 879
1.1.Interaction of photons with matter ................................................................. 879
1.2.Radiographic image simulation ..................................................................... 881
1.3.Reconstruction theory .................................................................................... 883
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2.RT Modeling ............................................................................................................ 895

2.1.Specimen ....................................................................................................... 896
2.2.Source ........................................................................................................... 926
2.3.Detector ......................................................................................................... 937
2.4.Inspection ...................................................................................................... 947
2.5.Flaws ............................................................................................................. 952
2.6.Image Quality Indicator (IQI) ......................................................................... 954
3.RT Computation ...................................................................................................... 956
3.1.RT Computation outline ................................................................................ 956
3.2.RT Computation parameters ......................................................................... 956
3.3.RT Computation sequencing ......................................................................... 972
3.4.RT imaging .................................................................................................... 973
3.5.RT Analysis ................................................................................................... 976
4.Tomographic Modeling Computation ....................................................................... 993
4.1.Tomography - Active Model Setup ................................................................ 993
4.2.Tomographic inspection ................................................................................ 996
4.3.Imaging and data processing ........................................................................ 998
4.4.Data Export ................................................................................................. 1013
4.5.CT Import Wizard ........................................................................................ 1014
5.GUIDED WAVES TESTING ......................................................................................... 1019
1.GW INTRODUCTION TO GUIDED WAVES MODELING ..................................... 1019
2.GW - THEORY ...................................................................................................... 1021
2.1.Guided Waves Modeling ............................................................................. 1021
2.2.Useful references to works published by researchers from CEA ................. 1022
2.3.Modes computation theoretical model ......................................................... 1023
2.4.Field computation theoretical model ............................................................ 1025
2.5.Defect interaction theoretical model ............................................................ 1026
3.GW - ACTIVE MODEL SETUP ............................................................................. 1030
3.1.Specimen ..................................................................................................... 1030
3.2.Probe ........................................................................................................... 1049
3.3.Inspection .................................................................................................... 1069
3.4.Array settings .............................................................................................. 1072
3.5.Flaw ............................................................................................................. 1074
4.GW - SIMULATION SETTINGS ............................................................................ 1080
4.1.Modes Computation .................................................................................... 1080
4.2.Field Computation ....................................................................................... 1083
4.3.Inspection simulation ................................................................................... 1087
5.GW - IMAGING ..................................................................................................... 1093
5.1.GWT Modes Analysis ToolBar .................................................................... 1093
5.2.GWT Field Analysis ToolBar ....................................................................... 1097
5.3.GWT Inspection Simulation Analysis ToolBar ............................................. 1102
6. Multi-technique features ........................................................................................... 1109
1.Batch manager ...................................................................................................... 1109
1.1.Purpose ....................................................................................................... 1109
1.2.Initiating the Batch function ......................................................................... 1109
1.3.Batch mode operation ................................................................................. 1109
1.4.Description of the Batch Editor window ...................................................... 1109
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2.Parametric variation study ..................................................................................... 1113

2.1.Define Variation scenario ............................................................................ 1113
2.2.Variables tab ............................................................................................... 1115
2.3.Monitored parameters ................................................................................. 1119
2.4.Variations - Extractions ............................................................................... 1120
2.5.UT Computation options ............................................................................. 1125
2.6.Results of a variation scenario .................................................................... 1125
3.Probability of detection .......................................................................................... 1130
3.1.Define POD scenario .................................................................................. 1131
3.2.POD - Variables Tab ................................................................................... 1135
3.3.Extraction Tab ............................................................................................. 1138
3.4.UT Computation options ............................................................................. 1141
3.5.Results of a POD scenario ......................................................................... 1141
CIVA2016 User Manual 27-05-2016
GENERALITIES
Chapter 1. GENERALITIES
1. General introduction to CIVA

CIVA is a multiple-expertise software platform for Nondestructive Testing (NDT).
CIVA capitalizes on research carried out by the CEA and its partners in the area of NDT sim-
ulation.
CIVA comprises:
• Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

• Ultrasonic Testing with Finite Elements Method coupling in 2D (UT-ATHENA2D)
• Radiographic Testing (RT) with X-Ray and Gamma-Ray,
• Computed Tomography (CT),
• Electromagnetic Testing (ET)
• Guided Waves Testing (GWT)
Each module proposes appropriate imaging and signal processing tools, for simulated or ex-
perimental data.
These modules are intended for use in developing and optimizing NDT methods and probe
design, enhancing qualification of NDT techniques and interpreting complex inspection results.
In this way, simulation can play a role from the onset of specimen design (identification of po-
tential defects), during testing (qualification of methods, parameter optimization, analysis of
disturbance factors) and in subsequent specimen development (e.g. NDT of specimen geome-
tries or structures similar to initial designs).
To this end, models must credit complex configurations while affording computations whose
characteristics enable performance of parametric studies (e.g. reduced computation times).
The models must therefore be based on "semi-analytical" formulations: their calculation kernels
must use exact formulations for canonical or approximate cases; integral formulations are then
applied (to the probe, defect, etc.), to allow for more complex configurations. The theoretical
principles of the models are described briefly in paragraphs dealing with Theory. These models
are validated through experimentation and participation in modeling benchmark exercises.
In addition to their numerical performances, the models must afford simple intuitive definitions
of the test configurations required by an NDT operator. The choice made for Civa was to adapt
each interface to the NDT object in interest (e.g. by providing options for specimen positioning,
flaw positioning with respect to the center of a flaw, the ligament, etc.). Setting options available
for the various elements of the simulated configuration are described in this manual.
Once the test configuration has been determined, simulated data are represented in different
forms (such as curves or images) using the same representation mode as for experimental
data. This ultimately enables comparison of simulated with experimental data in a same graph-
ical environment, with the same signal and/or image processing tools. Imaging and associated
processing tools are described in different chapters of this manual.
GENERALITIES
2. Starting with CIVA

2.1. Modules
The different CIVA modules available are grouped by technique. After clicking of the technique
icon, different modules are available:
• Beam computation, Beam coverage, Inspection simulation and CIVA-ATHENA for UT.
• Modes computation, beam computation and inspection simulation for GWT.
• Field computation and inspection simulation (3D or 2D cylindrical) for ET.
• Radiographic or tomographic simulation or Tomographic import for RT.
Additional features can also be found such as the batch manager, the POD and parametric
variation studies, the user manual...
2.2. Examples to begin with

Before accessing a module, the “Configuration Wizard” allows you to select a predefined con-
figuration.
Figure 1.1. Configuration wizard
GENERALITIES
• Last configuration: reload the last saved or computed configuration.

• Current configuration: create a new instance by duplicating the current configuration.
• Default Configuration: select a configuration through the options proposed. These configura-
tions are given as examples, in order to start with a valid set of parameters. You can use these
configurations to discover in a simple way a large panel of what CIVA is able to simulate.
• User Configuration: List of customizable start configurations. To delete a configuration: select
in this list and press “Del” on your keyboard. To add a configuration use the contextual menu
available on the file in the Civa Manager area.
Figure 1.2. Defining user configuration
2.3. Using CIVA

The Civa start window enables the user to activate the modules listed above and to manage
the list of files opened during a given session and the associated images.
The main window is subdivided in three parts: the Civa Manager, the Scan Explorer and the
Display area.
Figure 1.3. Areas of the main window
GENERALITIES
The test configurations or experimental files opened in Civa are displayed in a stack arrange-
ment in the CIVA Manager.
Files are opened directly via the File menu or generated by the UT modeling, ET modeling,
GWT modeling or RT/CT Modeling process. These processes, always available from the main
menu are described in the different sections.
The Display menu allows you to load or save specific layouts. With these different layouts,
you'll be able to choose which graphic views you want to display in your analysis page.
Figure 1.4. Civa manager
The files shown in the stack may themselves contain one or more files, for instance a modeling
configuration associated with data. Data consist of simulation results, processed results or
experimental acquisition. Data appear along with colored squares. Each dataset includes a set
of images (Ascan, 3D view,...) which can be listed in the scan explorer area by clicking on the
dataset. The figure below shows the results available for the yellow data.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.5. Selecting data
Results can then be displayed by right clicking on the “display” option or by drag and drop from
the Scan Explorer to the Display Area. With drag & drop, the area in which the result will be
displayed appears grey until the mouse is released.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.6. Display an image
Figure 1.7. Drag & Drop
Colored squares make it easier to know which files and data the images come from.
The model associated to a dataset can be loaded in the Display Area by pointing on "Model"
in the Civa Manager, right-clicking and selecting "Edit".
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.8. Load the model in the model page
GENERALITIES
3. Desk panels
When opening CIVA, a "desk" panel opens with colored tiles. Other options can also be selected
from the top toolbar. All of these are detailed in the following sections.
3.1. Default toolbar

On the top of the window, some icons are always available, allowing to load some files or
adjusting preferences.
3.1.1. Home menu
This button allows the user to open configurations, to save them after modification, to
close them, to access to the historic of the loaded configurations or to exit CIVA.
• Open: opens a file type supported by CIVA
Supported file types are:
• *.xml for compatibility with CIVA version anterior to CIVA 10

• *.civa : for "simulation" files from CIVA
• *.m2k for Multi 2000 acquisition files. and *.acq for GEKKO acquisition files
• Right-click to load the different salvos, then you will be able to see the same tree as for ".civa"
type : Model and Data
• *.oud, *.opd, *.rdt for Olympus acquisition files (specific licence is required)
• *.nde for "NDE project" files (ET only for configurations comparison)
• *.var for "parametric variation" files
• *.pod for "probability of detection" files
Other types of UT and ET files are also proposed through the two filters at the end of the list.
See further details in the paragraph titled "Files Tree".
• Historic shall be used to get access to a previously loaded file.
This button gives access to the History page from the Desk panel.
• Closing all files and quiting CIVA are available
These two buttons allow to quickly close all the open files and to exit the environment.
• Other modules of the current technique are available when a file is open and this button
is pressed.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.9. selection of "Home" icon from the toolbar
Once a module is selected, the user has also the possibility to change the application or to
access to the desk to change module.
Figure 1.10. selection of "Home" icon from

the toolbar when a RT-CT module is selected
3.1.2. Preferences
Clicking on the icon opens a new page where the CIVA preferences can be adjusted.
3.1.2.1. General preferences
The general preferences allow selecting options for a faster display after computation or loading
of data.
The model page checkbox option relates to every format of file except experimental file from
Multi2000 system (*.m2k). As a file is read, the “Model” with its configuration parameters is
automatically displayed in the “Model” page and the results in the analysis pages. With the
Preferences menu, the user can eliminate the automatic display of the model page, which tends
to hamper Civa "fluidity", because of the time required to construct object images in the display
window.
GENERALITIES
If this option is not checked, reading the file does not activate the edition of the model page,
but instead displays only the associated result in image form. The corresponding .civa file
therefore has a blue symbol in the file stack. If "Automatically add model file when opening file"
is checked, the model page is automatically displayed and a yellow cylinder then appears next
to this file in the .civa file stack.
By default on the opening of any file, the Civa Manager tree is displayed. If the option “Auto-
matically hide the Civa Manager” is not checked, the Civa Manager panel is not opened. You
can further display it by clicking on “Civa Manager” on top left.
This option "Display complement of reception delay laws" affects the display of delay laws
applied to a phased array on reception. Phased array-based systems apply delay law "com-
plementarity" when receiving. This compensates for the fact that ultrasonic wave propagation
requires application to receiver elements of a time shift that is complementary to the delay ap-
plied when transmitting. In Civa, it is possible to display or not display the complementary laws
applied to the array on reception, by checking/unchecking the option.
Figure 1.11. Complementarity of delay laws for phased array reception
By default all the analysis pages of the file will open after computing a configuration. If the
option "Open analysis page after a calculation is finished" is unchecked by the user, reading
the file does not activate the edition of the analysis pages only the model page will be opened.
Some tools are available as toolboxes on the bottom of the display page. If the option "Display
toolboxes by default" is not checked, on the opening of a file, the toolboxes won’t be displayed
when the data are displayed on the analysis pages..
If this option "Add inch value in tooltip" is selected, then for each metrics values displayed in
CIVA Graphic user interface, a tip will appear with the equivalent value given in inches when
the mouse stands on the field. To enter a value in inches, terminate the entry with an “i”.
Figure 1.12. Inch values display
GENERALITIES
3.1.2.2. System preferences
Figure 1.13. System preferences
“Graphic cards": Display of the graphic CUDA cards detected by CIVA that can be used for
processing tomographic reconstructions. If the computer has no graphic CUDA card, there is
no checkbox.
"Force thread count”: If the computer is a multiple core, the system will automatically parallelize
the computations; if you want to avoid the computer to use all the core of the system, you can
check this option and force the number of threads that will be simultaneously launched.
GENERALITIES
3.1.2.3. Colors preferences
Figure 1.14. Colors preferences

These options allow the user to choose the colors for the different elements in analysis pages.
3.1.2.4. Measuring Tools
Figure 1.15. Measuring tools
GENERALITIES
When selecting an area of interest, some information about the maximum amplitude point are
displayed. These options allow the user to select the information that should be displayed.
3.1.2.5. Data preferences
The units and images displayed by default in each page can be chosen as a global parameter.
Figure 1.16. Data preferences
“Default amplitude unit”: This checkboxes allow you to choose the amplitude unit for the all
analysis pages concerning “Inspection simulation imaging” or "Beam imaging".
“Default CEA layout with true scans”: If this checkbox is activated, the true an scans will be
displayed on the selection of the CEA Default layout. If you don’t need this type of scans, it will
be better to avoid them, the analysis page displaying will be more seamlessly.
The cache files are useful for pre-loading different kinds of data, therefore the displays become
more efficient and faster. In that case, some information like the dynamic of the data, the max
of amplitude, the time offset of your data and the selected mode (L or T), are saved in cache
files and these values won’t be evaluated on each display of the scans.
Finite Elements computation generate huge amounts of data; For a faster display, it is possible
not to directly load the finite element data. The FE data is still available from the toolbars.
GENERALITIES
3.1.2.6. X-ray preferences
Figure 1.17. X-ray preferences
"Reset seeds": The first checkbox concerns the random values used to statistic computing.
If this option is checked, the computation will be launched with a new set of random values.
Therefore you can test different statistic results for the same configuration.
“Number consumed photons per cycle”: For a Monte-Carlo calculation, a defined number of
photons is considered. The whole computation is sequenced in multiple cycles for which you
can define the number of photons considered by writing in the text field “Number consumed
photons per cycle”. For each cycle, the results are saved, until the last cycle is over.
3.1.2.7. Eddy currents preferences
For the Eddy currents modules, the colors of the cursors cannot be selected from the "Colors"
preferences" but from some specific "ET preferences" as well as display options.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.18. Eddy currents preferences
3.1.2.8. Preferences – Indication Statements
These options deals with the tools and the table of indications that is used for UT analysis.
These preferences can be set for one particular file or can embed a library available for all files.
The choice is made at the top of the window with the radio button. Once set, the preferences
can be added to the “library” with a name thanks to the button top right “Add to library”.
Thus, different scenarios and procedures can be prepared and defined in order to be more
efficient when analysing acquisition files.
Figure 1.19. Preferences – Indication Statements
GENERALITIES
3.1.2.8.1. Operators preferences
The objective of this tab is to preset the operator(s) automatically (or not) launched each
time the selection tool is used.
Several operators can be included in this tab.
Four (4) operators are available as shown below:
Operators can be added or deleted by the “+” and the “x” at the right of the window.
For each operator, the following options are available:
Parameters set: If the operator needs parameters to work, sets of parameters can be loaded
if previously saved (using the operator in a normal way and saving parameters).
Indication type: When the operator is launched, if an indication is detected, the indication
type selected here will be automatically added to the indication before the user adds it to the
indication table. It can be blank and the choice is made among the list selected in “indication
types”.
Increment range / scanning range: The user can specify here a range for the application of
the chosen operator with the chosen set of parameters. This is useful when different parts of
the component must be analysed in different manners.
Favorites: If several operators are selected, this allows to choose the order of presentation os
results in the result window. The first choice will be applied first.
Auto run: This option allows to launch automatically the operators for which “yes” is chosen
when the selection tool is used. Note that several operators can have a “yes”, the user can
then see the different results when selecting each operator in the result window.
The result window is shown below:
GENERALITIES
In this case, only one operator has been preset, the flaw type selected is “Flaw”, “one” is given
by the user as indication name and a comment has been added.
Three choices are possible:
- Add to table will add the selected indication to the indication table;
- Return to selection will close the window but the selection will still exist for further investiga-
tions and the operator is still active;
- Cancel will close the window and delete the selection made.
3.1.2.8.2. Indications table columns
In this tab, the user can choose the fields that will be available in the indication table.
The definition of the different possible fields is given below:
Field Explanation
id Unique number identifying the indication
gate name of the gate in which the indication has been noted
visibility boolean indicating if the indication must be visible or not in the images
locked Indication indicates if this indication can be modified (always locked in the case
of segmentation
amplitude max (dB) maximum amplitude of the indication in dB
Time max (µs) value of time for the maximum amplitude point of the indication
GENERALITIES
#X (st) for operator other than segmentation, size of the selection box along X
axis. For segmentation, size of the group along X axis at the threshold
used for segmentation.
#Y (st) for operator other than segmentation, size of the selection box along Y
axis. For segmentation, size of the group along Y axis at the threshold
#Z (st) for operator other than segmentation, size of the selection box along Z
axis. For segmentation, size of the group along Z axis at the threshold
X (max) Position along X axis of the maximum amplitude point of the indication
Y (max) Position along Y axis of the maximum amplitude point of the indication
Z (max) Position along Z axis of the maximum amplitude point of the indication
Valid Indicates if the indication satisfies the filters and rules defined. Can be
changed also manually.
Name Name given by the user to the indication. It can be words, not only
figures.
Comment Comment put by the user, not limited in length.
Type Optional, type of indication chosen by the user in the list previously
defined in preferences.
amplitude max (%) maximum amplitude of the indication in %
I (max) Increment position of the maximum amplitude point of the indication
Scanning (max) Scanning position of the maximum amplitude point of the indication
S (max) Sequence number of the maximum amplitude point of the indication
Shot (max) Shot number of the maximum amplitude point of the indication
Shot (max) (°) Shot angle value where the maximum amplitude point of the indication
is detected
R (max) Position along R axis of the maximum amplitude point of the indication
θ (max) Position along θ axis of the maximum amplitude point of the indication
#R (st) For operator other than segmentation, size of the selection box along
R axis. For segmentation, size of the group along R axis at the thresh-
old used for segmentation.
∆θ (st) For operator other than segmentation, size of the selection box along θ
axis. For segmentation, size of the group along θ axis at the threshold
GENERALITIES
X - min For operator other than segmentation, position along X axis of the be-
ginning of the selection box. For segmentation,position along X axis
of the beginning of the group at the threshold used for segmentation.
X - max For operator other than segmentation, position along X axis of the end
of the selection box. For segmentation,position along X axis of the end
of the group at the threshold used for segmentation.
Y - min For operator other than segmentation, position along Y axis of the be-
ginning of the selection box. For segmentation,position along Y axis
Y - max For operator other than segmentation, position along Z axis of the end
of the selection box. For segmentation,position along Z axis of the end
Z - min For operator other than segmentation, position along Z axis of the be-
ginning of the selection box. For segmentation,position along Z axis
Z - max For operator other than segmentation, position along Z axis of the end
of the selection box. For segmentation,position along Z axis of the end
R - min For operator other than segmentation, position along R axis of the
beginning of the selection box. For segmentation,position along R axis
R - max For operator other than segmentation, position along R axis of the end
of the selection box. For segmentation,position along R axis of the end
θ - min For operator other than segmentation, position along θ axis of the be-
ginning of the selection box. For segmentation,position along θ axis of
the beginning of the group at the threshold used for segmentation.
θ - max For operator other than segmentation, position along θ axis of the end
of the selection box. For segmentation,position along θ axis of the end
I - min For operator other than segmentation, position along Increment axis
of the beginning of the selection box. For segmentation,position along
Increment axis of the beginning of the group at the threshold used for
segmentation.
I - max For operator other than segmentation, position along Increment axis
of the end of the selection box. For segmentation,position along Incre-
ment axis of the end of the group at the threshold used for segmen-
tation.
Scanning - min For operator other than segmentation, position along scanning axis of
the beginning of the selection box. For segmentation,position along
GENERALITIES
scanning axis of the beginning of the group at the threshold used for
segmentation.
Scanning - max For operator other than segmentation, position along scanning axis of
the end of the selection box. For segmentation,position along scanning
axis of the end of the group at the threshold used for segmentation.
S - min For operator other than segmentation, position along sequence axis
of the beginning of the selection box. For segmentation,position along
sequence axis of the beginning of the group at the threshold used for
segmentation.
S - max For operator other than segmentation, position along sequence axis
of the end of the selection box. For segmentation,position along se-
quence axis of the end of the group at the threshold used for segmen-
tation.
Shot - min For operator other than segmentation, position along shot axis of the
beginning of the selection box. For segmentation,position along shot
axis of the beginning of the group at the threshold used for segmen-
tation.
Shot - max for operator other than segmentation, position along shot axis of the
end of the selection box. For segmentation,position along shot axis of
the end of the group at the threshold used for segmentation.
Shot - min (°) For operator other than segmentation, position along shot axis in angle
values of the beginning of the selection box. For segmentation,position
along shot axis in angle values of the beginning of the group at the
threshold used for segmentation.
Shot - max (°) For operator other than segmentation, position along shot axis in angle
values of the end of the selection box. For segmentation,position along
shot axis in angle values of the end of the group at the threshold used
for segmentation
t - min For operator other than segmentation, position along time axis of the
beginning of the selection box. For segmentation,position along time
axis of the beginning of the group at the threshold used for segmen-
tation.
t - max For operator other than segmentation, position along time axis of the
end of the selection box. For segmentation,position along time axis of
the end of the group at the threshold used for segmentation.
segment Number After segmentation, number of the segment where the maximum am-
plitude point of this indication is.
points Count By Seg- After segmentation, number of points in the segment where the max-
ment imum amplitude point of this indication is.
group Number After segmentation, number of the group.
GENERALITIES
measures Count By After segmentation, number of points in the group.

Group
segments Count By After segmentation, number of segments in the group.
Group
Distance Distance between this indication and the other one selected.
images Contains the unique image that can be associated to the indication.
Fields at -XdB Explanation

In all cases, when the difference between the maximum amplitude and the threshold used is
smaller than X dB, the value is "-"
X - min -XdB For contour at -XdB, position along X axis of the beginning of
the contour at -X dB. For segmentation, position along X axis of
the beginning of the group at -X dB of the maximum amplitude
of the group.
X - max -XdB For contour at -XdB, position along X axis of the end of the
contour at -X dB. For segmentation, position along X axis of
the end of the group at -X dB of the maximum amplitude of
the group.
Y - min -XdB For contour at -XdB, position along Y axis of the beginning of
the contour at -X dB. For segmentation, position along Y axis of
of the group.
Y - max -XdB For contour at -XdB, position along Y axis of the end of the
contour at -X dB. For segmentation, position along Y axis of
the group.
Z - min -XdB For contour at -XdB, position along Z axis of the beginning of
the contour at -X dB. For segmentation, position along Z axis of
of the group.
Z - max -XdB For contour at -XdB, position along Z axis of the end of the
contour at -X dB. For segmentation, position along Z axis of
the group.
R - min -XdB For contour at -XdB, position along R axis of the beginning of
the contour at -X dB. For segmentation, position along R axis of
of the group.
R - max -XdB For contour at -XdB, position along R axis of the end of the
contour at -X dB. For segmentation, position along R axis of
GENERALITIES

the group.
θ - min -XdB For contour at -XdB, position along θ axis of the beginning of
the contour at -X dB. For segmentation, position along θ axis of
of the group.
θ - max -XdB For contour at -XdB, position along θ axis of the end of the
contour at -X dB. For segmentation, position along θ axis of
the group.
#X -xdB Difference between X max (-X dB) and X min (-X dB)
#Y -xdB Difference between Y max (-X dB) and Y min (-X dB)
#Z -xdB Difference between Z max (-X dB) and Z min (-X dB)
#R -xdB Difference between R max (-X dB) and R min (-X dB)
∆θ -xdB Difference between θ max (-X dB) and θ min (-X dB)
I - min -XdB For contour at -XdB, position along increment axis of the begin-
ning of the contour at -X dB. For segmentation, position along
increment axis of the beginning of the group at -X dB of the
maximum amplitude of the group.
I - max -XdB For contour at -XdB, position along increment axis of the end
of the contour at -X dB. For segmentation, position along in-
crement axis of the end of the group at -X dB of the maximum
amplitude of the group.
Scanning - min -XdB For contour at -XdB, position along scanning axis of the begin-
scanning axis of the beginning of the group at -X dB of the
Scanning - max -XdB For contour at -XdB, position along scanning axis of the end
of the contour at -X dB. For segmentation,position along scan-
ning axis of the end of the group at -X dB of the maximum am-
plitude of the group.
S - min -XdB For contour at -XdB, position along sequence axis of the begin-
sequence axis of the beginning of the group at -X dB of the
S - max -XdB For contour at -XdB, position along sequence axis of the end
of the contour at -X dB. For segmentation, position along se-
quence axis of the end of the group at -X dB of the maximum
GENERALITIES
Shot - min -XdB For contour at -XdB, position along shot axis of the beginning
of the contour at -X dB. For segmentation, position along shot
axis of the beginning of the group at -X dB of the maximum
Shot - max -XdB For contour at -XdB, position along shot axis of the end of the
contour at -X dB. For segmentation, position along shot axis
of the end of the group at -X dB of the maximum amplitude of
the group.
Shot - min -XdB (°) For contour at -XdB, position along shot axis in angle
value of the beginning of the contour at -X dB. For
segmentation,position along shot axis in angle value of the be-
ginning of the group at -X dB of the maximum amplitude of the
group.
Shot - max -XdB (°) For contour at -XdB, position along shot axis in angle value
of the end of the contour at -X dB. For segmentation, position
along shot axis in angle value of the end of the group at -X dB
of the maximum amplitude of the group.
t - min -XdB For contour at -XdB, position along time axis of the beginning
of the contour at -X dB. For segmentation, position along time
axis of the beginning of the group at -X dB of the maximum
t - max -XdB For contour at -XdB, position along time axis of the end of the
contour at -X dB. For segmentation, position along time axis
of the end of the group at -X dB of the maximum amplitude of
the group.
surface -XdB For contour at -XdB, surface of the contour calculated on im-
ages.
As for other tabs, profiles can be created to load in one click a specific list previously saved in
the profiles (see profiles chapter for more information).
3.1.2.8.3. Indications Types
The indications types are one of the fields available in the indication table. This allows the user
to characterize indications with specific names given by the procedure or norms for example.
The user can here define different lists of indication type, associated with a colour for the rep-
resentation of groups or contour in the images.
GENERALITIES
When using the operator preferences, one type in the list can be affected by default.
To create different lists (due to different customers, languages, procedures…), use the export
and import buttons on the top near “Select from library”.
3.1.2.8.4. Threshold
thresholds defined in this tab have two main roles:
The first one is for the operator “contour at –XdB”. When this tool will be used, up to three
contours will be made around the maximum amplitude point found in the selected area. Each
of them will be at one of these thresholds.
The second one is that the fields giving the size of the indication at –XdB in the indication table
will be available at the three thresholds defined here. This is true for the operators “contour at-
XdB” and “Segmentation”.
To create different lists (due to different customers, languages, procedures…), use the export
and import buttons on the top near “Select from library”.
3.1.2.8.5. Filters (since CIVA 2016)

The filters must be first created in an indication table to be available in this tab.
The filters defined here will be available in the indication table without having to create them
again or to import them.
Refer to “filter in indication table” to know how to create filters.
GENERALITIES
3.1.2.8.6. Profiles
The objective of the profiles is to allow to custom the environment and to avoid creating several
times the same list of parameters or filters.
Two ways to use profiles:
• A “global one” fully compatible with templates: you load an acquisition file and, in this file, you
choose (or not) your automatic operators, the fields in the indication table, the filters to apply,
the thresholds you wish and the types of indication adapted. Once all this is done, you press
the button “Add to library” and give a specific name. If you have also defined the images
you want, some specific limitations or other elements compatible with templates, the best
is to record this template (note that templates are only usable with files based on the same
structure (increment-scanning for example) as profiles are usable in the way you decide.
• A “case by case” one: you can create a specific filter and add it to profiles like “filters for
procedure 11CTZ”. This allows you to create specific profiles for each tab (filters, fields,
thresholds…) that you have to recall one by one. The objective is that when you have a very
specific procedure that has to be applied to the same kind of files many times, then, using
global profiles or templates is very powerful to save time, avoid errors and heavy-repetitive
operations.
3.2. Common menus

Some element are available for multiple techniques: links on the right side and tiles for common
features.
• User Manual
Notice that the F1 key activates online User Manual and can be used contextually.
On F1 activation, the user manual will open on a page that depends on which component of the
active window the mouse is positioned. This way of opening is only available if the active panel
is a parameters panel such as those described in the paragraphs concerning Model Setup for
the different modules.
Otherwise, clicking the F1 key will open the online help on its first page. For instance to get
information about analysis, after clicking the F1 key, you’ll need to move down in the table of
contents to choose the corresponding chapter and then, on a basic click, you’ll get the chosen
page displayed.
• Video and Extende
The video link redirects to the "extendechannel" youtube page. Extende release regularly
videos about some tools in the different techniques.
The Extende link redirects to Extende website from which you can find information about the
different techniques and modules of CIVA, about Validation of CIVA models or the support
team.
• About CIVA
GENERALITIES
This menu leads to the current version information and indicates the developers, supporters
and distributors of CIVA.
• Batch Manager:
This tool allows launching several CIVA simulations in batch mode. You can find more infor-
mation in the dedicated chapter.
• Parametric Variation study
This button opens a new CIVA configuration (.var) on the basis of the currently opened .civa
configuration, with additional VAR features. You can find more information in the dedicated
chapter.
• POD study
This button opens a new CIVA configuration (.pod) on the basis of the currently opened .civa
configuration, with additional POD features. You can find more information in the dedicated
chapter.
3.3. UT menu
Selection of UT (Ultrasonic Testing) in the CIVA main window gives access the following
items:
• Beam Computation: for computation of ultrasonic field radiated by a probe.
Module computing the ultrasonic field radiated from a probe in the test piece. The probe and
test piece configurations available are described in the chapter entitled UT Active model setup.
Beam computation options and definitions are described in the chapter entitled UT Beam com-
putation.
The hypotheses underlying this computation are described in the chapter entitled UT Modeling
Theory.
• Beam coverage: for estimating the area reaching by an ultrasonic beam.
With this module, it is possible to perform a beam computation including a probe scanning.
Therefore the area reached by the beam can be determined.
• Inspection Simulation: for computation of echoes from the flaws or the specimen.
This module computes the interaction between the ultrasonic beam (volume waves) and the
specimen including one or more flaws.
The transducer and test specimen configurations available are described in UT Active model
setup.
Beam/flaw interaction options and definitions are described in UT Inspection simulation.
GENERALITIES
The hypotheses underlying this computation are described in UT Modeling Theory.
• CIVA ATHENA2D: for computation of echoes from the flaws or the specimen with complex
interactions which necessitates a Finite Elements Computation.
ATHENA2D is a Finite Elements solver developed by EDF. It has been integrated in CIVA using
a semi-analytical / numerical hybridation and a reciprocity theorem.
It allows dealing with configurations involving complex wave-flaw-specimen interactions, like
multiple skips on several defects or creeping waves on a specimen surface and on the flaw.
The transducer and test specimen configurations available are described in UT ATHENA.
• Perspective: specific tools for dedicated applications
Specific CIVA environments are dedicated to some applications. The UT Composites perspec-
tive, which can be accessed through , offers a dedicated environment:
• Specific composites specimens are available.

• The material definition is adapted.
• An adapted coupled module CIVA Fidel 2D can be accessed.
• Features common to all modules: described here.
3.4. UT-Analysis menu

CIVA includes a set o tools in order to perform the analysis of simulated results, but why re-
stricting the tools to simulated results? The analysis of acquisition data can be perform in the
same CIVA environment.
Selection of UT-Analysis in the CIVA main window gives access the following file formats
for analyzing acquisition files.
CIVA is able to load simulation files, M2M files (.m2k and gekko files) or Olympus files (.opt,
.opd and .rdt), including multi-salvo or multi-probe data, and to apply the different analysis
tools on these data.
It is also possible to use the UT Data import plugin to develop the compatibility with other
file formats.
CIVA UT Beam computation is also available through CIVA UT-Analysis menu.
3.5. GWT menu

Selection of GWT (Guided Waves Testing) in the CIVA main window grants access to
the following items.
• Modes Computation.
GENERALITIES
This modules aims at the prediction of dispersion curves and modal displacement in the section
of a thin structure.
• Beam Computation.
This module predicts the modal amplitudes and radiated field inside a guiding structure.
• Inspection Simulation:
This module deals with simulation of an inspection involving one or two transducers radiating
(or being sensitive to) guided wave propagating in a structure. It computes the echoes from
the flaws or the specimen.
3.6. ET menu
Selection of ET (ElectromagneticTesting) in the CIVA main window gives access to the
following items.
• Field Computation: for computation of electromagnetic fields radiated by a probe and com-
putation of normalized impedance diagrams, frequency response of probes and lift-off dia-
grams.
• Inspection Simulation (3D): for computation of responses on probes from the flaws in 3D
configurations (plates, cylinders or fastened plates), with any probe type.
• Inspection Simulation (2D cyl.): for computation of responses on probes from the flaws on
axisymmetric configurations (tube, 2D-CAD-axisym., tube expansion), with axisymmetrical
probes.
3.7. RT/CT menu

Selection of RT/CT (Radiography Testing / Computed Tomography) in the CIVA main
window grants access to the following items.
• RT Simulation: for computation of Radiography Testing responses with gamma or X-radi-

ation.
Limited energy range: one of the biggest assumptions in CIVA RT is the limitation of pho-
ton-matter interaction to photoelectric absorption, Compton, Rayleigh scattering and pair cre-
ation effect. These interactions describe well the physics in the energy range between 10 keV
and about 15 MeV, but become insufficient at energies below or above this range. In practice,
this includes the use of high energy sources such as linear accelerators.
• CT Simulation: for computation of Radiography projections associated to a Tomography

set-up. CT reconstruction shall also be launched from CT Simulation.
GENERALITIES
• CT Import: launches a wizard to load Radiography projections out of a "real" Tomography

system (experimental CT data). Once data are loaded the user can use the CIVA CT recon-
struction tools.
3.8. History menu

This panel shows history and bookmarks.
The file menu gives access to the previously loaded file. It can also be accessed from the
Home icon of the toolbar. The color of each file is according to the module of the technique.
Some bookmarks can also be defined on the right part of the window. Civa files or folders can
directly be opened.
GENERALITIES
4. Display Panel
When using CIVA, the environment is similar for all techniques and modules.
The figure below shows an interface. This window is divided in different areas.
The first one, A on the top left, named "Civa Manager" contains the opened files tree with one
leaf on the configuration model and several leaves for each data source.
The second panel, B on the bottom left, named "Scan Explorer" contains the tree of all scans
displayed by CIVA to display the current data. A colored square refers to the selected result.
On the main C panel, multiple pages are available: the first one named "Model" to display the
current model, and the others displaying the images from the different data sources.
Different tools are available from the top toolbar and information is given in the bottom tool-
boxes.
Figure 1.20. CIVA main windows
For the first time you open Civa, the main window is displayed according to the CEA default
layout. You can then arrange every window as you mind: every window in this main window
is dockable, floatable and resizable.
The following options are just some of the ways that windows can be arranged:
• Tab-dock windows to the main frame.

• Dock tool windows to the edge of a frame.
• Float windows over or outside the main frame.
GENERALITIES
• Minimize tool windows along the edge of the main frame.

• Tile windows in an analysis page.
• Reset window placement to the default layout.
The test configurations or experimental files opened in Civa are displayed in a stack arrange-
ment in the "Civa Manager" frame. Files are opened directly via the File menu (see 1.3.1 File
Menu) or generated by the modeling processes. In the two cases, they appear in the Civa
Manager.
4.1. Civa Manager

When files are open in CIVA, they are displayed in the Civa manager. Each configuration con-
tains a model and if computed some results displayed with colored squares. The data may
come from simulation (*.civa file) or from real acquisition (*.m2k or *.rdt for example).
Figure 1.21. CIVA Manager
An asterisk* before a red name indicates that the configuration has been modified since it has
been saved.Otherwise the name is displayed in black. Files can be saved by right-clicking on
the file name and selecting "Save" or "Save as".
On selecting your data source, you’ll be able to know all available scans in the Scan Explorer.
4.1.1. Files tree

• Modeling files
Modeling files come from configurations parameterized in Civa using the different modules.
GENERALITIES
Only one configuration can be associated to such files but several computations can be
launched and therefore, each configuration can contain several data sets. See, for instance
the four configurations of the file “config_champs.civa” in the “opened files” figure.
You can save or close the files in the tree by clicking right on the node of the file name.
Figure 1.22. Save, save as, close files in Files Tree
• Acquisition files
The acquisition files that Civa can open are files from:
• Multi 2000 (M2M) system, named *.m2k

• GEKKO (M2M) system, named *.gekko
• Olympus (all systems)
These files contain one or more salvos, for each salvo a model is defined with its associated
data sets. The model and data of a salvo will appear in the Civa Manager tree on right clicking,
after selecting the “load” option. If you want some salvos to load automatically, see paragraph
1.3.5.5 Preferences. To collapse again the node of the salvo, click on the “-“ icon and to com-
pletely close this leaf of the tree, select “unload” in the pop-up menu of the loaded salvo.
Figure 1.23. To Load, Unload a Salvo of an Acquisition File
There are three kinds of possible acquisition : Max, Peaks or Channels. This information is
added a the end of the default name of the data set.
GENERALITIES
• Modeling files
Modeling files come from configurations parameterized in Civa using the different modules.
Only one configuration can be associated to such files but several computations can be
launched and therefore, each configuration can contain several data sets. See, for instance
the four configurations of the file “config_champs.civa” in the “opened files” figure.
You can save or close the files in the tree by clicking right on the node of the file name.
Figure 1.24. Save, save as, close files in Files Tree
• Previous version files :
Every basic file coming from Civa general modelling menus will be named with “civa” extension.
To preserve compatibility with previous version, Civa allows you to open files with “xml” exten-
sion, issued from Civa 9 and previous. On saving or closing the file by selecting one of the three
options of the pop-up menu (cf figure above) or by exiting Civa , you’ll be asked to confirm the
import of your *.xml file into *.civa file.
Figure 1.25. Files Import from previous versions of Civa
4.1.2. The option of menu : Associate to

We have seen previously that a simulation file as well as an acquisition file contains configu-
rations with an associated model for each one. This model has been defined during the acqui-
sition, you can now change the associated model by clicking right and choosing in your files
a modeling Civa file, then the model of this selected file will become the associated model of
the selected salvo.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.26. Salvo "Associate to" menu in the files tree
Figure 1.27. Selection of associated File
4.1.3. The option of menu : Properties

For a salvo in the case of an acquisition file the dialog box displayed by selecting “Properties”
in the context menu shows general information about it :
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.28. General information about Salvo
For a configuration of a simulation file, the dialog box displayed by selecting “Properties” in the
context menu shows only the path of the file and the number of results in the file:
Figure 1.29. Properties of Salvo
4.1.4. Data and sources

As explained above, under each file name, one or more configurations appear, each defining
by a model. Each configuration can have one or more associated data.
Each computation generates a data set of results which is figured in the tree by a colored
square accompanied by a typical default name. This default name is generated according to
the source of data.
Each type of data sets will be described in the corresponding analysis chapter.
To each set of data a color and a key are associated to retrieve easily the source of these data.
This key constituted of a letter and a number at the end of the dataset name. Otherwise, by
clicking right on the node of the data source, you can rename it or change its color, in order
to manage your own environment.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.30. Menu for renaming or changing the color of a dataset
4.1.5. Visualization a data source : scans and analysis page

On clicking on the “Display the default page” option, a new analysis active page appears in a
tab, on the right panel of the main window; the name of this analysis page is automatically set
according to the dataset name, but it is possible to rename it.
Figure 1.31. New analysis page for a dataset
GENERALITIES
4.2. Scan Explorer

The Scan Explorer allows you to see all the graphic views available in a data source.
As soon as a data source, from an acquisition or a modelling file, or from a recent computation,
has been selected in Civa Manager, the tree of all the available views of the data source is build.
You can then by clicking on each node of the tree, expand it and show the underneath views.
Each image or scan appears in the tree of the Scan Explorer, in respect to the hierarchy of
its availability. The name of the data source and its color is reminded in the title of the scan
explorer,
Figure 1.32. The Tree of the Scan Explorer

If an image or a scan is already displayed in one of the analysis pages (in a tab of the right
panel of the main window), its representative icon is a green circle, otherwise, its icon is a red
square (it means that this image has never been opened in this session of Civa).
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.33. Images that have never yet been opened
As an analysis page is opened (by clicking on the “Display the default page” option of the data
source in Civa Manager, for instance here: “Data simulation results”.
To display one of these images or scans, you need a current analysis page. If the image or
scan have never been display, you’ve just in its pop-up menu the “Display” option, on clicking
on it, you’ll make the selected image or scan displayed on the current analysis page.
After this first display, you’ll have two options in the pop-up menu, the first one enables you
to display again this image or scan in another analysis page (after you’ll have selected it as
the current page) and the second one to see it in the page where you first displayed the image
or scan.
Figure 1.34. To display scans in different analysis pages
GENERALITIES
So, as you see, you can display any scan of any source on any analysis page.
4.3. Model
4.3.1. Editing Model

We’ve seen in the Civa Manager description that for each file, from acquisition or from con-
figuration, or for each current configuration project, one model is defined. This model collects
every necessary parameter for a control simulation.
On the right side of the main window, there is a page to edit the model. Only one model can be
edited at the same time, it’s the current model and the mention "edited" will appear in brackets
after its node in Civa Manager.
By default, as soon as a file is loaded, its model is loaded for edition in the Model page, but
note that if you uncheck the corresponding option in preferences windows (cf paragraph Pref-
erences) the model won’t be edited on the file loading.
Figure 1.35. Loading a model for edition
To edit another model, click right on its node in Civa Manager, it will become the current model.
4.3.2. Description of the model page

The edition of the model allows you to see the 3D view of this model, see paragraph "3D view"
for more details.
GENERALITIES
4.3.2.1. Command Buttons
Figure 1.36. Model Panel
The definition of a configuration model has to be performed through the successive command
button below the 3D view. Each command button at the bottom of the 3D view allows to set
a group of parameters.
When you change the technique or module, the command buttons will change according to the
current application. Each panel is described for each type of application.
A click on the last command button "Run" will launch the desired computation with the para-
meters of your current configuration.
See each chapter concerning the applications for more details on the computation and its re-
sults display:
• UT modeling
• ET modeling
• RT-CT modeling
• GWT modeling
4.3.2.2. Buttons menu
Figure 1.37. The buttons menu
GENERALITIES
Toolboxes
The left button will display or hide the toolboxes below the display area. The toolboxes are
useful to set for example:
• Visualized Modes (UT)

• Ray path display (UT)
• Mask (RT)
• Options for the toolbar
The use of these toolboxes are detailed in the dedicated sections.
Number of views
On the top right of the panel, the second button allows you to divide your model panel in one
to four parts. So that you can simultaneously visualize different views of your model.
Figure 1.38. Display area with 3 views
Close
The last button allow closing the 3D view. The model is still available from the Civa manager
but no longer displayed.
4.4. 3D View
A 3D view is divided in two areas: a 3D view toolbar and a 3D scene.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.39. 3D view
3D View
Many tools are available in a 3D view. They can be accessed using:
• the 3D view toolbar: camera handling, coordinates mode, section view…

• the context menu (right-click on the 3D scene): color, opacity, specific functionality for an
object…
• or by directly manipulating the scene with the mouse: camera handling, interactivity...
4.4.1. Camera Handling

This chapter describes how to manipulate the camera of the 3D scene using the mouse. It is
also possible to manipulate the camera via the toolbar.
4.4.1.1. Moving the Camera
To move the camera, press the left button of the mouse in the 3D scene. The cursor change
for . Then drag the mouse (without releasing it) in any direction.
GENERALITIES
4.4.1.2. Rotate Camera
To rotate the camera, press the left button of the mouse in the 3D scene while pressing the Shift
key. You can also use the middle button of the mouse without pressing any key. The cursor
change for . Then drag the mouse (without releasing it) in any direction.
4.4.1.3. Zooming
To zoom, press the right button of the mouse in the 3D scene. The cursor change for .
Then drag the mouse (without releasing it) up or down.
You can also press the left button of the mouse while pressing the Ctrl key to draw a rectangle
around the area you want to zoom in.
Figure 1.40. Rectangle zoom
4.4.2. 3D view Toolbar

The toolbar of the 3D view can be used:
•
to display rules, cursors and coordinates
• to quickly modify the camera with predefined position and orientation
•
to rotate the camera
•
to change the current scene representation
•
to activate the section view
GENERALITIES
4.4.2.1. Coordinates
This button activates or deactivates coordinates display in the 3D view. When activated,
the mouse cursor becomes and the X, Y and Z coordinates appear in the bottom-right
corner of the view.
When the mouse pointer is over an object in the scene, the coordinates are those of the first
intersection point between the scene and a ray that is collinear to the camera direction. In this
case the three x-y-z coordinates are in bold style.
Figure 1.41. Coordinates when the mouse cursor is over an object

Otherwise, the coordinates are those of the intersection between the same ray and an arbitrary
plane that is orthogonal to the camera direction. In this case the coordinates are meaningless
unless the camera direction is parallel to one of the three axes of the scene. For instance, if
the camera direction is parallel to the Y axis, the two coordinates x and z are exploitable and
will appear in bold style (see the figure below).
Figure 1.42. Coordinates when the mouse cursor is not over an object
4.4.2.2. Resetting Camera
This button changes the camera position and the zoom to fit all the visible objects in the
view. The camera direction is not modified.
GENERALITIES
4.4.2.3. Predefined Camera Orientations
The following buttons change the camera to predefined orientations. The camera position is
adjusted but not the focal point (i.e. if the camera is centered on an object, it will remain centered
on the same object).
Figure 1.43. Predefined camera orientations
4.4.2.4. Vertical
This button changes the camera orientation so that the Z-axis of the 3D scene is aligned
with the “vertical” 2D axis of the view. Among the many possible transformations, the “shortest
path” is chosen.
4.4.2.5. Rotate Camera
All of these buttons can be used to rotate the camera around its
three axes: the camera direction and the two orthogonal directions (horizontal and vertical).
4.4.2.6. Changing Representation
These two buttons change the representation of the 3D scene. The representation
can be either “Surface” or “Wire”.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.44. Surface and wire representation
4.4.3. Context Menu

To show the context menu, click with the right button of the mouse on the 3D scene. The menu
is divided in three sub-menus: "Scene", "View" and "Tools".
Figure 1.45. Context menu
When right-clicking on an object in the scene, specific sub-menus are added.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.46. Context menu when clicking on an object
4.4.3.1. Scene Menu
The "Scene" menu is divided in four sub-menus: "Objects", "Representation", "Image layer"
and "Frame".
Figure 1.47. Scene menu
The "Objects" sub-menu lists all the objects, visible or not, present in the 3D scene. It can be
used to make visible again a hidden object.
The "Representation" sub-menu can be used to change the representation of the 3D scene.
The representation can be either "Surface" or "Wire" (see Figure below).
The "Image layer" sub-menu is only available with a 2D CAD specimen. It allows you to insert an
image in the 3D scene. Once loaded, the image can be positioned, orientated and scaled using
interactivity. Just double-click on it to reveal the corresponding manipulators (see Interactivity
below).
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.48. Image layer
The "Frame" sub-menu can be used to show/hide the frame in the 3D view. You can put the
frame either in the bottom-left corner or in the origin of the 3D scene.
Figure 1.49. Frame menu
4.4.3.2. View Menu
From the "View" menu, it is possible to change the background color ("Back ground Color…"),
to change the camera orientation ("Orientations" sub-menu) and to make a screenshot of the
view.
Figure 1.50. View menu
GENERALITIES
The "Number of Views" sub-menu is only available in the 3D view of the Model page (see §
Model).
The "Section View" item activates the Section view. See Section below for more details.
4.4.3.3. Tools Menu
Using the tools menu, you can show or hide:
• the ruler (available in Section view)

• the coordinates (available in 3D view toolbar)
• the cursors (available in Section view)
• the toolbar (available in 3D view toolbar)
Figure 1.51. Tools menu
For more details about coordinates, see § Coordinates.
4.4.3.4. Object Menus
When right-clicking on some objects in the 3D scene, specific menus can appear. This applies
to specimen, probes, flaws, and many other objects.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.52. Example of object menu
The menu of each object is different, but some features are frequently present. It is the case of:
• "Visible": hide or show the object

• "Color…": change the object main color
• "Opacity": change the object transparency
• "Center": focus the camera on the object
• "Measure": display the height, width and depth of the object
• "Copy & freeze": clone the object. The copied object appears in the 3D scene, but it is "frozen"
i.e. it does not update when the model change. The copied object can be deleted using its
context menu.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.53. Deleting a frozen object
Some specific features are available, depending on the object, like the "Probe pre-positioning"
functionality in the "Example of object menu" figure. See the corresponding chapter for more
details.
The "Manipulator" and "Section" sub-menus allow an interactive positioning and a specific
cross-section view. See the next two chapters Interactivity and Section.
4.4.4. Interactivity
4.4.4.1. Introduction
To activate interactivity mode just double-click on the object (rays, probes, probe´s trajectory,
flaws or zones), manipulators are then displayed and the element becomes half transparent. A
new double click on the interactive object will deactivate the interactivity and hide the manipu-
lators. There can only be one interactive object at the same time. If you activate interactivity
for another object than the one that is already interactive, the previous object´s interactivity is
disabled, and the new one´s is enabled.
These manipulators are well defined and limited in number, their shape indicate how to interact
with them. Passing the mouse pointer over a manipulator highlights it in cyan and shows the
name and the current value of the manipulated data.
Use the Up and Down keys to adjust the manipulators size to your preference. This preferred
size is restricted to the current 3D view and it won´t affect the other views you might have
opened.
The precision of the manipulators is determined by the distance between the point of view and
the manipulator, so the nearest you´re from the scene, the more precise the manipulators are.
GENERALITIES
All the manipulators have a dedicated menu that you can see by right-clicking on them. This
menu always offers to show/hide the manipulator, it can also provide advanced features. You
can also find this menu as a sub menu in the interactive object menu.
4.4.4.2. Different types of manipulators
4.4.4.2.1. Linear Coordinate Manipulator
It appears like a double arrow. When the mouse is passed over, an axis appears in discontin-
uous line to show the influence of this coordinate. It´s manipulated by a click on the double
arrow and a drag action along the axis.
The indicated value is the value for the current location.
It is used to manipulate cartesian coordinates (X, Y and Z), the height and the radius of cylin-
drical coordinates (R and Y), the radius of spherical coordinates (R) and the radius and the
curvilinear abscissa of curvilinear coordinates (U and R). It´s also used to manipulate a distance
along an axis (see positioning a focal point or a zone along the axes L or T for example).
Figure 1.54. Linear coordinate manipulator
Zooming before adjusting the value allows a more accurate positioning.
4.4.4.2.2. Angular Coordinate Manipulator
It appears like a curved double arrow. When the mouse is passed over, a circle appears in
discontinuous line to show the influence of the manipulated angle. It´s manipulated by a click
on the double arrow and a drag action along the circle.
It´s used to manipulate the angle of cylindrical coordinates (Theta), the latitude and longitude
of spherical coordinates (Theta and Phi) and the angle of curvilinear coordinates (Theta).
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.55. Angular coordinate manipulator
4.4.4.2.3. Orientation Manipulator
The orientation manipulator appears like a ring. It´s used with a click and drag mouse action
along the ring.
A discontinuous line represents the zero degree angle and a plain line represents the current
value of the angle. The indicated value is the difference with the initial position.
Figure 1.56. Orientation manipulator
moving the mouse pointer away from the ring center after clicking on it make it easier
to select an accurate value
4.4.4.2.4. Depth Manipulator
It appears like a yellow sphere placed at the end of a graduated segment. Small graduations
represents units, medium graduations are placed every five units and big graduations every
ten units. It´s used with a click on the sphere maintained and dragged along the rule.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.57. Depth manipulator
the expression "coordinate manipulator" (as used later) refers to linear coordinate
manipulator or angular coordinate manipulator
4.4.4.2.5. Dimension Manipulator

The dimension manipulator is a double cone located at the extremities of an entity. Different
sets of manipulators are displayed in order to set the dimensions of a box.
After setting the dimensions, it is generally necessary to set the computation step or pixel size,
depending on the involved element.
The indicated value corresponds to the extension of the box.
Figure 1.58. Dimension manipulator
4.4.4.2.6. Displacement Manipulator

This interactivity is related to the scanning positions. It can be activated as soon as there is a
probe trajectory and it´s visualized in purple for UT and ET modules. Then a grabbing hand
cursor appears when the mouse pointer is passed over the probe. By grabbing the probe you
GENERALITIES
can drag it along the scanning, you can move the probe along the increments by holding the
"Shift key" pressed while dragging. Pressing the Ctrl key while dragging allows you to freely
move the probe on its trajectory.
4.4.4.3. Manipulators for different objects

Most objects can be positioned and oriented interactively. A double-click enables the manipu-
lators. A right-click on the manipulator gives access to other manipulators, for example in order
to set positioning and then orientation.
4.4.4.3.1. Interactivity for probes

Interactivity is available for different elements of the model, in particular the probe. The inter-
activity mode is similar for all techniques and modules; the main difference is that some posi-
tioning modes may not be available for all cases.
4.4.4.3.1.1. Positioning
Since a probe is always positioned in the specimen frame, the coordinates used to position
the probe are dependants of the inspection type, there can be two or three manipulators to
position the probe.
For contact inspection manipulators for 2 coordinates are available ; for positioning regardless
of the specimen surface 3 manipulators are available. In immersion with impact point position-
ing mode, 2 manipulators allow setting the location of the impact point on the surface and a
3rd manipulator allows setting the water path with a depth manipulator.
The indicated value is the value for the current location.
Figure 1.59. Positioning a probe on a surface
Figure 1.60. Positioning regardless of the surface
GENERALITIES
4.4.4.3.1.2. Orientation
Probe´s orientation is always defined by three angles. Orientation manipulator is made of three
angle manipulators.
The indicated value is the difference with the initial position. The orientation from the probe
positioning panel are updated when the mouse is released.
Figure 1.61. Orienting a probe
4.4.4.3.1.3. Displacement along the trajectory
When the positioning manipulator is disabled and the scanning positions visible in purple, it is
possible to drag the probe along the scanning positions using the displacement slider.
In the UT and ET modules, you can move the probe along the scanning by dragging and along
the increments by holding the Shift key pressed while dragging. Pressing the Ctrl key while
dragging allows you to freely move the probe on its trajectory.
4.4.4.3.1.4. Mechanical offsets
Mechanical offsets can be defined by interactivity. Those are only available when working on an
acquisition file, in the 3D view in the analysis tab. It´s activated by double clicking on the probe
´s trajectory (needs to be visualized in the scanning tab).Once activated, offsets can be defined
using the two coordinate manipulators (dependant of the specimen type). The reference frame
that appears is the probe´s initial position defined in the positioning tab. Once the offsets are
defined you must apply these to the model. You can do this by selecting the option "Change
model" in the context menu. This option appears only if the interactivity is activated.
This interactivity also provides a toolbox which allows you to define the offsets and to apply
the offsets to the model. Furthermore it provides the time offset toolbox which allows you to
define a time offset.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.62. Defining mechanical offsets
4.4.4.3.2. Interactivity for flaws
This interactivity is related to the Positioning tab in flaws panel. It can be activated by double
clicking on a flaw. A double click on another flaw selects it and activates its interactivity.
The context menu will show you if interactivity is activated.
4.4.4.3.2.1. Positioning
Since a flaw is always positioned in the specimen frame, the coordinates used to position the
probe are dependants of the specimen type nevertheless there are always three manipulators
used to position a flaw.
When the flaw position mode is "From surface/bottom", you may position the impact point on
the specimen surface using the coordinate manipulators and define the ligament with the depth
manipulator. The selected impact point is displayed in purple, others are yellow; there is no
manipulator to select the impact point.
Figure 1.63. Position mode for a flaw positioned from surface
When the flaw position mode is "Defect center", you may position the center of the flaw directly
in the specimen frame using the three manipulators provided (dependant of the specimen type).
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.64. Position mode for a flaw positioned by defect center
4.4.4.3.2.2. Orientation
As for probe orientation, flaw orientation is always defined by three angles. Orientation manip-
ulator is made of three angle manipulators.
The displayed value corresponds to the orientation difference between the initial orientation
and the current orientation.
Figure 1.65. Orientation mode
4.4.4.3.3. Interactivity for other objects
Other objects such as computation area or probe sensitivity zone can be set interactively.
Depending on the involved element, it may be possible to set the position, orientation and/or
dimensions.
If necessary after setting the dimensions, the step has to be set in the specific panel, for ex-
ample the pixel size for a radiographic detector or the computation step for a UT beam com-
putation zone.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.66. Switching manipulator for a radiographic detector
4.4.5. Section
The section view can be activated using the toolbar with the button, using the "View"
contextual menu or using the menu of some objects: probes, flaws and zones.
The section view is a 2D view. Camera rotations and some other features are not available.
Figure 1.67. Toolbar in section view mode
Two functionalities are only available in the section view: grid and cursors . You can
activate or deactivate them by clicking on the corresponding buttons in the toolbar, or by using
the "Tools" sub-menu of the context menu. The coordinates are also available in the
section view.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.68. Grid, cursors and coordinates in section view
The default plane section of the section view is the control plane. It is possible to define as plane
section one of the three planes of a flaw or zone. To do this, right-click on the object in a 3D view
(with section view mode deactivated), and open the "Section" sub-menu of the object menu.
Figure 1.69. Section sub-menu
GENERALITIES
By clicking "Parallel Section View", "Orthogonal Section 1 View" or "Orthogonal Section 2

View", the section view is automatically activated with the appropriate plane. The three other
items can be used to visualize the different planes in the 3D view.
You can return to the default plane section (control plane) via the 3D probe.
Figure 1.70. Probe's section menu
4.5. 2D CAD Editor

This module creates or corrects a 2D CAD profile. It can be used for editing specimen (2D CAD
specimen) or flaw (CAD-contoured planar, multifaceted or branched defect).
The 2D CAD editor interface has two main panels. The right-hand panel contains the CAD
scene and tools to create or transform CAD entities with the help of the mouse. The left-hand
panel contains all entities in an array and allows you to modify characteristics of each one.
In the case of specimen model editing, translation or revolution can be selected via buttons
located at the bottom of this panel in order to determine the kind of extrusion of the specimen.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.71. CAD Module Interface

A two-dimensional CAD profile is made up of elements that are all coplanar. These elements
are either arcs of circles or straight line segments. Each of the elements is assigned a color.
This color defines a surface property of the modeled geometry corresponding to the profile
segment. When editing a CAD-contoured planar flaw, the only color available is red.
When editing a multifaceted or branched defect, the two colors available are red (profile) and
magenta (extrusion).
When editing a 2D CAD specimen geometry, available colors are:
• Red: Surface
• Blue: Side
• Green: Backwall
• Yellow: Interface
• Black: Comment (not used in calculations)
NB: two additional colors (magenta and cyan) exist for characterization of a CAD specimen,
specifying the 3D extension type that has to be applied to the 2D profile. These colors are not
available in the CAD user interface of CIVA but can exist in a CAD file. See Save / Load Files
for more details.
4.5.1. CAD Scene

The CAD Scene panel contains:
GENERALITIES
(1) a toolbar from where CAD tools can be activated
(2) a scene where all elements are represented
(3) a lower panel where some information is displayed
Figure 1.72. CAD Scene Panel
4.5.1.1. Capture tools
A profile can be captured in the 2D CAD scene using the tools described below.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.73. Capture tools
4.5.1.1.1. Line Segment
Click icon to enable capture of a straight line segment. The line segment is captured by
positioning its two end points in the 2D CAD scene zone.
Figure 1.74. Points captured for a segment

Segment end points are captured by clicking the left mouse button. To cancel the capture
operation underway, press the Escape key. When the line segment tool is activated, it is still
possible to move the camera by pressing and dragging the mouse.
The coordinates and the color of the segment being edited are displayed in the lower panel.
Figure 1.75. Lower panel when editing a line segment

It is possible to directly set the coordinates of the current point in the lower panel. Just enter
the two coordinates you want and press Enter. Be careful not moving the mouse over the CAD
scene: it also modifies the two coordinates.
Capturing contiguous segments: when defining the second end point B of a line segment AB,
B is automatically used as the first end point of a new line segment. Just add a new point C
to define the second line segment BC.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.76. Contiguous segments

To deactivate the contiguous element capture mode, press the Escape key, so that the next
element is captured separately from the previous one. This means defining the initial point of
the new element in the same way as for any first element of a profile.
Figure 1.77. New element captured separately

Another tool facilitates capture of closed profiles. This entails detection of already captured
points in the vicinity of the mouse pointer. When a new point is proposed, the system detects
any point already existing near the coordinates of that new point. A red square then appears
around the already existing point, and the point being positioned is automatically given the
same coordinates as the one detected by the system.
Figure 1.78. Connection of elements

Parallel or orthogonal line segment: when defining the second end point of a line segment, two
directions are suggested if they are in the vicinity of the mouse pointer. These directions are
the parallel and orthogonal direction relative to the previous segment.
Figure 1.79. Parallel or orthogonal line segment
GENERALITIES
In some case, it can be useful to create a line segment which second end point is exactly
located on the extension of another line segment.
Suppose you want to close this rectangle.
When defining the second end point, you can select the extremity of the other line segment
(without clicking), and move the mouse along the virtual extension of this line segment. The
virtual extension is shown in gray.
Figure 1.80. Virtual segment line extension
4.5.1.1.2. Arc of Circle
Two possibilities are offered to the user to capture a circle arc. The procedure required for
these two solutions is described hereafter.
Position in the display panel a first point corresponding to one end of the arc. The second
point positioned in the display is a point through which the arc must pass. Then position the
third point corresponding to the other end of the arc.
Figure 1.81. Points captured for an arc, first method
Position in the display panel a first point corresponding to one end of the arc. The second
point positioned in the display is the center of the expected circle arc. Then position the point
GENERALITIES
corresponding to the other end of the arc. When defining the third point, it is possible to change
the arc direction by clicking the right button of the mouse.
Figure 1.82. Points captured for an arc, second method
As for the line segments, the coordinates and the color of the segment being edited are dis-
played in the lower panel. It is possible to set the coordinates of the current point in this panel.
Capturing contiguous arcs and detecting points are in the same way as for line segments.
To cancel the capture operation, press the Escape key.
4.5.1.1.3. Regular polygons
Click icon to enable capture of a regular polygon. The polygon is captured by positioning
the center and another point which can be either on the inscribe circle or on the circumscribe
circle of the desired polygon.
The circle, the number of sides and the current coordinates can be set using the lower panel.
Figure 1.83. Lower panel when editing a regular polygon
To cancel the capture operation, press the Escape key.
4.5.1.1.4. Current Color
The button is used to select a color for the next entity captured.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.84. Dropdown menu of entity colors
4.5.1.1.5. Selecting Entities
The button is used to select an element in the 2D CAD scene.
The selected element is shown as a dotted line and the CAD profile panel is automatically
updated, to include all information describing that element (name, color, type, coordinates).
Multiple selections are also possible. There are several ways to select more than one element
at a time. They include:
• One by one selection of all the desired entities, by pressing and holding the "ctrl" button.
• Selection of a group of entities, by pressing and holding the "ctrl" button and dragging the
mouse to draw a square around the desired entities.
To cancel a selection, left click any zone that does not contain an entity.
To cancel a selection and leave the selection mode, press the Escape key.
4.5.1.1.6. Orthogonal Mode
Press the toggle button to activate or deactivate orthogonal mode. When orthogonal mode
is activated, a captured segment can only be horizontal or vertical.
to activate or deactivate orthogonal mode. When orthogonal mode is activated, a captured

segment can only be horizontal or vertical.
4.5.1.1.7. Grid and Cursors
Press the toggle button to activate or deactivate grid.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.85. CAD Scene with grid ON
The grid is automatically adjusted by zooming.
When capturing a line segment, an arc or a polygon, the grid points can be used to define a
new point. As for already captured points, a gray square appears around a grid point if the
mouse pointer is in its vicinity.
Figure 1.86. Defining a new point using grid points
Press the toggle button to activate or deactivate cursors, and press the toggle button
to activate or deactivate coordinates display.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.87. Cursors and coordinates display ON
4.5.1.2. Advanced tools
A profile can be modified using the advanced tools described below.
Figure 1.88. Advanced tools
4.5.1.2.1. Adjustment
Adjustment is used to cut one or more entities by other entities. Entities are automatically di-
vided in sub-entities in order to insert intersection points. Then, it is possible to delete super-
fluous sub-entities.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.89. Adjustment : original profile
Figure 1.90. Adjustment : dividing entities and inserting new points
Figure 1.91. Adjustment : after deleting superfluous entities
Press to adjust entities. Let yourself be guided by the indications of the bottom panel.
to adjust entities. Let yourself be guided by the indications of the bottom panel.
Figure 1.92. Lower panel when adjusting is ON
To exit the adjusting operation, press the Escape key.
4.5.1.2.2. Extension
Extension is used to extend one or more entities to another entity. Select first the entity up to
which you want to extend, and then select entities to extend.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.93. Extension : selecting the arrival entity
Figure 1.94. Extension : profile after extending two entities
Press to extend entities. Let yourself be guided by the indications of the bottom panel.
Figure 1.95. Lower panel when extension is ON
To exit the extending operation, press the Escape key.
4.5.1.2.3. Copy and Paste
It is possible to copy all the entities or only the current selection. Press to activate the
copy tool and follow the indications of the bottom panel.
You must define an original and an arrival point for the selection to be pasted. See the example
below.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.96. Copy and paste : original and arrival points
To exit the copy and paste tool, press the Escape key.
4.5.1.2.4. Symmetry
It is possible to apply an axial symmetry to all the entities or only to the current selection. Press
to activate the symmetry tool and follow the indications of the bottom panel.
When defining the axis, you can use the orthogonal mode .
You can choose to keep or delete the original selection in the bottom panel.
Figure 1.97. Symmetry
To exit the symmetry tool, press the Escape key.
GENERALITIES
4.5.1.2.5. Dividing Entities
Press to divide entities of the current selection. In the bottom panel, set the number of
sub-entities you want for each entity, and press the Enter button (or the Enter key).
to divide entities of the current selection. In the bottom panel, set the number of sub-entities
you want for each entity, and press the Enter button (or the Enter key).
Figure 1.98. Dividing entities : bottom panel

All entities of the current selection will be divided with regular lengths.
To exit the tool, press the Escape key.
4.5.1.3. Transformations
Three types of transformations can be applied to a profile: translation, rotation or homothetic
transformation.
Figure 1.99. Transformations tools
4.5.1.3.1. Translation
It is possible to translate either the complete profile or only pre-selected elements of that profile.
To do so, press the button and enter the two components of the translation vector in the
bottom panel. Then, validate by pressing Enter.
Figure 1.100. bottom panel
GENERALITIES
4.5.1.3.2. Rotation
Press and, as for translation, use the bottom panel to set the center of rotation and the
angle.
Figure 1.101. Rotation: bottom panel
4.5.1.3.3. Scaling
Press and, as for translation and rotation, use the bottom panel to set the center of scaling
and the factor.
Figure 1.102. Scaling: bottom panel
4.5.1.4. Undo / Redo
These buttons allows you to undo and redo up to 20 actions.
4.5.1.5. Measurement tools
Press to activate length measurement, or to activate angle measurement, and follow

the indications of the bottom panel.
For length measurement, two points must be selected.
Figure 1.103. Length measurement
GENERALITIES
For angle measurement, three points must be selected: first the center and then two other
points.
Figure 1.104. Angle measurement
4.5.1.6. View tools
Some tools are accessible by the popup menu in the CAD scene view.
Frame: you can show / hide the frame or set its size via the "Scene" menu.
Figure 1.105. Frame menu
Image layer: images in TIFF, GIF, JPEG, PNG or BMP format can be superimposed in layer
on a CAD drawing. A macrograph of a weld can, for instance, be superimposed on the CAD
scene to draw the internal structure of the weld. This tool is accessible by the "Scene" menu.
Figure 1.106. Image layer menu
GENERALITIES
Once loaded, the image can be positioned, orientated and scaled using interactivity. Just dou-
ble-click on it to reveal the corresponding manipulators.
Figure 1.107. Image layer : manipulators
Note: when editing a 2D CAD specimen, the image layer is still associated with the piece after
validating and will appear in the 3D view.
Grid and cursors: it is also possible to activate or deactivate grid, cursors and coordinates using
the "Tools" menu.
Figure 1.108. Tools menu : grid, cursors and coordinates
4.5.2. CAD Profile panel

The CAD profile panel is used to modify profile element attributes (colors and coordinates).
This includes the data needed for profile extension by translation or rotation.
The CAD profile interface has three zones:
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.109. CAD Profile panel
The field is used after validating. See Validating a Profile.
The buttons and are used for loading and saving the profile. See Load Files / Save.
4.5.2.1. List of Elements
When an element in the list is selected, it automatically appears as a dotted line in the 2D
CAD scene.
Figure 1.110. Selection of an element
GENERALITIES
This button deletes the selected element, or the list of selected elements in case of multiple
selections.
Some attribute can be directly set by double-clicking on the list. For instance, you can transform
a line segment into an arc by double-clicking on the “type” column of the corresponding row.
Figure 1.111. Changing the type of an element

You can also modify the color of an element.
Figure 1.112. Changing the color of an element

To change the colors of several elements, first select all the elements you want to modify using
the Ctrl or Shift key, and then use the color combo box below the list of elements.
Figure 1.113. Changing the colors of several elements
GENERALITIES
4.5.2.2. Line Segment
When a line segment is selected, you can modify the following:
• coordinates of the first point

• coordinates of the second point
• angle
• length
Changing angle or length will either modify the first point, or the second point, or both of them,
according to the radio buttons "Modified point" above.
Figure 1.114. Line segment panel
When "Both" is selected, the first and second points are modified so that the middle point of
the line segment stays unchanged.
4.5.2.3. Arc of Circle
When an arc of circle is selected, you can modify the following:
• coordinates of the first point

• coordinates of the second point
• radius
• direction
You cannot directly set the coordinates of the center.
The radius must always be greater than half the distance from the first point to the second point.
As there may be two possible centers for two end points with a given direction and radius, you
can switch from one to the other by pressing the button "Change center".
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.115. Arc of circle panel
4.5.2.4. Branch
When editing a branched flaw, the list of elements does not contain line segments or arcs but
a specific type called "branch". One line corresponds to one branch of the tree.
Figure 1.116. Branched flaw: list of elements
The field "parent" contains the id of the parent branch in the tree. If the field is zero, the branch
is the root of the tree.
The field "length" corresponds to the length of the branch. It can be set by clicking on it.
The fields "angle" and "absolute angle" correspond to the direction of the branch. In the field
"angle", the reference is the direction of the parent branch (relative angle). In the field "absolute
angle", the reference is the horizontal direction (absolute angle). These two fields can be set
by clicking on them.
4.5.2.5. Extrusion
When editing a 2D CAD specimen, the third part of the CAD profile panel allows definition of
parameters for 3D extrusion of the captured profile.
It can be an extrusion by translation with given direction and length, or an extrusion by revolution
with given axis, radius and angle.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.117. Extrusion by translation panel
The default direction of an extrusion by translation is the Y axis. You can choose to extrude the
profile using the Z axis by setting colors of all entities to other-than-surface.
Figure 1.118. Extrusion by translation: direction of translation
The tool for extrusion by rotation is slightly more complex. The rotation axis is always oriented
along the Y axis. The piece must therefore be constructed accordingly. The piece rotation radius
is defined relative to the highest point on the far left side of the CAD profile (in the following
order: smallest coordinate value along the Y-axis, then smallest coordinate value along the Z-
axis).
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.119. Extrusion by revolution
4.5.3. Save / Load Files
The button is used to read an already created CAD file, the button to save the profile
to a DXF file.
4.5.3.1. Authorized file formats
The authorized formats include:
Neutral DXF AutoCAD format (R14 or over)
Neutral IGES format (up to 5.3)
Neutral STEP format (AP 204 – AP 205).
Civa can only read line, polyline or arc entities. It cannot read splines.
4.5.3.2. Loading a File
Press to show the Open File dialog.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.120. Open File Dialog
A filter function (1) is provided to limit the list of files in the selected directory to those with DXF,
STEP or IGES formats. By simply clicking the name of the desired CAD file (2), it is possible
to activate the various layer images contained in that file. These images usually correspond to
part of a CAD drawing that may or may not be relevant to simulation. Many CAD files contain
title blocks that are irrelevant to the simulation process. These title blocks generally appear in
a separate layer image. By not selecting this image, the user immediately eliminates a large
number of superfluous entities. The numbered buttons shown in zone (3) allow one by one
display of the layers and their different views. The user can select part of the layer image and
assign it a color by clicking in zone (4): true color mode uses the existing file colors; by clicking
a second time, an entire entity is colored red to define its surface shape; a third click designates
the layer as a commentary, which then stays visible but is not used in simulation.
Different layers can then be combined to construct a CAD drawing.
You can choose to add the selected file to the current profile, or to replace the current profile,
using these radio buttons:
4.5.3.3. Save a Profile to DXF File
Press to show the Save File dialog.
A profile can only be saved in a DXF file format. When saving a 2D CAD specimen profile, an
additional line segment is added. This line segment contains information about the extrusion
(see below).
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.121. Save File Dialog
4.5.3.4. Extrusion in DXF File Format
An additional line segment can exist in a DXF file. This segment must be magenta or cyan and
is used to define the 3D extension of the profile. Its position and length are taken into account.
A magenta line segment means an extrusion by translation. The length of the line segment is
the length of the extrusion. Its position is not used.
A cyan line segment means an extrusion by revolution. The length is not used. The position of
the line segment corresponds to the axis of revolution, which has to be horizontal.
4.5.4. Validating a Profile

You can preview the specimen / flaw, validate the profile or cancel the editing operation using
the three buttons below the CAD Scene panel.
Figure 1.122. Valid, Cancel and Preview buttons
4.5.4.1. Requirements
A profile must comply with the following conditions to be valid:
• The entities cannot cross each other. An entity cannot be connected to the middle of another
entity: the second one must be divided in two sub-entities to enable connection.
GENERALITIES
• In case of 2D CAD specimen editing, all red, green and blue entities (the “contour entities”)
must form a closed contour. Each contour entity must be connected with exactly two others:
one at each end point.
• In case of CAD-contour plane flaw editing, the same rule applies for red entities.
• In case of 2D CAD specimen editing, yellow entities represents internal interface. Each yellow
entity must be connected with at least two other contour or yellow entities (one at each end
point), but can be connected with more than two entities. The final profile is composed of
groups of entities, or “volumes”, which define closed contours. A yellow entities contour can
be defined inside a 2D CAD specimen to define an internal volume.
• In case of CAD specimen with holes, the holes entities must be blue, green or red.
• In case of 2D CAD specimen or CAD-contour plane flaw editing, all entities must form a
connected graph.
• In case of multifaceted flaw editing, red entities must form a continuous polyline. Each red
entity must be connected with two others, except for the first and the last entity. The same
rule applies for magenta entities.
• In case of branched flaw editing, red entities must form a connected tree. The same rule
applies for magenta entities.
4.5.4.2. Preview
Press the button to preview the specimen or the flaw resulting from the operation. If
the profile is valid, a 3D-view window appears with the result.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.123. Preview window
If the CAD profile is invalid, a warning message proposes to correct it. A warning symbol (red
disk) may also appear on non-contiguous entities.
Figure 1.124. Non-contiguous segments error
GENERALITIES
4.5.4.3. Validating
The button validates the captured profile and imports it into the model of the applica-
tion. If the CAD profile is invalid, a warning message proposes to change or cancel it. After
cancellation, the specimen or flaw stays unchanged.
Figure 1.125. Warning message when validating an invalid profile
Validating a profile will also import any text that you typed in the comment field
into the model (specimen or flaw). It can be useful to easily
identify different profiles.
4.5.4.4. Canceling
The button allows you to exit the CAD editor module without accounting any modifi-
cation of the CAD profile. In particular, when the user loads a .civa file, he may be interested in
checking the CAD definition of the specimen without making any correction. Then, to go back
to modeling environment, he just has to press this button.
4.6. Analysis
4.6.1. Analysis pages
In order to display an Analysis panel, point and right click on the icon located in the upper
right-hand corner.
An empty Analysis panel is shown by the icon and is automatically named, for instance
"Analysis 1".
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.126. Empty Analysis Window.
Scans that are proposed in the Scan Explorer can be displayed in the Analysis panel by drag-
and-drop.
An Analysis panel containing a selection of scans is automatically loaded for the following
cases:
• Once a computation is finished, the default page shows a selection of simulated scans
• When an experimental file is loaded
• When a simulation file containing results is loaded
The default Analysis page can also be loaded by pointing on the data in the CIVA manager
and select "Display the default page".
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.127. A default Analysis page can be

loaded by pointing and right_clicking on the data.
A default Analysis page can be loaded by pointing and right_clicking on the data.
The default Analysis layout proposes a selection of scans along with the 3D View of the setup
and the Toolboxes.
Figure 1.128. Example of default layout.
GENERALITIES
The Analysis panel is splitted in several components (scans, 3D view, toolboxes…) which are
called panes. It is possible to move panes, resize them, close them etc. with the mouse. When
an additional scan is drag-and-dropped from the Scan Explorer, the location of the pane in the
Analysis page is chosen with the mouse and displayed with a grey square.
Figure 1.129. Insertion of a new pane (Left of Response detector noise)
4.6.2. Layouts
4.6.2.1. Definition of a layout
For each data set (named A<n°> and displayed in brackets in Civa manager), from an acqui-
sition or a simulation, a layout is defined to display the scans in the correspondent analysis
page (see the color).
This layout allows to choose the following characteristics:
Number and type of displayed views
Positions of the views in the analysis tab panel
For each view, the orientation of the scan
You can also define a layout from multiple data sets. In this case, the layout is valid only if data
sets of the same type as the original data sets are available in Civa manager.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.130. Example of default layout.
4.6.2.2. Default layouts
On the first opening of Civa, a data analysis page will open with the default CEA layout.
It is possible to remove or to add views from the scan explorer to obtain a different layout.
An option available by right-clicking on the title bar is to define the current layout as default
layout. Then, when loading similar data, this layout will automatically be loaded.
4.6.2.3. Save and load a layout
In some cases, you may need to display automatically scans that don't correspond to the de-
fault layout. You can set your favorite layout by adding or modifying the displayed views in an
analysis page and then save it. Then, when loading other datasets, this layout can easily be
recalled.
In order to save the current layout, it is just needed to right-click on the title bar of the analysis
page and select "Save a new layout". Then, CIVA asks for a layout name.
In order to apply a layout on the current analysis page, it is just needed to right-click on the
title bar of the analysis page and select "Load a layout". Only the layouts consistent with the
current data are available.
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.131. Loading a previously saved layout.
4.6.3. Tools and export

Depending on the technique and module, different tools are available from the toolbar on the
top of the display area. It included features for data processing, reporting or extraction. All
features for all modules are detailed in the corresponding section.
Figure 1.132. Example of toolbar
4.6.4. Toolboxes
The toolboxes can be displayed in a panel located at the bottom of the Display area by clicking
on the icon located on the right side of the Analysis and Model windows title bars.
GENERALITIES
In analysis pages, a specific tool selected in the toolbox (here, the "Time Amplitude") can be
displayed below the Scan explorer using the button.
Some toolboxes are specific to a module and later described (raypath in UT, photons path in
RT-CT...), others are common to all modules like cursors, display or measures. When working
in an Analysis page, the Toolboxes are specific to the active module and greyed according to
the active view. Some toolboxes allow specifying options for a tool from the top toolbar.
The cursors toolbox indicates the current values of the cursor (location with specimen coordi-
nates and with local coordinates, amplitudes...). If two cursors mode is enabled from the tool-
bar, the Measures toolbox shows the difference between them in the active view coordinates.
GENERALITIES
Along with the cursors is generally defined the colormap for 2D images.
The color map gain allows the user to change the color map used for color coding of displayed
quantities in the image. Available color maps are listed below:
• Color gradation
• Gray gradation
• Non symmetric gray gradation
• Civa colormap
• Non symmetric colormap
• Other colormaps can be manually defined and loaded.
From the color map menu, it is possible to concentrate the color map dynamic over a reduced
amplitude range.
The specific toolboxes will be extensively described in the sections dedicated to the various
techniques (UT, GWT, ET and RT-CT).
4.6.5. Superimposition
In the different modules it is possible to superimpose 1D images of the same kind.
4.6.5.1. Superimposition of RT profiles
One can superimpose X (or Y) profiles generated by the same family of image. For example
you can superimpose the profiles from the following images:
• BL energy direct, BL energy direct noise, combined energy total, combined energy total
noise, combined energy scattered and combined energy scattered noise.
• Attenuation and attenuation noise
GENERALITIES
• Dose in air and dose in air direct noise

• Response detector and response detector noise
• Optical density and optical density noise
The superimposition is made by drag and drop.
Figure 1.133. Superimposition of two profiles of

optical density obtained from two different simulations.
Figure 1.134. Superimposition of “BL direct energy” and “combined energy total”
In the tool box of an image with a superimposition the following panel appears:
Figure 1.135. Superimposition parameters, RT module.
GENERALITIES
4.6.5.2. Superimposition in UT modules

Response Defect module: one can superimpose A-scans, and Echodynamic Curves of the
same kind, coming from the same data or from different data.
Beam Computation module: one can superimpose 1D images.
The superimposition is made by drag and drop (click near the curve to be drag and drop):
Figure 1.136. Superimposed UT results

In the tool box of an image with a superimposition the following panel appears:
Figure 1.137. Superimposition parameters, UT module.
4.6.5.3. Superimposition in ET modules

You can superimpose curves of the same kind by drag and drop (click near the curve to be
drag and drop) :
GENERALITIES
Figure 1.138. Superimposed ET results
After a superimposition the following panel appears below the scan explorer:
Figure 1.139. Superimposition parameters, ET module.
4.6.5.4. Superimposition in GWT modules
It is possible to superimpose A-scans obtained in Beam Computation and Inspection Simulation

modules.
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Chapter 2. ULTRASONIC TESTING
1. UT Modeling - Theory
1.1. Beam computation theoretical model
1.1.1. Purpose of the field computation module

The field computation module serves to compute the ultrasonic field of bulk waves radiated by
a transducer after refraction through a coupling/test piece interface or in direct contact with the
test piece, for a point or a set of points in the test piece. The computation of Rayleigh wave
radiation is possible in the present version of the software. The range of configurations which
can be computed being limited relatively to that concerning bulk waves, its description is made
independently of that for the computation of bulk waves.
As far as bulk wave computation is concerned, it is required to define:
• a test piece, by its geometry and constituent material,

• a transducer, by type (immersion, contact...), geometrical characteristics and electroacoustic
properties,
• their positions relative to one another,
• the point(s) at which computation takes place,
• the mode(s) of wave propagation between the transducer and the(se) calculation point(s),
• the elastodynamic quantities making up the field (potential, displacement).
1.1.2. Theory
1.1.2.1. Geometric model of pencil propagation
The model is based on transposing to elastodynamic waves the electromagnetic wave theory
developed by G.A. Deschamps [3].
The following figure shows how a narrow beam or "pencil" of rays propagates, with or without
backwall reflection, from a source point to two computation points, when a transducer wedge is
placed in contact with a geometrically irregular piece. In such cases, the energy path may have
three or four elementary segments (depending respectively on whether the beam reaching the
computation point has or has not undergone backwall reflection).
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Figure 2.1. Pencil propagation from a source point on the surface of the active
transducer element to two computation points (before and after backwall reflection)
1.1.2.2. Beam radiation in the coupling medium
Hypotheses taken into account are the following: the transducer radiates into the coupling medi-
um (except for the case of direct contact with flexible probes), since it includes a backing ma-
terial inside its case to prevent the re-radiation of the field in it to propagate in the coupling [4].
The piezoelectric element or elements vibrate in the thickness mode. No interaction (resulting
either from cross talk between elements, from radial vibration of an element [4] or from sec-
ond diffraction phenomena caused by significant curvature of the radiating surface [5]) takes
place between two source points. All source points vibrate with the same time dependence
v(t) (particle velocity).
1.1.2.3. Transient pencil model
The purpose of the pencil model is to predict the various elastodynamic quantities correspond-
ing to bulk waves radiated from a source point to a computation point, over ultrasonic energy
paths that differ depending on whether the pencil is transmitted through or is reflected from
interfaces and undergoes wave mode conversions or not.
Computation usually takes place in two stages. In stage one, the different energy paths are
determined according to Snell-Descartes´ laws (generalized to anisotropic media). In stage
two, the energy associated with each path is quantified by performing the matrix calculations
shown below; and the vectorial nature of the elastodynamic fields is credited by determining
the polarization directions of the various waves according to Christoffel´s laws. The first stage
involves a set of algorithms not described here. The second is described briefly below (for more
details, see reference 2).
1.1.2.3.1. Description of pencil
A pencil is a mathematical object associated with a ray (known as the "axial ray") that follows
the geometric path of energy for a given wave propagation mode, from the source point to the
computation point. A set of rays deviates infinitesimally from the axial ray. The term "paraxial
ray" is used for a ray belonging to the pencil envelope.
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Figure 2.2. Schematic description of a pencil in terms of axial and paraxial rays
At a given propagation time, the paraxial ray deviates from the axial ray by a vector dx, which, in
the reference frame formed by z, the axial ray direction and xy, the plane perpendicular to z, is
given by two coordinates dx and dy. The paraxial ray deviates from the axial ray with a velocity
that differs infinitesimally from that of the axial ray. This deviation is identified by a slowness
vector ds. Only two of its three components are independent, the third being determined by the
first two, as well as by local properties of the medium and the type of wave involved. At a given
instant, the pencil is described relatively to the axial ray by a quadrivector {dx, dy, dsx, dsy}
Figure 2.3. Description of the differential quantities used to define a pencil

Pencil evolution is described by a 4 x 4 matrix that links the quadrivector Ψ 1 at a given instant
to another quadrivector, Ψ 2, at another instant. This matrix is denoted as L . Therefore:
(1)
where A, B, C and D are four 2 x 2 matrices used to simplify notations.
The conservation of energy principle is applied, on the assumption that energy flux (which fol-
lows the axial ray) is contained inside the pencil envelope. It can thus be deduced that acoustic
intensity decreases (or increases) with pencil cross- section dS. The wave associated with the
pencil has the same characteristics as the plane wave along the axial ray, weighted by changes
in energy. A spherical wave from a source point in the coupling liquid is described as a plane
wave weighted by a 1/r decreasing factor.
Pencil energy at the source point is contained within a solid angle d Ω. The rate of decrease
(or increase) in acoustic intensity is called the divergence factor (denoted as DF). At a given
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2
instant, for a pencil cross-section of dS, this factor is given by DF = d Ω / d S which can then
be related to the pencil matrix as follows:
-2 2
DF = sl det B
DF itself can be computed if the propagation matrix L describing pencil evolution from one
instant to a second instant is determined. This means simply describing the basic matrices
(transmission or reflection on an interface, denoted as LInter., propagation in a homogeneous
medium between two interfaces, denoted as Lprop.) and "cascading" them to obtain the overall
pencil evolution from source point (initial to computation point (final. The global matrix Lglobal
for propagation through n media involving n-1 interactions with interfaces is then written as:
(2)
Subsequent pages show the expressions for these basic matrices. Submatrix Bglobal of matrix
Lglobal is used to deduce the overall value of DF at the computation point.
1.1.2.3.2. Propagation in a medium
1.1.2.3.2.1. Isotropic homogeneous medium

The matrix for propagation between two points separated by a distance of rk in an isotropic
medium where s is the slowness of the wave of interest, is written as follows:
1.1.2.3.2.2. Anisotropic homogeneous medium
The expression for an anisotropic medium is more complex, since slowness
is a function of propagation direction. If gij is defined by, then:
1.1.2.3.2.3. Inhomogeneous medium

The pencil model has been recently adapted to inhomogeneous media, to deal for example with
fluids with variable temperature and/or speed or with anisotropic material with a continuously
variable orientation.
This model is based on the evaluation of the ray trajectories and the travel-time and the com-
putation of the amplitude of a ray tube during the propagation. To evaluate the ray-paths and
travel-time, we have to solve the eikonal equation (5)
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representing a non-linear partial differential equation of the first order for the travel-time T(x) ,
where C(x) is the phase velocity of the wave at position x . By deriving this equation, written in
Hamiltonian form, a differential ray tracing system (6) called the axial ray system is expressed.
This system is composed of two ordinary coupled differential equations describing the variation
of the position and the slowness with respect to the travel-time:
where T is the travel-time, the elasticity constants of the medium at the position nor-
malized by the density r. The eigenvectors of the Christoffel tensor are the components
of the polarization vector and is the energy velocity for the m mode.
To describe the conservation of the energy inside the ray tube and compute the amplitude
of a ray tube, the transport equation (7) has to be solved along a ray in an anisotropic
inhomogeneous medium:
It is a non-linear partial differential equation of the first order in scalar , the amplitude
function. By deriving the axial ray system with respect to an initial parameter , we obtain
a second system (8) of ordinary linear differential equations of the first order for the paraxial
quantities and :
represents any parameter of the ray and can be chosen, for example, as a take-off angle
between a reference axis and the initial slowness vector. This system, called the paraxial ray
system, is expressed with the parameter representing the normalized eigenvalues of the
Christoffel tensor, written as
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(m)
Three eigenvalues Gmare evaluated, associated to three eigenvectors gi representing the
three plane waves that propagate in the medium. Axial and paraxial ray systems are solved
simultaneously by using numerical techniques such as the Euler method in this case. The
paraxial ray system (8) is written in a Cartesian regular coordinates system xi with i,j=1,2,3. It
consists of six ordinary linear differential equations.
It may be convenient to express this system in a wave front orthonormal coordinates system yi
where the indexes M and N are equal to 1 or 2. The origin of this coordinate system moves along
the ray with the propagating wave front and the y3-axis is orientated along the slowness
vector at the origin point. Axes y1 and y2 are mutually perpendicular in the plane tangent
to the wave front at this origin point. The system consists then of four scalar linear differential
equations. The paraxial quantities QM and PM , with the index M = 1; 2, are the components
of the vector describing a paraxial ray. Q1 and Q2 represent the spatial deviation of the
paraxial ray from the axial one, and P1 and P2 are the slowness deviation of the paraxial ray
from the axial ray as shown in next figure.
Figure 2.4. Representation of the paraxial quantities describing a paraxial ray
The paraxial ray system is then written in a matrix form in the wave front orthonormal coordi-
nates system between two points:
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The paraxial quantities at iteration (r + 1) are written in function of the same quantities at (r)
through a 4x4 propagation matrix . Finally, the paraxial quantities at the last position are ex-
pressed in function of those at the first iteration through a propagation matrix describing
the complete propagation of the ultrasonic waves :
Figure 2.5. Representation of the evolution of a ray

tube and its paraxial quantities during the propagation
At each time-step, the matrices AMN,BMN,CMN and DMN are re-evaluated so the propaga-
tion matrix is updated and the position and slowness vectors are computed from the axial ray
system. Finally, the evolution of the ray tube between a source point and an observation point
is expressed in 3D through the geometrical spreading L :
1.1.2.3.3. Refraction or reflection at an interface

On interaction with a curved interface described locally by a 2 x 2 matrix of curvature C, the
pencil is modified as follows:
where Θ is the matrix for projection onto the plane tangent to the interface and
h = s' cos( θ ') - s cos ( θ ), where θ and θ ' are angles of incidence and reflection or transmission.
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1.1.2.3.4. Interaction coefficients

On interaction with an interface, the pencil is assigned a reflection or transmission coefficient for
the plane wave associated with the axial ray. These coefficients are computed conventionally
and may have complex values.
1.1.2.3.5. Polarization of elementary contributions

For the wave propagation mode of interest, particle displacement is oriented by polarization
direction. This direction is determined conventionally by evaluating the eigenvectors of the
Christoffel matrix associated with the wave vector for the axial ray.
1.1.2.3.6. Time-of-flight and distortion of elementary contributions

The pencil time-of-flight is the same as the time required for energy to travel along the axial
ray. Phase distortions are due to one of the following two mechanisms:
• interaction with an interface resulting in a coefficient with a non zero imaginary part,
• caustic crossing by the axial ray.
*Distortion due to a complex interaction coefficient

The interaction coefficient of a single-frequency plane wave sometimes is complex valued. It
may be written as A exp (i φ ). The frequency dependence of a plane wave coefficient is included
in the phase term by multiplying said term by the function sgn( ω ) ("sign" function). In the time
domain, the coefficient is thus expressed as:
whereby the first term preserves a time-invariant incident pulse shape and the second converts
it to the time-dependent shape of its Hilbert transform.
*Distortion due to caustic crossing
If the pencil crosses a caustic, one of the two radii of curvature of the local wavefront changes
sign (from convex to concave or vice versa). The time-dependent shape of impulse response
beyond the caustic is the Hilbert transform of the impulse shape before crossing the caustic.
1.1.2.3.7. Simulating of contact flexible transducer

Transducers whose active element radiates directly into the piece (flexible phased-arrays) are
dealt with in an approximate way in the current version of CIVA; they are assumed to impose a
uniform load at the piece surface over their radiating area. The overall field amplitude depends
on the characteristics of the fluid surrounding medium (it is proportional to its acoustic imped-
ance); changing the coupling medium will not affect the results otherwise.
1.1.2.3.8. Results of radiated field computation

Once the different impulse responses are computed, they are convolved with the excitation
signal to predict fields comparable to measured data. Because impulse responses per mode,
quantity, computation point and, where appropriate, element, are stored, results can be ob-
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tained in different ways. Some of them are computed by default at the end of computation
and others by post-processing, which allows modification of input signals, grouping of certain
modes, deduction of other quantities, etc.
1.1.2.4. Validity of impulse responses

Since computation is based on "high frequency" approximations, low frequency components
of impulse response (IR) are not accurately predicted. However, the IR internally computed by
the code is convolved with the time-dependent shape of the excitation signal (defined by the
user). Because this signal has no low frequency components and the convolution process is
equivalent to passband filtering, the incorrectly predicted low frequency components of IRs are
ultimately cut out. The predicted time-dependent shape of computation results is thus correct.
1.1.2.5. Attenuation
It is possible to account for wave attenuation in both the coupling medium and the piece. If this
option is selected, computation allows for wave attenuation in the piece and the coupling medi-
um (a fluid for immersion transducers; an L-wave attenuating wedge for contact and TR trans-
ducers). The attenuation coefficients entered in the boxes defining anisotropic media are taken
into account and lead to model approximately the attenuation by considering it as isotropic.
For each computation point and wave propagation mode, the model computes an average
distance per type of path, which is then denoted as <d>i. This distance is the average of the
distances di(j) of all contributions (there are Npaths in all), from the transducer to the computation
point.
(7)
A frequency-dependent attenuation filter is then created by calculating, for different types of
paths:
(8)
(where ω is the pulsation), the product of the different elementary filters (by type of path) as
given by:
(9)
th
where α 0(i) is the attenuation coefficient for i pathtype in dB/mm, p(i) is the power (may be
th
a non-integer) in the filter for the i pathtype (e.g. 2 for water), νm(i) is the frequency (in MHz)
th
at which coefficient α 0(i) of the i pathtype was measured. Note: division by 8.686 converts
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dB/mm to neper/mm. Frequency filtering is applied to the wave shape corresponding to the
propagation mode of interest at the computation point (one filter per mode and per computation
point). This means that, once a computation accounting for attenuation is performed, it is no
longer possible to not account for this parameter. To compare a result obtained after allowance
for attenuation and one in which this was not the case, both results must be computed.
1.1.2.6. Roughness
Statistical effect of roughness of the entry surface of the specimen on the field transmitted
through the coupling / specimen interface can be accounted for. The effect is a function of the
Ra parameter of roughness (which must be entered in µm (micrometer) by the user in the menu
“specimen”); default value is equal to zero.
The effect of roughness is all the more high since roughness parameter is high and frequency
is high: the effect is modelled as a modification of the transmission coefficient, a function of
the frequency.
Roughness is statistically defined by the mean square Rq of height variation along the rough
profile considered, a value homogeneous to a length, which writes
,where s(x) describe the roughness of the surface along a length of lm. One can also define
the roughness by simply considering the mean value of the same function; it is denoted by
Ra, given by
.
A general relation between the two parameters does not exist. A standard relation is a simple
factor linking one to the other. One has
Rq = 1.25 Ra.
In CIVA, the coefficient Ra is to be entered. Transmission coefficient for L or T waves is modified
by a factor that is a function of the angular frequency ω
where θ coupl and θ LT (resp. Ccoupl and CLT) stand for the angles (resp. propagation wave
speed) of incidence in the coupling medium and of refraction (L or T) in the specimen. Similarly,
reflection coefficient is affected by roughness, by a factor that writes
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Since both factors are function of the frequency, the filtering effect is computed over the whole
bandwidth in relation to the sampling frequency. Incident and refraction angles taken into ac-
count in the computation are those of the transducer axis in relation to the direction normal
to the surface.
Remark: in the implementation of CIVA and for the case of a contact configuration, the wave
speed accounted for in the incident medium is that of the transducer shoe.
1.1.3. Definition of computation parameters

The field computation module user defines all parameter values and chooses relevant com-
putation options, via the appropriate user interfaces. The following paragraphs describe the
hypotheses or approximations that led to choice of parameters and options in each case. This
description is, however, limited to hypotheses that are explicitly or implicitly limiting with regard
to the general modeling approach.
1.1.3.1. Specimens
1.1.3.1.1. Geometries
The field computation module enables definition of parametric pieces (parallelepiped rectan-
gles, cylinders, cones, elbows or nozzles) and accommodates CAD-described inputs (2.5D
CAD pieces in DXF format and 3DCAD pieces in STEP or IGES format).
In all cases, the theory devised to credit for refraction between the coupling medium from which
the transducer radiates and the test piece assumes that no radius of curvature at the cou-
pling/piece interface is locally shorter than the wavelength in the coupling medium [9]. If the
surface is locally curved with one radius of curvature shorter than the wavelength, there can
be diffraction at points or along edges and these diffraction phenomena are not predicted.
1.1.3.1.2. Materials
The module accounts for materials that are homogeneous or heterogeneous (homogeneous in
each zone) and either isotropic or anisotropic. For anisotropic materials, all crystal symmetries
can be considered. The crystal orientation of these materials, as defined by the orientation of
the crystal reference frame relative to that of the piece, is postulated to be identical at all points
in the piece or the homogeneous zone, regardless of the latter´s geometry.
1.1.3.2. Transducers
The field computation module accounts for different types of transducers and their respective
active element geometries. This implies various hypotheses about transducer operation and
the relationships between geometric parameters, namely the way transducer electroacoustic
behavior is modeled and how it radiates into the medium with which it is in contact.
1.1.3.2.1. Transduction
All of the transducers credited are assumed to include (at least) one piezoelectric element en-
abling electroacoustic transduction. To do so, the active element is postulated to vibrate only
in the thickness mode. While this hypothesis is largely borne out for elements made of piezo-
composite materials, it is less evident for conventional piezoelectric elements, which also have
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radial vibration modes [4]. However, such modes have negligible effect on the field radiated
by refraction. Another hypothesis calls for all points on the active element surface to vibrate in
phase with the same time dependence. For phased array transducers, different delays can be
assigned to the various elements by applying suitable delay laws.
1.1.3.2.2. Electroacoustical excitation

The time dependence of surface point vibration is not predicted, but instead entered as a com-
putation input. This input signal is considered to be proportional to the particle velocity at trans-
ducer transmitting surface.
Particle velocity time dependence is input as a sampled signal. The sampling frequency for par-
ticle velocity determines the time sampling of computation results and results obtained by post-
processing at the end of computation. For a signal synthesized with the reference signal tool,
the selected sampling frequency must be compatible with the planned use of post-processed
data (e.g. to study the impact of bandwidth or signal central frequency on the radiated field).
1.1.3.2.3. Active element geometry

In theory, active elements should have flat surfaces. This is in fact an assumption made in
the Rayleigh integral used to model transducer radiation in the coupling medium. However, it
has been clearly established (and widely demonstrated in the literature – see for example ref.
[5]) that curved-surface elements can be modelled in this way, insofar as "second diffraction
phenomena" remain negligible. The wavelength radiated into the medium must then be signif-
icantly shorter than the smallest radius of curvature of the radiating surface and the transduc-
er opening angle must be significantly less than 90°. These two conditions are met by most
of the focused transducers involved in NDT. Transducers used in acoustical microscopy can,
however, pose problems.
1.1.3.2.4. Simulation of transducers with lenses

For immersion-type transducers, focusing is achieved by shaping the active element or adding
a lens (to a flat-surface element). CIVA models the lens as a pure phase object. Vibration of a
point on the active element is then assigned a single delay that is both directly proportional to
the local thickness of the lens as measured in a direction perpendicular to the active element
plane and inversely proportional to the velocity of longitudinal waves in the lens. This hypothesis
was validated by comparing simulated/experimental data (see reference [6]).
Wave attenuation occurring in the lens is ignored.
1.1.3.2.5. Simulating propagation in a contact transducer wedge

A contact transducer wedge is made of a solid (Plexiglas-type) material that enables propaga-
tion of longitudinal and transverse waves. Where the active element vibrates in the thickness
mode, transverse waves are only radiated by edge diffraction[10]; and their only significant
contribution takes place along the acoustic axis, in the near field, provided the source configu-
ration is axisymmetrical (circular element). Even if all these conditions are met, reference [11]
shows that their contribution to the field refracted in the piece will be negligible.
Because of wedge geometry, waves may undergo boundary reflections. Some means is usually
provided to counter such reflections and to limit their impact on the refracted field, particularly
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at the front end of the wedge. Side wall contributions may exist but are considered negligible
by the model.
1.1.3.2.6. Simulating phased array transducers

The model assumes that the various elements in a phased array behave as separate transduc-
ers, i.e. that there is no mutual interaction between them. This approximation has been validat-
ed in practice, since the impact of mutual interaction on the radiated field is usually negligible.
1.1.3.2.7. Simulating of contact flexible transducer

Transducers whose active element radiates directly into the piece (flexible phased-arrays) are
dealt with in an approximate way in the current version of CIVA; they are assumed to impose a
uniform load at the piece surface over their radiating area. The overall field amplitude depends
on the characteristics of the fluid surrounding medium (it is proportional to its acoustic imped-
ance); changing the coupling medium will not affect the results otherwise.
1.1.3.3. Test configuration

Once the transducer and piece have been defined, the test configuration is defined by their
relative positions and the media surrounding the test piece.
1.1.3.3.1. Transducer position relative to test piece

CIVA provides numerous possibilities for positioning the transducer relative to the test piece
(see Volume 3 of this manual). The model, however, assumes that the transducer (whether an
immersion, contact or TR type) radiates by refraction. Theoretically, it is therefore necessary
for its active element to be positioned in the coupling medium at a distance of at least one
wavelength from the interface between this medium and the test piece.
For transducers whose active elements are in direct contact with the piece (flexible phased-
arrays), coupling height is assumed to be null.
1.1.3.3.2. Media surrounding the test piece

Media surrounding the test piece are all assumed to be fluids.
1.1.3.4. Defining computation
1.1.3.4.1. Wave propagation modes

By using the options shown under "Conversion", it is possible to compute different wave prop-
agation modes, considering backwall reflection or mode conversion. The involved modes are
detailed specifically in the dedicated section.
1.1.3.4.2. Special case of contact transducers used on irregular surfaces

There are two computation options: matched contact transducer or not (note that this option
is proposed in the Inspection panel).
For an adapted transducer, it is assumed that the volume formed between the wedge and the
piece is made of the same medium as the wedge itself, as though the latter had been machined
to "match" the local geometry of the piece.
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For a non adapted transducer, this same volume is made up of a coupling medium (fluid).
Computation thus implicitly includes propagation in the wedge, then through an intermediate,
fluid volume, then in the piece. Waves subjected to double refraction (wedge/coupling, cou-
pling/piece) are computed by approximately computing multiple reflections likely to occur in the
intermediate volume.
1.1.3.4.3. Radiation in the coupling medium
For immersion transducers (only), it is possible to compute the field radiated in the coupling
medium (L waves, since the medium is a fluid). If the computation zone is partially or totally
located in the fluid, this field is computed at all the computation points in that medium. The
theoretical model for computing fields produced in coupling media is the Rayleigh integral.
1.1.3.4.4. Computation zones
The module provides numerous possibilities for defining computation zones (set of points where
the field is computed) and positioning such zones in or outside the test piece.
1.1.3.4.5. Computation zone in the piece
The theory developed for the model provides only for bulk wave prediction. However, in the
vicinity of an interface, the elastodynamic field often comprises a combination of bulk and sur-
face waves. While the model accurately predicts bulk wave contributions in the near vicinities
of interfaces, under real conditions, the global fields measured at these points would differ due
to locally present surface waves. At a distance of more than the wavelength, however, it has
been demonstrated [12] that surface waves have no further impact on bulk wave fields.
However, by combining the present computation of bulk waves with simultaneous computation
of Rayleigh wave contributions, in the configurations for which this last computation is possible,
the field resulting of the superimposition of both computed results is an accurate representation
of the elastodynamic state at points at the interface or close to it.
1.1.3.4.6. Computation zone outside the piece
As already seen above, for immersion transducers and points located in the coupling medium,
fields are computed using the Rayleigh integral. This integral models fields directly radiated by
the transducer but does not account for fields reflected at the coupling/piece interface.
1.1.3.4.7. Accuracy
The parameter "accuracy", which by default is taken equal to 1, defines the number of contri-
butions to be computed. This number is proportional to the transducer central frequency, the
largest dimension of the transducer and the sampling frequency of the computation (which is
given as the input signal sampling frequency).
For an interface between the coupling medium (or wedge) and a CAD-described piece, this
value is multiplied, in the internal computation process, by a factor of 2.5. An accuracy of 1
then implies 2.5 times more contributions than for interfaces defined parametrically. This factor
is intended to allow margin for variations in interface geometry with respect to a parametrically
defined interface. If the CAD-described interface has very few elements, a factor of 2.5 may be
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too high and the user may wish to decrease the accuracy parameter used by default. If, on the
other hand, the CAD-described interface has many elements that significantly change piece
geometry with respect to an established standard, this number may be too low. The user may
then wish to raise the accuracy factor default value.
For a phased array transducer, the number of contributions is multiplied, in the internal compu-
tation process, by a factor of 2. An accuracy of 1 then reflects two times more contributions than
for a single element transducer. As a result, for a phased array transducer, and an interface
between the coupling medium (or wedge) and the CAD-described piece, this value is multiplied,
in the internal computation process, by a factor of 2 x 2.5 = 5. An accuracy of 1 then reflects 5
times more contributions than for parametrically-defined single element transducer interfaces.
If the user examines the time dependences of impulse responses (a post-processing option al-
lows to do so), he will note that, with a default accuracy value of 1, the time signal contains high
frequency digital noise. However, when impulse responses of different elastodynamic quanti-
ties are convolved with a typical NDT transducer excitation signal, the convolution behaves like
a passband filter and blanks out the effect of the HF digital noise.
Detailed study of impulse response variations, for example with computation point position in
the field, usually requires computing to a degree of accuracy greater than default value 1.
1.1.3.4.8. 2D/3D computations

The module is basically designed to perform 3D computations.
A 2D option is, however, available. 2D computations are performed on the assumption that the
configuration has 2D symmetry. The transducer, defined by the interfaces as a 3D object, is
credited as a line, sometimes curved, source, as the section of the 3D radiating surface in the
transducer plane of symmetry. Such computations are of interest only where the computation
zone is in the plane of symmetry of the field, i.e. the plane formed by the transducer acoustic
axis and an axis normal to the interface. If the material considered is anisotropic, it is likewise
necessary for its crystal orientation to have two axes of symmetry within this same plane.
Quantitatively speaking, a 2D field can only provide an accurate picture of the field radiated by a
transducer if the test configuration is truly 2D (i.e. case of a transducer/piece configuration that
is invariant along an axis perpendicular to the plane in which computation takes place). Where
this is not the case, the only advantage of the 2D option is to limit the number of computation
points considered, thus significantly decreasing computation time. The results obtained then
provide an idea of the phenomena involved, and are all the more quantitatively accurate as the
configuration approximates a 2D setup.
If this option is selected, the program will not verify whether the configuration used in compu-
tation is legitimate in terms of 2D model hypotheses.
1.1.4. UT beam computation in welds and very heterogeneous media

The UT beam computation is based on the high frequency asymptotic ray (pencil) theory. The
applicability of this theory is conditioned to the observance of several qualitative conditions.
Usually, one considers that the wavelength of the ultrasonic field has to be small with respect to
some characteristic length of the model. Therefore, if the medium is made up of small (with re-
spect to the wavelength) volumes whose impedances are noticeably different, rays (or pencils)
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connecting the transducer to the computation point can exhibit a non-physical sharply varying
behaviour. Using the procedures previously described for the UT beam computation, very dif-
ferent amplitudes and/or time of flight can be observed for computation points very close to
each other. In this case, the computed ultrasonic field can be more or less reliable depending
on the degree of local variations exhibited by the rays. This non-physical behaviour can be
detected and a specific processing performed so as to avoid a resultant incoherent ultrasonic
field. For each position of the transducer, a test is carried out to check the degree of variation
of rays connecting the transducer to the points in the computation zone. If this degree is high,
a specific algorithm is launched to compute the contribution made by a source point of the
radiating surface to the ultrasonic field at the computation point. Instead of considering only
the pencil connecting the source point to the computation point, the neighbouring (at the wave-
length scale) pencils are now taken into account and ´merged´ in a unique contribution. In this
way, some sharp discontinuities in the computed ultrasonic field can be discarded. This results
in smoother computed fields. This situation has been encountered in the computation of fields
in highly heterogeneous welds modelled as a set of homogeneous elementary volumes with
strong variations of crystallographic orientation relatively to neighbouring volumes.
1.1.5. Radiation of rayleigh waves
CIVA allows in some simple configurations for the prediction of Rayleigh waves contributions
propagating at the surface of and in pieces as well as their re-radiation (leakage) in the coupling
(leaky Rayleigh waves) from which they are generated. Compared to the case of bulk wave
modeling, the type of configurations that can be considered is restricted. The theoretical model
for Rayleigh waves is therefore presented separately. A detailed presentation of the theory
(and of typical results) can be found in Ref. [13].
Rayleigh wave contributions (at the surface or in the piece volume) and associated bulk con-
tributions (in the coupling) can be computed together with bulk wave contributions described
in previous paragraphs. Specific post-processing facilities allow one to visualize these various
wavefields together of separately.
1.1.5.2. Objective of the Rayleigh wave module
The module allows one to compute fields of Rayleigh surface waves (respectively, leaky
Rayleigh waves) radiated by a transducer at (respectively, from) the interface coupling / piece at
a point or a set of points at or under the piece surface (respectively, in the coupling). As for bulk
wave computation, one must define: a piece by its geometry and its material: for Rayleigh wave,
only planar, cylindrical or spherical geometries can be considered. Piece material must be
isotropic a transducer: its type, geometrical and electro-acoustical characteristics. For Rayleigh
waves, only transducers radiating by refraction are considered. In the case of a contact trans-
ducer radiating through a wedge, the wedge (in Plexiglas) is modeled as a fluid medium, whose
geometry matches that of the piece, and its finite dimensions at the piece surface are not taken
into account their relative position positions of calculation points: for Rayleigh waves, only these
propagating along the entry surface are considered propagation mode(s) to compute between
the transducer and calculation points elastodynamic quantities.
Rayleigh and leaky Rayleigh waves pencils
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1.1.5.3. Rayleigh and leaky Rayleigh waves pencils

A Rayleigh wave is generated at a point of the piece surface when a portion of the incident
acoustic field in the volume of the coupling fluid reaches this point by forming an angle with
the local normal such that the projection on the interface of the fluid phase wavespeed equals
-1
Rayleigh wavespeed parallel to the surface. This angle is therefore given by sin (cO / cR),
where cO is the speed of bulk waves in the fluid coupling and cR, the speed of Rayleigh waves
at the surface of the piece (note that this speed is automatically deduced from the speeds of
bulk waves in the fluid and compression and shear waves in the piece).
While propagating on the surface, a portion of the energy is confined to or close to the surface;
its decreases exponentially with depth. The following figure shows how the amplitude of various
elastodynamic quantities varies with depth expressed in wavelengths λ.
Figure 2.6. Amplitude variation for various

elastodynamic quantities as function of depth.
The field associated with the propagation of this wave in the piece can be deduced from that at
the interface itself. For an incident pencil of bulk wave in the coupling fluid arising from one of
the source points (its amplitude varying as the inverse of the propagation distance), the pencil
of Rayleigh wave it generates has an amplitude that decreases as the squared root of the
distance of propagation due to its specific geometric divergence.
The figure below shows the bulk wave pencil which generates the Rayleigh wave pencil, as
well as the principle of deducing the field inside the piece from the surface pencil.
Figure 2.7. Generation by refraction at Rayleigh angle of a Rayleigh wave.

The Rayleigh wave propagates as a straight pencil when the surface is flat. In general terms,
Rayleigh waves follow curves which are geodesics of the surface. On a cylinder, the geodesic
is an helix ; it becomes a straight line when the direction of propagation is parallel to the cylinder
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axis and a circle of the same radius as that of the cylinder when the propagation is perpendicular
to the axis. For a sphere, the geodesic is a circle of radius equal to that of the sphere.
The following figure shows geodesics on a flat, spherical or cylindrical piece along which a
Rayleigh wave propagates between two points of the same colour.
Figure 2.8. Geodesics for Rayleigh wave

propagation on flat, spherical or cylindrical surfaces.
During the same surface propagation, the rest of the energy is re-radiated into the coupling
fluid as an acoustic (pressure) wave according to a mechanism (leakage) inverse of that of
their generation; therefore, these contributions propagate in a direction forming an angle equal
and opposite to that of generation. Radiation of leaky Rayleigh waves can also be described
as a pencil of bulk wave which amplitude depends on that of the Rayleigh wave at the locus
of its generation on the interface.
The following figure shows the various paths that must be taken into account to model the field
between a point source in the fluid coupling and an observation point in the same medium: si-
multaneously, both the field implying a propagation as a Rayleigh wave and that corresponding
to a specular reflection of bulk waves are computed.
(NB: however, their prediction may be computed separately in practice).
Figure 2.9. The various bulk or Rayleigh wave pencils involved in

the propagation between source point S and observation point O
Thus, by introducing the notion of Rayleigh wave pencil, it is possible to derive a model that
predicts the generation, the propagation and the re-radiation of Rayleigh waves under a for-
malism common to that adopted for bulk waves.
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Quantitatively, the acoustic potential φ at the observation point O in the coupling, associated
with the propagation of the leaky Rayleigh wave is expressed as follows. It is proportional to
the incident acoustic field φ0.
where the distances LS, LO, LR,and r are defined on the figure, cO (respectively cR) is the wave
speed in the fluid coupling (respectively of Rayleigh wave at the surface of the piece), Afluid is
a coefficient which depends on plane wave reflection coefficient at the interface between the
fluid coupling / solid piece, ω is the angular frequency, α R is a attenuation coefficient along the
surface wavepath due to leakage in the fluid.
Both the Rayleigh wave speed and its attenuation depend on the density and on the wave
speed in the fluid coupling. Influence of these characteristics is weak (but taken into account)
on the wave speed, and strong on the attenuation.
Similarly, the field associated with the propagation of the Rayleigh wave at an observation point
O inside the piece is given by:
where the Rayleigh wavefield is decomposed into two parts proportional to the amplitude of
the Rayleigh wave at O’ at the interface, to a specific coefficient AL,T and to an exponential
attenuation along the direction normal to the interface depending on a coefficient α R_L,T and
the distance zO (= O’O, distance of O to the interface).
The two coefficients α R_L,T are computed automatically since they only depend on elastic
properties of the piece medium (and to a lesser extent to acoustic properties of the coupling,
though it is accounted for).
The various elastodynamic quantities are deduced from these expressions, for each pencil
propagation, before summation over the full set of source points.
1.1.5.4. Dispersion of Rayleigh waves
Rayleigh waves are dispersive (their speed depends on frequency) as they propagate along
a surface which possesses at least one non-null curvature [14]. However, dispersion is gener-
ally negligible for typical NDT applications. For example, relatively the planar case, Rayleigh
wavespeed propagating along the curvature of a cylinder which radius is 100 times greater than
the wavelength varies of only 0.3%. For a sphere of radius 10 times greater than the Rayleigh
wavelength, speed variation is of 3%.
In the computation, dispersion is not taken into account.
1.1.5.5. Impulse-response computation
To compute simultaneously bulk and Rayleigh wave contributions, it is necessary to compute

the fields associated with the Rayleigh wave in terms of impulse-responses, as done for bulk
waves. The time dependency of the source is, as it is for bulk waves, a posteriori taken into
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account by post-processing (convolution) the impulse-responses. This is possible only because

Rayleigh wave dispersion is neglected.
In the case of bulk waves, attenuation is computed approximately: an average wavepath be-
tween the various source points and the observation point is defined. Attenuation terms in the
case of Rayleigh surface pencils must be taken into account in a more accurate way: for each
couple of source and observation points, attenuation is computed and it results in a pulse dis-
tortion of the initial impulsion (a Dirac) in the time-domain, which is analytically known.
1.1.5.6. Limitations of the Rayleigh wave calculation in present version
In the present version of CIVA, the computation of wave contributions associated with Rayleigh
wave propagation is limited in terms of computable configurations, for theoretical reasons as
well as for software limitations.
The theory has been developed in a pencil formalism. It has been derived for a transducer
radiating through a fluid coupling into an isotropic piece, Rayleigh waves propagating along the
entry interface only; it further assumes that dispersion due to surface curvature is negligible.
Present software implementation is restricted to Rayleigh wave propagating on the entry sur-
face of the piece, this surface being either planar, cylindrical or spherical. Furthermore, piece
geometry must be defined parametrically.
1.1.5.7. Examples of results
An example of result is given to illustrate the possibility to compute simultaneously bulk wave
contributions and contributions due to the propagation of Rayleigh and leaky Rayleigh waves.
The configuration considered is that of an immersed planar circular transducer which radiates
toward a flat piece made of steel, its axis making an angle with the normal to the interface equal
to Rayleigh angle[=sin-1 (c0 / cR)]. Calculation zone is a segment partly in the fluid coupling
and partly in the piece, parallel to the normal to the interface.
Computations of the incident bulk field in the fluid, then specularly reflected in the fluid, of
bulk transmitted field (T) together with contributions due to Rayleigh waves in the solid and
leaky Rayleigh waves in the fluid are made simultaneously. Two components of the particle
displacement field are shown, ux and uz, z being the direction normal to the planar interface
and x the direction parallel to the interface plane and in the incidence plane of the transducer.
The figure displays time-dependent variations of these components for the set of observation
points along the segment.
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Figure 2.10. Computation configuration: immersion at Rayleigh angle
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Figure 2.11. Left : bulk wave contributions only. Right: bulk wave,
Rayleigh surface and leaky Rayleigh wave contributions all together.
Top (resp. bottom): x- (resp. z-) component of particle displacement.
In left column, only bulk wave components are shown; in right column, the same components
are shown together with those due to Rayleigh and leaky Rayleigh waves.
In this configuration, i.e., at Rayleigh angle, contributions of Rayleigh waves in the solid and
leaky Rayleigh waves in the fluid are of higher amplitude than that of bulk waves.
1.1.6. References
[1] M. El Amrani, étude de différentes méthodes de focalisation ultrasonore appliquées au
contrôle non-destructif, thèse de doctorat de l’Université Paris VII (1995). Disponible sous la
référence CEA – R – 5717.
[2] N. Gengembre, Modélisation du champ ultrasonore rayonné dans une pièce anisotrope
hétérogène par un traducteur immergé, thèse de doctorat de l’Université Paris VII (1999).
Disponible sous la référence CEA – R – 5934.
[3] G. A. Deschamps, « Ray techniques in electromagnetics », Proc. I.E.E.E. 60 (1972),

pp.1022-1035.
[4] J. P. Weight, « Ultrasonic beam structures in fluid media », J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 75 (1984),
pp. 1716-1720.
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[5] F. Coulouvrat, « Continuous field radiated by a geometrically focused transducer: Numerical

investigation and comparison with an approximate model », J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 94 (1993),
pp. 1663-1675.
[6] H. Djelouah, J.- C. Baboux and M. Perdrix, « The transient field of a planar ultrasonic trans-
ducer coupled to a lens : experiments and simulations », J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 87 (1990), pp.
76-80.
[7] N. Gengembre, A. Lhémery and P. Calmon, « Calculation of wideband ultrasonic fields

radiated by water-coupled transducers into anisotropic media », Review of Progress in QNDE
17 (1998), pp. 899-906.
[8] O. Poncelet, M. Deschamps, A. G. Every and B. Audoin, « Extension to cuspidal edges of

wave surfaces of anisotropic solids : treatment of near cusp behavior », Review of Progress
in QNDE 20 (2001), pp. 51-58.
[9] S. W. Lee, M. S. Sheshadri, V. Jamnejad and R. Mittra, « Refraction at a curved dielec-

tric interface: Geometrical optics solution », I.E.E.E. Trans. Microwave Theory Tech. MTT-30
(1982), pp.12-19.
[10] A. Lhémery, « A model for the transient ultrasonic field radiated by an arbitrary loading in
a solid», J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 96 (1994), pp. 3776-3786.
[11] T. P. Lerch, L. W. Schmerr and A. Sedov, « The wavefield of an ultrasonic angle beam
shear wave transducer : an elastodynamic approach », Review of Progress in QNDE 16 (1997),
pp. 885-892.
[12] P. Calmon, A. Lhémery and J. Nadal, « Broadband fields radiated by water-coupled trans-
ducers in solids - Comparison of approximate models, numerical methods and experiments »,
Review of Progress in QNDE 15 (1996), pp. 1019-1026.
[13] A. Lhémery, N. Leymarie, P. Calmon and R. Coulette, « Simultaneous calculation of bulk

and surface transient waves radiated by water-coupled ultrasonic transducers », Review of
Progress in QNDE 24 (2005), pp. 1002-1009.
[14] I. A. Viktorov, Rayleigh and Lamb waves, (Plenum, New-York, 1967).
1.2. Inspection simulation models

This paragraph succinctly describes theoretical basis of the model used for simulating defects
responses and echoes arising from the specimen surface.
1.2.1. Decomposition of echoes in modes

Echoes received are decomposed as a set of various contributions or « modes ». Modes cor-
respond to various beam interactions with a scatterer (flaw or specimen surface) and to asso-
ciated ultrasonic wave paths, including or not reflection on another scatterer, possible mode
conversion of longitudinal into transversal waves or vice-versa in the interaction with the scat-
terer. The various mode contributions are eventually summed up and constitute the overall
signal as measured by the receiver.
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The following figure shows various modes computed in a very simple configuration: a surface
breaking crack normal to the backwall of a planar component is insonified by a SV45° incident
beam. Three echoes are predicted:
• a first echo arises from the tip of the crack, no backwall reflection being involved,
• a second echo is generated by corner effect implying one reflection onto the crack and one
onto the backwall,
• a third (indirect) echo arises from the crack tip again implying two reflections on the backwall
(a first before the interaction with the defect, a second after).
Figure 2.12. Example of echo-formation in the case of a SV45°

inspection of a planar piece with a vertical surface-breaking crack :
1) direct tip-diffraction echo, 2) corner effect, 3) indirect tip diffraction
These three echoes correspond to “direct”, “corner” and “indirect” families of echoes, respec-
tively, which can be described as follow:
• "Direct" echoes: refer to those modes corresponding to an echo (an incident wave either
L or T is scattered by the defect) received directly by the receiver without reflection in the
backwall (for example, the echo from a side-drilled hole).
• "Indirect" echoes: refer to those modes for which two reflections onto the backwall take place:
one on the way toward the defect (before defect scattering), one on the way back to the
receiver (after defect scattering).
• "Corner" echoes: these modes correspond to two different wavepaths on the way toward the
defect and on the way back to the receiver after defect scattering, one of the two wavepaths
including a backwall reflection.
These various modes (direct, corner or indirect echoes) can also include mode conversion
phenomena (conversion of a transverse wave into a longitudinal one and vice-versa) in the
scattering by the defect or even in a reflection on another scatterer: for instance, backwall
reflection before flaw scattering for a corner echo mode; for a branched flaw, reflection on a
first flaw facet before scattering on a second facet.
In CIVA 10 and 11 versions, the number of computed modes has been largely extended in order
to take account more complex configurations. In CIVA , the following options are available.
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• “Direct"
• “Half skip”
• “Full skip”
• “N skips typical L0°”
• “N skips typical T45°”
• “Double skip on defect”
• “Easy settings”
• “Advanced definition”
For a complete description of these options, please refer to the section Simulation settings.
A correspondence table describing the correspondences between the type of setting and the
applied or possible options is then given.
1.2.2. Inspection simulation computation

The computation of each mode of interaction [1] involves three stages, which are illustrated
on the following figure:
• 1. Approximation of the incident field by means of a separation of variables (amplitude, time-

of-flight and phase associated to the incident wave)
• 2. Computation of the inspection simulation by means of various approximations
• 3. Computation of the sensitivity in reception through reciprocity principle.
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Figure 2.13. Basic steps of a UT inspection simulation
These three stages are described in the following paragraphs.
1. Computation of the field incident on the defect:
The field radiated by a transducer at a point inside the component (transmitted into the piece
and possibly reflected onto the backwall) writes as the time-convolution of the transducer signal
with an impulse-response at this point (see CIVA UT Modelling theory– Beam computation
theoretical model) :
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The inspection simulation interaction module simplifies the expression of the field incident on
the defect: the incident field is written approximately as the time-convolution of the transducer
signal with a (Dirac) δ function delayed in time, weighted by an amplitude spatial distribution
and affected by a phase (hypothesis of separation of variables):
where AE(M) denotes the maximum amplitude of the field transmitted at point M, δ (t-tM) the
(Dirac) δ−function delayed by time tM corresponding to the time-of-flight between the transducer
and the point M, and φ the phase of the signal. This description is illustrated on figure below (it
corresponds to an L-wave beam computation in the far field):
Figure 2.14. Illustration of the separation of variables

principle for the incident transient field over the defect
Two options are available concerning the field incident computation :
• Plane Wave approximation
“Plane wave approximation for incident beam” refers to an approximation of the ultrasonic
fields during the computation of their interaction with flaws. It implies that the beams at a
given location can be described by a single time of flight and a single direction, neglecting the
spreading related to probe aperture. It was the only approach available in previous versions
of CIVA.
This simplification considers that the transducer signal is modified during the propagation by
nothing but an amplitude factor, a phase and a time-delay.
This assumption means that distortions of the transient signal, due for instance to near-field
interferences, will not be taken into account. However, the extraction of the amplitude and
time of flight is associated to the main contribution of the beam; therefore this assumption
does not affect the simulation results, especially in terms of prediction of the amplitude re-
sponses.
In addition, the direction of propagation is also extracted from the field computation to know
the direction of incidence at each point of the defect.
From now, complex valued amplitude obtained from the field computation as well as a direc-
tion of propagation will be considered for each point of the beam/defect interaction.
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• Full incident beam
“Full incident beam” is a new approach available in CIVA 2016. It describes the beams as
set of rays with various times of flight and directions. For each location considered at the
surface of a flaw, the beams of both the emitting and receiving probes are considered to be
sets of rays. The echo is obtaining by summing the contributions of each pair of emitted and
received rays, taking into account their specific directions, polarizations, and times of flight.
The previous approach only considered one plane wave in that calculation.
Figure 2.15. – Illustration of the ray representation of beams for echo computation.
The new approach leads to more accurate results, in particular for signal shapes, though
it tends to make calculations longer. It should be preferred to the previous approach if the
beams have large apertures or are distorted by the part geometry. However, in case where
the defects are far from the probe and the aperture is small, the two approaches yield very
similar results.
2. Computation of the scattering by a defect
This step requires the modelling of flaws scattering. This can be performed using different
models (described in Section UT-THEORY-2.3 inspection simulation models) depending on
the flaw inspection configuration.
3. Computation of the sensitivity of the receiver
Knowledge of both the incident beam and its interaction with the defect under Kirchhoff’s or
other approximation does not allow the prediction of the receiver response; the receiver sensi-
tivity to waves scattered by the defect must be further computed.
To do this, reciprocity principle used assumes that the receiver response to a wave emanating
from a point at the defect surface may be approximated for the field at that same point which
would be radiated by the same transducer acting as an emitter, times a proportionality coeffi-
cient C accounting for the fact that transmission coefficients in one way or the other differ (as
shown on the figure below).
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Figure 2.16. Calculation principle for the reception according to reciprocity.
As it was done for the incident field, the sensitivity in reception is described as the product of two
functions: the transducer signal delayed by the time-of-flight taken along the return path tM’,
and an amplitude function in reception AR(M). Again, phase and local direction are extracted
from field computation.
The signal measured at the receiver after propagation of the incident field, and scattering by
a defect is expressed as a discrete integral over the meshed defect surface of the product
of radiation and reception amplitude functions times the complex-valued scattering coefficient
(local to the mesh point) and the transducer signal.
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This expression is valid whatever the model used for beam/flaw scattering [1]. However, the
coefficient obviously varies accordingly to the model (notably it can depend on frequency for
some models), as well as the meshing of the defect (meshing of the surface of the defect for
Kirchhoff, contour for the GTD, no mesh for the Born approximation), and different options (di-
rect, indirect, on-line beam computation, stored beam file…) apply for these codes (as men-
tioned in the chapter UT Inspection simulation - Simulation settings).
One such an elementary echo is obtained for each mode: L- or T-direct echoes, corner echoes
with or without mode conversion, indirect echoes (according to the different available options,
see above). The sum of these various elementary contributions which are computed depending
on chosen options constitute the signal measured at the receiver.
1.2.3. Inspection simulation models

The inspection simulation to an incident wave is predicted under different approximations, de-
pending on the inspection:
• Kirchhoff
• GTD - Geometrical Theory of Diffraction
• Kirchhoff and GTD
• SOV - Separation of Variables
• Modified Born
These models are detailed in the following paragraphs.
1.2.3.1. Kirchhoff
This model is dedicated to crack-like flaws and volumetric cavities.
This approximation consists in considering that the elastic wave is entirely diffracted by the
defect (the defect is defined as a void), and that one can associate to each elementary surface
of a meshed defect a defect scattering coefficient [2,3]. The wave scattered by the defect is
thus defined as the product of:
the incident wave, described as the product of
• an amplitude function,
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• a time-dependent function,
• and the complex scattering coefficient (see figure below).
Figure 2.17. Calculation principle of the echo scattered

by a defect according to Kirchhoff’s approximation
The complex-valued amplitude function is described as amplitude and a phase, both extracted
from the computed field. The time-of-flight and the incidence direction i0 local to the mesh point
on the defect are also extracted from the computed field. One may express the field scattered
by one elementary surface of the flaw as a spherical wave :
where Φ d(m,t) is the wave scattered by the defect, r is the propagation distance between the
scatterer M and the observation point of the diffracted field, B(M,i0,r0, α ) is the complex valued
defect scattering coefficient (also called “Kirchhoff scattering coefficient”) at a point M of the
defect mesh, this coefficient depending on :
• the incidence angle i0 extracted from the field computation,

• the observation angle r0, corresponding to the angle of the field in reception (see next para-
graph),
• the polarity of both the incident and the scattered wave (α = L or T).
• This calculation is made on each elementary surface meshing the defect.
Main advantages and limitations of the Kirchhoff’s approximation:
Kirchhoff’s approximation is a high frequency approximation, valid when the defect is greater
than the wavelength, that is, when ka >>1, where k is the wavenumber and a is the main
dimension of the defect. This approximation actually relies on the assumption that each point
at the defect surface contributes as if it was part of an infinite plane (the way it contributes is
independent of the way a neighbouring point contributes).
The computation of this approximation implicitly assumes that both the transmitter and the re-
ceiver belong to the same half-space limited by the defect plane: the incidence and observation
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angle shall lie in the same side of the flaw, as illustrated on the following figure for a Tandem
configuration:
For the first position (top of the figure), both probes are lying on the same side of the flaw, an
echo is calculated.
For the second position (bottom of the figure), the axis of the receiving probe doesn’t lie in the
half space defined by the flaw orientation, therefore one cannot predict the echo scattered by
the flaw because the Kirchhoff developed model is not applicable (the receiving probe is lying
in the so-called 'shadowed area').
Figure 2.18. Limitation of Kirchhoff model

application using two probes in Tandem mode
Similar limitations occur when using a pair of probes in TOFD inspection (see following figure)
for nearly vertical flaws: The Kirchhoff model will soon be not applicable as the orientation of
the flaw prevents the axis of the transmitter and receiver probes lying from the same side of the
flaw. On the following figure, only the configuration displayed on top can be simulated using
the Kirchhoff model.
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Figure 2.19. Limitation of Kirchhoff application using two probes in TOFD model
The Kirchhoff approximation, classically used in NDT modelling, is assumed to give accurate
results when the flaw is detected in specular or pseudo-specular mode, i.e. when the observa-
tion angle (the angle of the receiver) is close to the “natural” specular reflexion of the incidence
wave upon the flaw.
The Kirchhoff approximation is, therefore, mostly valid for:
• Specular reflexion over planar or volumetric defects, large compared to the wavelength (large
k.a, k being the wavenumber and a the characteristic length of the scatterer)
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• Corner echo over planar or volumetric defects
Tip diffraction echoes from planar defects can be accurately predicted using the Kirchhoff ap-
proximation in terms of time of flight, however their amplitudes cannot be quantitatively predict-
ed using the Kirchhoff model. The quantitative error is expected to increase when the scattered
direction moves away from the specular direction.
Concerning volumetric defects, especially side drilled holes, the Kirchhoff approximation only
takes account of the specular reflexion from the insonified part of the cylindrical part of the side
drilled hole. In addition to this specular echo, due to the beam size incident over the cylinder,
creeping waves are also generated, especially for incident transverse waves. Although this
creeping wave may not seem to alter the specular echo (its time of flight may be large enough
not to mix with the specular echo), the overall amplitude of the side drilled hole is modified by
its effect. Therefore Kirchhoff approximation may estimate with an error the amplitude of side
drilled hole responses, mostly for incident shear wave over small flaws. In order to provide a
more accurate prediction of side drilled hole, a new model has been implemented in CIVA 10,
called 'SOV' (Separation Of Variables), which is detailed in the following sections.
An important improvement of the Kirchhoff model has been performed in the release 11 of
CIVA. In CIVA11, the Kirchhoff model has been extended to deal with flaws embedded in
anisotropic media without using the strong approximation of an equivalent isotropic medium
as it is still done for the GTD and SOV models (see the description of this approximation in
Section 2.7 Main limits of the Inspection simulation module). Indeed in CIVA 11, the Kirchhoff
model consists exactly in applying the Kirchhoff approximation for anisotropic media without
adding supplementary approximation as previously done in CIVA10.
• Involved flaws :
Flaws which can be modelled thanks to the Kirchhoff model are:
• planar flaws : rectangular, semi-elliptical or CAD contour planar flaws.- multi-facetted flaw.-
Branched flaw. For such flaws, it is possible since CIVA11 to calculate internal multiple re-
flections using more complex options than the direct option.
1.2.3.2. GTD
This model is dedicated to the simulation of tip diffraction echoes from crack-like flaws
As mentioned in the previous section, the Kirchhoff approximation cannot be used, for most
standard configurations, in TOFD inspection modes.
The GTD (Geometrical Theory of Diffraction) is especially dedicated to deal with such cases:
this model allows predicting the echoes diffracted by the edges of a planar flaw [4].
Principle of the model :
The geometrical theory of diffraction (GTD) is an approximation based on geometrical ray theo-
ry which aims at predicting diffraction echoes from cracks. The application of this approximation
to scattering from edges leads to consider that an edge insonified by a plane wave will scatter a
cylindrical or a conical wave whose angular distribution is described by a diffraction coefficient.
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Consequently the field scattered by an edge can be expressed at an observation point x as

follows, depending on the observation distance r, the wave number (k=2*pi*frequency/celerity),
the incident field and the GTD diffraction coefficient:
The GTD diffraction coefficient has a dependence with the α incidence and β observation di-
rections and polarizations.
GTD is also a high frequency approximation, valid when the defect is greater than the wave-
length, that is, when ka >>1, where k is the wave number and a is the main dimension of the
defect.
The GTD model developed in Flaw Response allows accounting for arbitrarily oriented flaws
with respect to the probes orientation [3,5]. Indeed, tilt angles, skew angles or vertical disori-
entations may apply, for instance using inspection over pipes or nozzles.
A main improvement has been performed in CIVA 11 to deal with 3D realistic configurations
using GTD. Previously, in order to simulate diffraction echoes in these 3D realistic configura-
tions, a simplified strategy was used concerning the calculation of the GTD coefficients : a so-
called "projected 2D" option [3], which is based onto the projection of the incoming and scat-
tered wave vectors over the plane normal to the flaw edge, consisted in using 2D GTD coeffi-
cients in the previous plane. Since CIVA 11, 3D GTD coefficients [5] are henceforth calculated
and 3D configurations in which flaws can present several disorientations with respect to the
probes are taken into account without additional approximation.
The use of this GTD model needs to mesh only the flaw contour contrary to Kirchhoff approx-
imation which needs a surface mesh.
Involved flaws :
• Flaws which can be modelled thanks to GTD are:

• planar flaws : rectangular, semi-elliptical or CAD contour planar flaws.
• multi-facetted flaw.
• Branched flaw. This new type of flaw in CIVA can be simulated in TOFD or pulse echo mode
using GTD. For such flaws, one calculates the tip diffraction of every free extremity of the
branches (but not of the internal junctions).
Main advantages and limitations of the GTD model:

The main advantage of the GTD model is to be more effective than the Kirchhoff model in the
quantitative prediction of diffraction from the flaw edges or contour. This improvement of the
prediction compared to the Kirchhoff one is notably obtained when the inspection configuration
involves shear waves.
There are several observation areas of scattering where the GTD breaks down.
Contrary to the Kirchhoff approximation, the GTD is not valid near the specular reflexion where
the GTD coefficient diverges. Figure below shows the comparison between Kirchhoff and GTD
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computations for a TOFD configuration using Longitudinal waves with a variable tilt over an
embedded planar flaw (α=0° corresponds to a vertical flaw). Kirchhoff model cannot be applied
in shadowed regions (see previous paragraphs) as the transmission and reception axis of both
probe do not lie in the same plane with respect to the crack orientation, while in the vicinity
of specular reflexion (flaw nearly horizontal), GTD coefficient cannot be applied (its value di-
verges).
Figure 2.20. Comparison between Kirchhoff and GTD
GTD is also invalid in an area close to forward scattering (i.e. when the directions of the incident
and scattered wave are the same).
The GTD model has been modified to improve the treatment of the two previous areas (specular
reflexion and forward scattering) and to avoid a divergence of the coefficient. Consequently,
the GTD model can be used inside these two areas but the validity of the simulated provided
results can´t be ensured.
In the case of SV waves, there’s also a discontinuity of the GTD coefficient for an observation
angle equal to the longitudinal critical angle (33° with the flaw normal for steel). Simple treat-
ments have also been operated to avoid the presence of artefacts in the simulated results [6].
Note that these treatments have been slightly modified in the release 11 of CIVA
Until the release 9 of CIVA, the GTD model should be only used for a crack embedded in an
isotropic material. Henceforth, the GTD model has been extended to deal with cracks embed-
ded in anisotropic materials. See the last paragraph of this part named "Main limits of the in-
spection simulation module´ for more details on treatments of anisotropic flaws.
Compatible options with the GTD model :
Mode conversion is allowed.
Until the release 10 of CIVA only direct modes could be computed in Civa thanks to the
GTD model. Since CIVA 11, edge diffraction echoes after one or several reflections can be
computed. Consequently it’s possible to choose more complex options than the direct option
as the option Half skip or Full skip inspection. For instance when choosing the option Half skip,
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an indirect edge diffraction echo on a backwall breaking flaw is calculated. For branched flaws,
edge diffractions after reflections on flaw branches can also be simulated.
1.2.3.3. Kirchhoff and GTD
The Kirchhoff & GTD model [7] is devoted to the simulation of both reflection and diffraction
echoes from crack-like flaws.
The two previous approaches (Kirchhoff and GTD) appear to be complementary. Combining
them so as to retain only their advantages, we have developed a hybrid model (the so-called
Kirchhoff & GTD) using a procedure [7] similar to the physical theory of diffraction (PTD).
Indeed, the Kirchhoff model is useful for the modelling of echoes due to specular reflections
but is less accurate for observation directions far from the specular one since it doesn’t model
correctly and quantitatively edges diffraction. On the other hand, contrary to Kirchhoff, the GTD
model is not valid for specular observation direction since the GTD coefficient diverges but
GTD is very effective to predict edge diffractions echoes in most configurations.
Principle of the model
In the PTD formalism, an approximation for the Kirchhoff scattered field in far field from the flaw
can be found. It assumes that the Kirchhoff scattered field can be decomposed in two parts:
a geometrical field which includes the specularly reflected field and a contribution arising from
the flaw edges corresponding to the edges diffraction field. This diffraction field contribution
at the observation point x has the same form as the GTD field but a different edge diffraction
coefficient (depending on the the α incidence and β observation directions and polarizations):
Note that this coefficient characterizes the directivity of the Kirchhoff edge diffraction contribu-
tion and is consequently different from the “Kirchhoff scattering coefficient” defined previously
in the Kirchhoff model Section.
The physical theory of diffraction (PTD) consists in correcting the Kirchhoff edge diffraction field
by that modelled by GTD.
This correction leads to add a corrective term to the KA scattered field which is the difference
of wave amplitudes diffracted by the edge given by GTD and KA.
The PTD field is the sum of the Kirchhoff field and a GTD modified field in which the GTD
coefficient has been replaced by the difference between GTD and Kirchhoff edge diffraction
coefficients.
The diffraction coefficients for KA diffraction contribution and GTD have the same singularities
(divergences) at the specular observation direction; when making the difference of the two
coefficients, their singularities cancel each other and the diffraction coefficients difference is
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finite. Consequently the PTD scattered field is spatially uniform and presents no singularity at
the specular observation direction unlike GTD.
When the observation direction is close to the specular direction, the Kirchhoff field is predom-
inant compared to the edge diffraction contribution and the Kirchhoff & GTD model leads to
similar results than the Kirchhoff model:
When the observation direction is far from to the specular direction, edge diffraction effects are
predominant compared to reflection phenomena, the Kirchhoff field is equal to the Kirchhoff
edge diffraction contribution and the Kirchhoff & GTD model leads to similar results than the
GTD model.
Involved flaws
Flaws which can be modelled thanks to Kirchhoff & GTD are the same than with the GTD model:
• planar flaws: rectangular, semi-elliptical or CAD contour planar flaws.

• multi-facetted flaw.
• Branched flaw. This new type of flaw in CIVA can be simulated in TOFD or pulse echo
mode using Kirchhoff & GTD. For such flaws, when using the GTD model, one calculates
the tip diffraction of every free extremity of the branches (but not of the internal junctions).
Consequently when using the Kirchhoff & GTD model, the edge diffraction is modelled by
the GTD model for free extremity but by the Kirchhoff model for internal junctions
Compatible options with the Kirchhoff & GTD model
They are exactly the same as the options allowed for the GTD model
1.2.3.4. SOV
The SOV (Separation Of Variables) model [3,5] is devoted to the modelling of the scattering
from a cylindrical cavity (Side drilled hole response) or a spherical solid inclusion.
This model newly developed in the release 10.0 is notably dedicated to side drilled hole simu-
lation and provides more accurate quantitative results than Kirchhoff approximation, especially
for small ka (wave number * radius of the side drilled hole) inspected using transverse waves
(see following paragraphs). This SOV model has been extended to the modelling of spherical
solid inclusions in the release 11.0.
The SOV method for a cylindrical cavity
The semi-analytical Kirchhoff approximation, in a wide range of situations, leads to satisfactory

quantitative predictions with a low computation time. Nonetheless, this model may cause some
discrepancies in the prediction of small flaws responses, since it is a high frequency approxi-
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mation. Particularly, experimental validations carried out in a pulse-echo configuration on small

side drilled holes highlighted some differences between Kirchhoff simulation and measure for
shear waves. These discrepancies could be explained by the theoretical principle of Kirchhoff
approximation: it takes into account specular reflection on a cavity but not creeping waves.
These creeping waves [8,9] propagate around the cavity circumference and may have a sig-
nificant influence especially at low ka (product of the wave number k by the defect radius a).
These creeping waves are of two kinds: Franz waves and Rayleigh-like waves. Franz waves [9]
are the analogues on curved surfaces of Stoneley waves (surface waves excited by grazing
incidence) on flat surfaces. Franz waves differ from Stoneley waves in two respects: they are
attenuated because energy is radiated tangentially away from the cylinder; there are many
circumferential modes n of different speeds but the damping increases with n.
• Principle of the model
The separation of variables (SOV) method [8] has been investigated in order to take into ac-
count the influence of creeping waves in the scattering from side drilled holes. This method is
used to obtain an exact analytical model for the scattering from a cavity. The principle of the
SOV method consists in expressing scattered waves in terms of series developments. Terms
of these series are expressed as products of cylindrical functions and complex exponential
functions. A parametric study has been performed to optimize the sufficient number of series
terms to compute so as to ensure the series convergence. The expression of boundary condi-
tions along the surface of the cavity allows to determinate the series coefficients.
A model of echo simulation based on the SOV method has been developed. Indeed the devel-
opment of a "2.5D" SOV model has been carried out. This model takes into account the field
variation along the flash line which is the first cylinder line insonified by the beam assumed to
be a plane incident wave. The 2.5D model supposes an invariant diffraction coefficient along
the flash line.
The exact method SOV is theoretically valid in a 2d configuration of echoes calculation (cylinder
axis perpendicular to the incident plane of the probe). But, in CIVA, a projected 2.5D model
has been created to extend it to 3d configurations. The principle of this projected model is to
project the incidence and observation directions in a plane perpendicular to the cylinder axis.
• Involved flaws: This SOV model in CIVA is developed for a side drilled hole with any possible
orientation.
• Limitations of the SOV model:
The projected SOV 2d model provides satisfactory results even for a skew or vertical disorien-
tation angle of 90 ° (axis of the SDH in the plane of incidence). However, the validity of the
model outside of the 2d configuration has not been proved: a coherence for the SOV results
in a 3D configuration has just been observed by comparison with the results obtained with
Kirchhoff. Notably, the creeping wave modeling will probably not be described properly in a
3D configuration.
The SOV method is theoretically valid for an isotropic medium but the echo calculation is pos-
sible in this case for the SOV model under the strong approximation of an equivalent isotropic
medium. See the last paragraph of this part named "Main limits of the inspection simulation
module´ for more details on treatments of anisotropic flaws.
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• Compatible options with the SOV model :
2D and 3D calculations are allowed for all options and all inspection configurations.
The SOV model interaction has to be selected for each defined SDH in the "Interaction" tab
of the "Computation" Panel.
NB : The calibration module (“calibration” tab in the computation parameters panel of inspection
simulation module) uses the SOV model to simulate the response of a Side Drilled Hole used
as a calibration flaw, while in previous CIVA version the Kirchhoff approximation was used.
The SOV method for a spherical solid inclusion
The modified Born approximation gives rise to several inconvenients and limitations notably
dealing with the inclusion materials contrast or with the inclusion size. Besides, under the pre-
vious approximation, the inclusion time response includes only the reflection echoes arising
from the inclusion front and back surfaces. For all these reasons, a SOV (Separation Of Vari-
ables) algorithm for spherical inclusions has also been implemented from CIVA11. It has no
restrictions about the inclusion materials contrast.
• Principle of the model :
It provides an exact solution for the scattering of plane waves from a spherical solid inclusion
[10,11]. The principle of this SOV method is similar to that developed for a cylindrical cavity.
It also consists in expressing scattered waves in terms of series developments which involve
eigen functions which differ from the cylindrical cavity case and are adapted to the spherical
geometry. These functions are spherical Bessel function of the first kind and Legendre polyno-
mials. Boundary conditions are also used to determinate the series coefficients and take into
account the elastic property of the inclusion medium.
Limitations of the SOV model :
Media of the inclusions :
The media outside and inside the inclusion have to be isotropic. A warning (see the paragraph
“Media of the inclusions” in the Born modified model section) indicates this limitation to the
CIVA user.
• Compatible options with the SOV model :
2D and 3D calculation are allowed for all options and all inspection configurations.
The SOV model interaction is the default interaction model for each defined spherical inclusion
in the "Interaction".
Common limitation to both SOV (Separation Of Variables) and modified Born models
The CIVA integration of those two methods is based on the assumption that the incident wave
is a plane wave. It may lead to errors in cases where the flaw is large compared to the spatial
variations of the incident field.
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1.2.3.5. Modified Born model
The modified Born model is dedicated to the simulation of echoes scattered by solid inclusions
[1,12].
A solid inclusion is a flaw filled by an elastic medium and embedded in an other elastic medium.
In Civa, the simulation of these flaws can be performed using two different models. Indeed since
the release 11 of CIVA, solid inclusions can be modelled thanks to the SOV model described
in the next section if they have a spherical shape. In addition, both spherical, ellipsoidal and
cylindrical inclusions can be modelled using the modified Born approximation.
This modified Born approximation is able to model the interaction between an ultrasonic beam
and inclusions filled by a medium whose structural parameters are near than those of the host
medium. The main hypothesis of this approximation considers that acoustics fields inside the
scatterer are approached by the incident fields which propagate at the inner celerity.
The previous model leads to an important number of limitations concerning the running options.
These limitations are going to be described hereafter.
Main limitations of the modified Born model:
• Size of the inclusions :
The model is a low-frequency approximation i.e. the product of the frequency of inspection by
the size of the flaw is supposed to be small.
Usually a criterion is used to define the validity range of the model and is based on the use of
the quantity ka which is the product of the wave number k (ratio of the angular frequency by
the celerity) in the medium including the inclusion by the median size a of the defect.
This criterion strongly depends on the media outside and inside the inclusion.
In Civa, the computation is forbidden for ka>5 where k is related to the central frequency of
the probe.
The following warning can appear :
« Not allowed computation since the inclusions size is too big compared with the wavelength.
Do you want to continue ? (if yes, no computation of corresponding echoes)
O/N »
• Media of the inclusions :
The media outside and inside the inclusion have to be isotropic.
The user can only define an isotropic medium for the material of the inclusion (see UT CIVA -
ACTIVE MODEL SETUP Flaw). On the other hand, the user can create in the Flaw menu an
inclusion embedded in an anisotropic medium but the model is not able to treat this case. In
fact there’s no prohibition concerning the host medium: it enables to define an inclusion in an
isotropic medium in an heterogeneous specimen.
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However if the centre of the inclusion is included in an anisotropic medium, a warning is fore-
seen:
« No echo computation for inclusions which are not embedded in an isotropic medium.
Do you want to continue? (if yes, no computation of corresponding echoes)
O/N »
As previously said, it’s better to use the model for inclusions whose media outside and inside
have close characteristics. Otherwise a correct prediction of the echo amplitude can’t be guar-
anteed. The computation is forbidden if the medium of the inclusion corresponds to air or vac-
uum : this case leads to a warning at the start of running.
• Shape of the inclusions :
The flaws which can be modelled are: spheres, cylinders and ellipsoids.
a) spherical inclusions :
There’s no limitation concerning spherical inclusions :
all the possible modes can be computed for this flaw shape (direct, indirect, mode conversion,
corner echoes, 2 bonds).
these flaws can be embedded in all kinds of specimen.
b) cylindrical or ellipsoidal inclusions:
Until the release 10 of CIVA, for cylindrical or ellipsoidal inclusions, the model was able to
compute the scattered echoes for a mode only if the flaws have one axis aligned along the
focal axis of the corresponding mode. This axis was compulsory the axis of revolution for a
cylinder and one of the three axis for an ellipsoid (see figure below). In the release 11 of CIVA,
an extension of the Born model to arbitrarily oriented inclusions has been developed.
Common limitation to both SOV (Separation Of Variables) and modified Born models
The CIVA integration of those two methods is based on the assumption that the incident wave
is a plane wave. It may lead to errors in cases where the flaw is large compared to the spatial
variations of the incident field.
Attenuation inside the inclusion :
So as to define attenuation inside the inclusion, see UT CIVA - ACTIVE MODEL SETUP Flaw
- Material menu.
Since the release 11 of CIVA, this attenuation is taken into account in the simulation for all
modes (notably those including reflections on the specimen surfaces or mode conversion).
1.2.4. Specimen echoes models

Depending on the inspection configuration considered, (see UT Inspection simulation – Com-
putation parameters), one can or cannot compute specimen echoes generated by the interac-
tion with the component surfaces, including inner ones in the case of heterogeneous structures,
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lateral waves (critical longitudinal wave in TOFD configuration), and echoes due to creeping
wave (grazing longitudinal wave scattered at the backwall of the component when a transverse
wave hits the backwall close to the critical angle).
The front surface echoes correspond to the direct reflection of the incident wave over the entry
surface of the specimen, which may be either canonical (planar, cylindrical…) or 2.5D/3D CAD
defined.
In addition to front surface echoes, the specimen echoes correspond to echoes due to reflection
of bulk waves inside the material over all the surfaces of the specimen (front, backwall, side and
inner surfaces). These echoes may be obtained by specular reflection (for instance, reflection
of an incident 0° L-waves on the backwall of the planar specimen), due to corner echo effects
(for instance, 45° L or T waves at the extremity of a specimen) with one skip on the backwall or
more skips, as possible for flaws, or due to multiple reflections (using the “advanced definition”
with several half-skips or the control mode “N skips typical L0°”…).
The front surface and the specimen echoes can be computed since the Civa 11 release using
two different models: one based on the Kirchhoff approximation and the second (the so-called
“specular” option) based on the pencil method (method used for beam calculation and derived
from geometrical acoustics).
The Kirchhoff option presents the advantage to model both specular echoes and edges diffrac-
tions arising from the specimen irregularities whereas the “specular” one is, as expected, only
devoted to the simulation of specular echoes. Nevertheless, this model is available only for
front and backwall interfaces. If the inspection configuration involves only specular effects from
the specimen, it is recommended to use the “specular” option which leads to a more precise
prediction associated to a lower computation time. It can also deals with specular echos arising
from inner and side interfaces.
1.2.4.1. Kirchhoff : front surface and backwall echoes

As previously said, front surface and backwall echoes can be computed since the Civa 11
release using exactly the same approach as the one used for flaw computation and based on
the Kirchhoff approximation.
Until Civa 10 release, the current Kirchhoff model was limited to cracks and classical backwall
echoes (like steel/water interfaces) because it was based on a free-surface approximation and
was consequently adapted for stress-free or quasi stress-free surfaces. A new model using a
more general formalism has been developed by starting from the reciprocity theorem and con-
sidering both the displacement and stress on the surface. It leads to a Kirchhoff approximation
which is valid whether the surface is stress-free or not, thus valid for any materials (liquids,
isotropic and anisotropic solids) which are back and forth across the surface.
Common options for all specimen echoes using Kirchhoff model:
• 2D/3D calculation of the Specimen echoes: both 2D (when the inspection configuration is
2D) and 3D calculations are allowed. As carried out for flaws, a 2D computation means that
only the profile of the scatterer (the intersection of the scatterer and the control plane of the
probe) is meshed and used for the beam/scatterer interaction. This option cannot be used for
quantitative results (even though it can give some quantitative indications when all elements
of the inspection configuration are invariant along the direction perpendicular to the control
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plane); it is mostly used for fast definition of other parameters (for instance, scanning pattern
of the probe, selection of most relevant modes…).
• When using the Kirchhoff approach to calculate specimen echoes, it is highly recommended
notably in 3D to activate the “sensitivity zone” (see section “inspection simulation / simula-
tion settings”).
• Specimen echoes on 3D CAD components are not calculated using the Kirchhoff option (but
they are with the “specular” one). All other geometries and kinds of specimen (of homoge-
neous or heterogeneous, isotropic or anisotropic medium) can be taken into account.
Specificities of front surface echoes:
• In pulse echo mode: for immersion, contact probes (single element or phased arrays) and
surrounding/surrounded probes.
• It is also possible to predict the surface echo obtained in Tandem or TOFD configuration but
only for immersion modes.
Specificities of Backwall echoes:
• Nozzles. For this component, probes have to be located on the primary pipe or on the sec-
ondary pipe, in TOFD mode. For this component, it is recommended to use rather the “spec-
ular” option which allows in addition the simulation of more complex inspection configurations
notably the calculation of the backwall echo arising from the nozzle part (3D CAD defined)
of the specimen.
• Bores (echoes from the backwall and the rivet, taking into account reflections from both
entities). For this component, it is recommended to use rather the “specular” option.
• Inspection modes: pulse echo, Tandem or TOFD inspection.
• Computation for the backwall echo: in the previous version of CIVA, it was possible to cal-
culate the backwall echo using a “2.5D” strategy (referred to “Approximated computation”).
In the CIVA 11 release, this possibility doesn’t exist anymore: only the accurate computation
without any supplementary approximation is performed.
1.2.4.2. Specular model

To calculate the echoes of the specimen, an alternative method, so-called “specular model”,
is henceforth proposed since CIVA 11. In contrast to Kirchhoff model that uses the reciprocity
principle on the front and the bottom of the specimen, the “specular model” is based on the
integration of the acoustic field calculated directly on the receiver. The field is then evaluated
separately for each echo mode by using the ray-based approach developed for beam calcu-
lation in CIVA.
From the GUI, we can define specific options for calculating specimen echoes by selecting
independently each type of reflecting surface for the specimen: front, bottom, sides or internal
interfaces. Considering only specular phenomena on these reflecting surfaces, the first step
aims to evaluate the set of ray paths between the emitter to the receiver. The ray path calcu-
lation is limited by the number of skips on the interfaces of the sample and by a temporal gate
if its bounds have been set. From this set of ray paths, a list of the effective echo modes is
deduced. Then, for each mode, the corresponding transient pressure field is calculated and
integrated on the receiver to obtain the echo response.
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This new technique is more generic and can be used for all the types of specimen available in
CIVA. For example, we can calculate echoes from internal interfaces, corner echoes between
the bottom and the sides. A simulation of double through-transmission inspection is now work-
able with this model (see following figure).
Figure 2.21. Simulation of double through-transmission

inspection performed with specular model for specimen echoes
The advantages but also disadvantages of this technique are mainly related to the use of the
ray method implemented in CIVA. The main drawbacks of the model are:
• the lack of the effects of diffraction on singularities (edges, corners) or on geometric irregu-
larities small with respect to the wavelength,
• the difficulties to correctly identify the reflection of rays on small geometrical objects.
However, for enough large and regular surfaces, the calculations with the specular model are
more efficient and accurate. In addition, activation of the sensitivity zone is not required unlike
specimen echoes evaluated by the Kirchhoff model. Note that this area does not affect the
echo response evaluated with the specular model.
1.2.4.3. Lateral waves
This echo is only accounted for in TOFD inspection. It corresponds to a surface wave [9,13]
propagating in L-wave polarity along the surface of the specimen. The nature of this kind of
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wave is identical to those of the creeping waves described in the next paragraph. This lateral
wave is simulated for planar, cylindrical, nozzle and 2.5D CAD specimen (homogeneous or
heterogeneous, but only for isotropic media), for immersion or contact probes. The evaluation
of this lateral wave is obtained by considering the path described below : propagation of a
critical 90° longitudinal wave along the surface of the component and propagation in longitudinal
wave at the critical angle inside the wedge (or the coupling medium for immersion probes). In
order to get a quantitative result, the aperture of the probes in Transmission and Reception
is discretized in several source points over the probe, and one follows the mentioned path for
each of these source points. Finally, each contribution of the source points is evaluated using
a ray theory derived from V. Cerveny’s works [13]. Figure below illustrates the computation of
the lateral wave. Is given the theoretical expression of the echo response of the lateral wave
Replateral_wave(t) in which the term A depends on the time of flight (since the lateral wave is
frequency dependent phenomenon).
Contrary to previous version, the 2D surface of the probe is meshed, which allows to better
estimate the amplitude of the lateral wave for 3D computation, as well as to take account of
shadowing effects of surface breaking flaws.
NB : Due to the computation of ray’s contributions (estimation of the divergence of

the lateral wave), the lateral wave can only be computed using the 3D option for
beam computation.
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1.2.4.4. Creeping waves
Creeping wave is a well-known phenomenon in seismology [13] and in non-destructive evalu-

ation [14-16]. This wave which is generated at the interface between two media radiates during
its propagation a wave called head wave. The generation of a head wave is explained by the
generalized Huyghens principle.
Most UT inspection procedures used for detection of breaking wall notches rely on the corner
echo effect, which corresponds to the reflection of an obliquely incident wave on the backwall
and on the flaw. The amplitude of this corner echo will vary depending on the angle of the flaw
and the backwall, as geometrical effects are mainly responsible of the echo. Mode conversion
may also occur which gives rise to additional echoes. In addition to these longitudinal and
transverse bulk waves modes, if the incident wave over the flaw or over the backwall is closed
to the critical angle, head waves and creeping waves may also be generated and interfere with
the flaw.
For instance a configuration of interest (described in figure below) corresponds to the inspec-
tion with 45° refracted SV-waves of a steel component with a bottom slope of 10° and a verti-
cal backwall breaking rectangular flaw. In this configuration, the 45° SV-waves generated in
the component is incident on the bottom with angle 35° which is near the longitudinal critical
angle. Then a creeping wave is generated producing radiated head wave in the specimen. In
the problem considered here, one contribution implying interaction of creeping wave with flaw
is preponderant in echo response : the reflection of the creeping wave on the bottom of the
defect. Computation of creeping wave reflection, based on ray theory, has consequently been
developed [14,15].
Figure 2.22. Configuration of a 45 SV-waves inspection of a steel

component with a bottom slope of 10° and a vertical backwall
breaking rectangular flaw. Corresponding ray tracing with no
aperture angle (representation of the creeping rays in magenta).
The calculation of the head wave is finally a 2,5D model. So is calculated the contribution of
critical rays in the inspection plane and it is then considered that rays located off plane are
included in planes parallel to the inspection plane all along the probe extension. Consequently
are only taken into account rays directions supposed to be parallel to the inspection plane.
Limitations of the model:
In the model are considered only the creeping waves which are generated by an incident trans-
verse wave directly radiated in the specimen (several reflections on the specimen surfaces
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before the generation of the creeping wave are not allowed). Are not computed the interaction
with a breaking flaw of creeping waves propagating along the flaw surface [16]. The effects of
creeping waves propagating along the entry surface of the specimen are neither modelled.
The developed model doesn´t take into account the attenuation of the creeping wave along the
backwall if the last is composed of several parts of different orientations. Rectangular and 2D
CAD flaws can be treated but a 2D CAD flaw is modelled as an equivalent rectangular defect
as the model is 2.5D. In addition, the flaw must be rigorously backwall breaking (to generate
the reflection of a creeping wave at the flaw bottom edge) and intersect the plane of incidence
in order to give rise to a creeping wave echo. Shadowing effects affecting the creeping wave
contribution are also taken into account in a 2D manner.
This 2.5D approximation reduces the validity of the model for very focused transducers (focal
width very narrow compared to the extension of the probe).
The calculation option "Creeping waves" ("Options" tab of the "Calculation settings" Panel) is
accessible for a configuration checking all the following conditions:
• the specimen must be homogeneous composed of a single isotropic material, plane, or cylin-
drical with incident plane perpendicular to the axis of revolution, or 2D CAD with a planar
extrusion.
• All probe types except dual element are possible: the new type EMAT is also allowed.
• Inspection different from TOFD mode.
• Any Backwall medium can be treated: void, isotropic liquid and isotropic solid.
• Flaws: presence of at least one rectangular defect or one planar defect defined by CAD. In
the latter case (CAD defined), the creeping waves contribution is that of a rectangular flaw
of the same extension as that of the CAD defect.Allowed computation parameters:
• Setting parameters:
Initialization Options (definition of calculated modes):Direct, half-skip, full skip, easy setting and
advanced definition with checked options waves L & T and conversions modes.
N skips typical T45 with options L and T waves checked ("mode conversions" is unchecked
grayed in this case)
Not allowed: direct mode, N skips typical L0
3D computation mode for incident field and in the "Options" tab all Control options (but no
creeping wave are calculated for direct and typical L0 modes)
Two warnings can appear when trying to calculate creeping waves :
"No creeping wave computation on a flaw which is not perpendicular to the incident plane or
on a flaw which is not rectangular plane or CAD defined. Do you want to continue ? (Yes/No) "
"No creeping wave computation with a phased array probe emitting outside a symmetry plane
of the specimen. Do you want to continue ? (Yes/No)".
Indeed since the model relies on 2.5D approximation, the wedge composed by the flaw and
the backwall must be in a 2D configuration (notably flaw perpendicular to the incident plane
of the probe).
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1.2.5. Model of ultrasonic generation by an Electro-Magnetic Acoustic Transducer

Case treated:
EMAT can generate ultrasonic waves in conductive materials. In most EMAT designs, the two
most important features are a coil and a permanent magnet. There are cases where several
magnets can be used; coils can have various shapes. EMAT design depends on the type of
wave one wants to radiate in the part.
There are mainly two electromagnetic forces possibly created by an EMAT that can be source
of an elastic wave field: the Lorentz force and the magnetostriction force. The latter is generated
by an EMAT in a ferromagnetic material. The former is generated in any conductive material.
In what follows, constitutive materials of the part under test are assumed to be nonmagnetic.
Therefore, the only force considered here is the Lorentz force. Note that works are in progress
to model both forces in ferromagnetic parts.
Lorentz force:
The Lorentz force results from the interaction of eddy currents J generated by the coil in the
vicinity of the part surface where the EMAT applies with a magnetic field B. The Lorentz’ force
FL is simply given by the following formula:
(1)
Generally speaking, the magnetic field itself is composed of two fields: the static field BS due
to the permanent magnet and a dynamic field BS generated by the current intensity in the coil.
In the present model, an assumption is made that the static field is far higher than the dynamic
one. The former is independent of the frequency of the electric current in the coil while the latter
is not. For the sake of simplicity, the current is assumed to be a harmonic excitation of angular
frequency w. In practice, arbitrary time-dependent electrical excitation can be considered; it is
accounted for by standard Fourier synthesis.
Under the assumption of high static field compared to the dynamic one, the Lorentz force has
the same time-dependency as that of the source, i.e., its spectrum is nothing but that of the
excitation.
Since eddy-currents are confined close to the part surface (skin effect) and exponentially de-
crease with increasing depth (that is to say, increasing distance from the part surface), the
Lorentz force, which is a body force, has significant amplitude in the same region.
Computation of the Lorentz force:
Computing the Lorentz force mainly consists in computing the static (bias) field BS and the
eddy-currents generated by the time-dependent intensity in the electrical circuit.
In CIVA, tools for simulating eddy-current nondestructive testing already exist. Therefore, the
Lorentz force is easily obtained by computing the vector relation that defines it. This computa-
tion constitutes formally the first step of the present model.
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Considering the decreasing exponential behaviour of J, it is generally considered that the force
amplitude is almost negligible at depth deeper than 5 times the skin depth [indeed, exp(-5) ~
7.10-3]. It is therefore pointless to take into account point sources of this body force positioned
deeper than this limit.
The skin depth is a frequency-dependent quantity and is also a function of electromagnetic

characteristics of the material under examination (µ is the permeability and s the conductivity).
(2)
Generally, the skin-depth is small compared to the shortest wavelength (that of shear waves
with wavespeed cT)
δ << 2 π cT / ω
(3)
Radiation from a body force:
Assuming the Lorentz force has been computed, it is now necessary to consider it as a source
term for the elastic waves. The elastic wave field generated by a distribution of body forces
is formally obtained through the volume integral convolution of the force distribution with the
Green’s tensor which is the elementary solution of the wave equation for the problem in hands
[1]. One has
(4)
This volume integral is spatially restricted by the depth limit considered and in other dimensions,
to the extent of the EMAT. Despite these limitations, proceeding to such a numerical integration
would be costly in computation time. Indeed, its integrand comprises an oscillating term (the
Green’s tensor) which implies a rather fine discretization of the source volume.
An alternative solution can however be obtained by means of an approximation that has already
been proposed in the literature.
From body force to surface stress:
In typical EMAT applications, and for typical frequencies used in the context of NDT, it is gen-
erally admitted that the range of depths over which the force is not negligible is smaller than
the wavelength of the ultrasonic wave to be generated.
Under this assumption, it is possible to rewrite the volume integral which integrand is given
by the product of the Green’s tensor and the force as a surface integral which integrand is
given by the product of the Green’s tensor and an integral over the depth of the force [1]. The
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full derivation of a general formulation for transforming body forces close to the surface into
equivalent surface stress may be found in [2].
(5)
with
(6)
This approximation is the zero-th order term of a general formula obtained by developing the
volume integral as a Taylor’s series where successive terms are the n-th order moments of
the force relatively to the depth.
The integral over the depth of the force is simple to compute. That over the source surface is
a radiation integral which is implemented to predict the radiation by a surface source.
Radiation by a distribution of surface stress:
The distribution of equivalent surface stress resulting from the integral transformation summa-
rized in the previous paragraph can comprise both normal and tangent components.
A classical model for predicting the radiation of elastic waves by a source of normal stress at
the surface of a half-space is that developed by Miller and Pursey [1954]. It relies on certain
approximations but leads to fast computations. The main approximation consists in neglect-
ing the head wave contribution which decreases faster than the bulk compression and shear
waves. Under basically the same assumptions, Cherry [4] developed a similar model to deal
with sources of tangential stress.
Finally, using arguments issued from the reciprocity principle, Lhémery derived [5] a model that
unifies the two previous models under a unique formalism. Directivities of bulk compression
and shear wave are explicitly written as functions of the reflection coefficients (including those
involving mode-conversion) at the surface of the part where the source lies. This makes it
possible to implement this model in CIVA in a manner fully compatible with the model of field
computation for sources radiating in the part from a external coupling medium. The main results
can be summarised as follows.
Once the equivalent surface stresses have been computed in the frequency domain and once a
loop over the range of excitation frequencies has been computed, they are Fourier transformed
to get their time-dependent expression. The ultrasonic field radiation is therefore expressed in
the transient case.
The transient particle displacement u radiated at r by a normal stress sz at R0 is given in

spherical coordinates by:
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(7)
(8)
(9)
sin θ / sin θ1= cL/ cT and sin θ2/ sin θ = cL/ cT , the various reflection coefficients notations being
straightforwardly interpreted as follows: RIJ stands for the reflection coefficient at the interface
of an incident wave of I-polarity which reflects as a wave of J-polarity. L stands for longitudinal
waves, T, for transverse wave and TH for transverse horizontal wave. The angle θ is the angle
between the depth z-axis and the direction from the running source point R0 (x0,y0) and the
observation point r.
The transient particle displacement u radiated at r by a tangential stress sx at R0 is given in

spherical coordinates by:
(10)
(11)
(12)
Some of the reflection coefficients involved can be complex-valued for angles higher than the
-1
critical angle sin (cT/cL). When it is the case, the time dependency in the integral is not a
δ function anymore but its Hilbert transform. This subtlety is not fully discussed here; this is
something already managed with the transmission coefficients for the models of radiation from
a coupling medium.
Expressions in the Cartesian coordinates can be easily derived by usual projections.
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[1] R. B. Thompson, “Radiating body forces and equivalent surface stresses: analysis and
application to EMAT design,” J. Nondestruct. Eval. 1, 79-85 (1980).
[2] C. Rouge, A. Lhémery and D. Ségur, “Transformation of body forces localized near the
surface of a half-space into equivalent surface stresses,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am. (2013).
[3] G. F. Miller and H. Pursey, "The field and radiation impedance of mechanical radiators on
the free surface of a semi-infinite isotropic solid,” Proc. R. Soc. London A 223, 521-541 (1954).
[4] J. T. Cherry, “The azimuthal and polar radiation patterns obtained from a horizontal stress
applied at the surface of an elastic halfspace,” Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 52, 27-36 (1962).
[5] A. Lhémery, Modèles théoriques et études pratiques en imagerie ultrasonore large bande.
Application au contrôle non-destructif des matériaux, mémoire d'Habilitation à Diriger des
Recherches de l’Université Paris VII, (2000), Ch. 3, 46-52.
1.2.6. Shadowing effects

Although the overall inspection simulation module computes the signal received by the probe
as the summation of individual contributions for all modes (L, T waves, direct/corner echoes…)
and for all defects and geometrical echoes (surface and backwall echoes), it is possible to deal
with shadowing effects of :
• Defect over Defect

• Defect over Geometry
• Geometry over Defect
These different shadowing effects are illustrated on next figure.
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Figure 2.23. Principle of the different shadowing effects that

may be taken into account in the inspection simulation Module
Indeed, shadowing effects are automatically taken into account via the incident and received
beam computations. The surface integral made upon the transducer aperture (see chapter UT
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Modeling Theory - Beam computation), which makes use of paths related to computation point
and source points over the probes, will automatically remove ultrasonic paths which intersect
flaws or geometry, so that the field radiated will be intrinsically decreased because of missed
paths.
Figure 2.24. Principle of shadowing effects (here, shadowing of flaw over flaw) in
the inspection simulation module, via removal of UT paths in the beam computation
1.2.7. Main limitations of the Inspection Simulation module - References

As mentioned above, dedicated models are used, depending on the configuration and the
flaws. Limitations of these models were discussed in the sections related to the presentation
of these models.
In addition to these limitations, it has to be recalled that the simulation of the signal measured
at the receiver is the sum of elementary contributions (echoes) (corner, direct, indirect echoes,
either L or T waves) from the various defects, assuming that these responses are independent.
Therefore, the echo superposition hypothesis means that the «defect / defect» interaction is
not taken into account (e.g. an echo from a corner made by two defects perpendicular and
close to each other). Similarly, multiple scattering is not simulated.
NB : This limitation is not valid for branched flaws, for which one estimates additional echoes
due to interaction of the wave between branches using the Kirchhoff approximation.
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Under Kirchhoff’s approximation, only interactions of bulk waves with voids are accounted.
Consequently in CIVA :
Surface wave inspection are not simulated (for instance, no interaction of Rayleigh waves with
surface or backwall breaking flaws).
Surface waves generated by diffraction at the tips of planar defects then propagating along
cracks and then diffracted as bulk waves that can be measured by the receiver are not pre-
dicted.
NB : It is recalled that the use of the creeping wave option allows to calculate echoes due to
creeping waves generated at the backwall of the component and reflected by backwall breaking
flaws. However, for such configurations, the head wave (radiation of the creeping wave inside
the component in transverse wave at the critical angle) contributions are not taken into account :
this head wave can notably be reflected by the flaw [16]. Therefore this option is mostly useful
when the creeping wave reflection is preponderant in the echo formation (more important than
the reflected transverse bulk wave and the related head wave). The proposed model shall be
extended to more generic cases in future releases.
So as to model the response of flaws embedded in anisotropic medium, contrary to the Kirchhoff
model, both the GTD and SOV ones can be used thanks to an extension modelling based on
the strong approximation of an equivalent isotropic medium. The flaws are supposed to be
entirely included in the same single anisotropic material and the material anisotropy has to be
small to obtain a good quantitative prediction.
Indeed, the previous models have been extended to deal with cracks embedded in anisotropic
materials. The extension consists in locally replacing the anisotropic medium including the flaw
by an equivalent isotropic medium.
This medium is determined locally at each mesh point of the flaw as follows:
• the density is those of the medium containing the flaw centre.

• the ultrasonic wave speed is the phase speed of the anisotropic medium containing the mesh
point in the direction of the average wave vector (average of the emission and reception
wave vectors represented by the red arrow in the figure below).
However, emission and observation directions used for calculation of diffraction coefficients
are obtained at each mesh point from the field calculation in the anisotropic material containing
the mesh point. Nevertheless, the use of this " equivalent isotropic medium" approximation will
be valid if the anisotropy of the medium including the flaw is not too important.
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Figure 2.25. Determination of the phase velocity of the equivalent isotropic medium.
REFERENCES
[1] M. Darmon, P. Calmon, B. Bèle,Review of Progress in QNDE, 22A, Eds. D.O. Thompson
and D.E. Chimenti, Plenum Press, N.Y., 2003, p.101.
[2] R.K. Chapman, Ultrasonic scattering from smooth flat cracks: An elastodynamic Kirch-
hoff diffraction theory, CEGB Report, North Western Region NDT Applications Centre, NWR/
SSD/82/0059/R (1982).
[3] M Darmon, N Leymarie, S Chatillon, S Mahaut 2009 Modelling of scattering of ultrasounds

by flaws for NDT Ultrasonic wave propagation in non homogeneous media ed A Léger and M
Deschamps (Springer Proc. Phys. 128)61.
[4] J D Achenbach and A K Gautesen 1986 Edge Diffraction in Acoustics and Elastodynamics
Low and High Frequency Asymptotics - Vol 2 ed Varadan V K and V V (Elsevier) 335-401.
[5] M Darmon, S Chatillon, S Mahaut, L J Fradkin and A Gautesen 2008 Simulation of

disoriented flaws in a TOFD technique configuration using GTD approach Review of Progress
in QNDE 27,ed D O Thompson and D E Chimenti (Melville: AIP Conf. Proc. 820) 155
[6] M. Darmon, S. Chatillon, S. Mahaut, P. Calmon, L. J. Fradkin and V. Zernov, "Recent

advances in semi-analytical scattering models for NDT simulation", J. Phys.: Conf. Ser. 269
012013, 2011.
[7] V. Zernov, L. Fradkin, M. Darmon, " A refinement of the Kirchhoff approximation to the
scattered elastic fields ", Ultrasonics 52, Issue 7, (2012), pp 830–835.
[8] J D Achenbach, R J Brind, J E Gubernatis 1984 High-frequency scattering of elastic

waves from cylindrical cavities Wave Motion 6 41
[9] H Uberall 1973 Physical Acoustics - Vol. 10 ed W P Mason and R N (Thurston Academic
Press)
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[10] C.F. Ying and R. Truell (1956), “Scattering of a plane longitudinal wave by a spherical
obstacle in an isotropically elastic solid”, J. Appl. Phys., 27 (9), pp. 1086-1097.
[11] D. Brill and G. Gaunaurd (1987), “Resonance theory of elastic waves ultrasonically
scattered from an elastic sphere”, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 81 (1), pp. 1-27.
[12] M Darmon, P Calmon and B Bele 2004 An integrated model to simulate the scattering
of ultrasounds by inclusions in steels Ultrasonics 42 237
[13] V ÄŒervený 2001 Seismic Ray Theory (Cambridge U. Press)
[14] G Huet, M Darmon, A Lhémery and S Mahaut 2009 Modelling of corner echo ultrasonic
inspection with bulk and creeping waves Ultrasonic wave propagation in non homogeneous
media ed A Léger and M Deschamps (Springer Proc. Phys. 128)217
[15] S Mahaut, G Huet and M Darmon 2009 Modeling of corner echo in UT inspection com-
bining bulk and head waves effect Review of Progress in QNDE 28 ed D O Thompson and D
E Chimenti (AIP Conference Proceedings 1096 Melville 2009) 73
[16] V. Zernov, L. Fradkin, A. Gautesen, M. Darmon, "Wedge diffraction of a critically incident
Gaussian beam", Wave Motion, 50 (4), pp 708–722, 2013.
1.3. Athena theoretical model

1.3.1. General description of the principle of reciprocity
The purpose of the coupled code is to simulate the response of a default in a part, using an
emitting probe A and a receiving probe B. The same probe may emit and receive.
Figure 2.26. general configuration for the application of the principle of reciprocity
The CIVA/ATHENA coupled computation achieves this using Auld´s reciprocity principle, which
connects two states that are defined as follows [3]:
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• state 1, seen as a solution in which transducer B emits, transducer A receives and there is
no default in the part being inspected;
• state 2, seen as a solution in which transducer A emits, transducer B receives and the default
modifies the solution by generating a diffracted field.
In concrete terms, Auld´s reciprocity principle can be used to determine the solution of a prob-
lem, for which there is no analytical solution, by combining two sub-states, for which the solu-
tions can be calculated.
In this way, we can demonstrate that the transient formulation of the reciprocity principle used
to obtain the impulse response of the diffraction echo h(t) of the default is such that:
(1)
where h σij(k)(t) and h νj(k)(t) are respectively the components of the impulse response of
the stress tensor and the field of particle velocity in the state k, where the operator * is the
convolution product and Ni corresponds to the component of the normal at the point M at a
surface S of a closed volume containing the default.
1.4. Fidel 2D theoretical model
1.4.1. Ray based model for the computation of the incident field
The ultrasonic beam field radiated by a probe can be simulated in CIVA by using a ray
based model. This model relies on a high-frequency approximation. It is applicable to com-
plex structures provided that the configuration does not vary rapidly with respect to the
wavelength[(Brokesova, 2006)]. This is generally not true for most configurations of interest
in aeronautics involving composite structures. Indeed, the thickness of a single ply is usually
very small compared to the wavelength. That is why finite differences are better suited for such
simulations. To reduce the computational efforts, the FDTD box is restricted to an area sur-
rounding the specimen. Meanwhile, the incident wavefield in water is computed with the ray-
based model of CIVA.
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Figure 2.27. : FDTD computation inside a rectangular box

surrounding the specimen. The incident wavefield on the box upper
boundary (red line) is computed using CIVA’s ray-based model.
1.4.2. Coupling method for the simulation of an inspection

Hybrid semi-analytical/numerical approaches are designed to combine the advantages of each
method while minimizing their shortcomings. For FDTD, the cost of the simulation increases
with the dimension of the computation box and the number of time step iterations. In contrast,
ray based models are not affected in terms of numerical performance by the distance of propa-
gation of the wave. In typical aeronautical configurations, wave propagation in water represents
a few hundreds of wavelengths (considering typical water paths about 50 to 100 mm, with a
wavelength about 0.3mm, corresponding to a 5 MHz probe), which can be quite demanding.
That is why FDTD is operated in the most restricted area, while the semi-analytical approach is
used to predict the incident field over the upper boundary of this restricted area. The coupling
of both methods is performed thanks to the derivation of the reciprocity principle [(Auld, 1979)].
The FDTD box has to be wide enough for the whole incident beam generated by the emitter to
be transmitted through the upper boundary of the box. Otherwise, part of the energy transmitted
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by the probe will be truncated and may give artifacts due to artificial diffractions at the edges
of the coupling boundary. The same consideration is true for the energy coming back towards
the transducer through the upper boundary of the FDTD box.
The source field is imposed as an external force in equation , derived from the incoming wave-
field computed by CIVA.
If the numerical coupling is done in a fluid, Auld’s reciprocity principle leads to the expression
of the echo-response synthesis:
where is the pressure, the local normal component of the particle velocity vector ex-
pressed on corresponding to the upper boundary of the FDTD box and the operator
corresponds to a temporal convolution. The superscript refers to the total (sum of incident
and diffracted contributions) wavefield on computed with FDTD computation. The
superscript refers to the the incident wavefield. and are the impulse
responses of the transducer considered on . The latter are computed thanks to CIVA
ray-based model.
To simulate the echo-response of the composite sample, we only need to retrieve
and on the active surface from the FDTD computation.
Therefore, the data to be exchanged for the coupling are the normal components of the particle
velocity and the pressure on the upper boundary of the FDTD box, both for the incident field
(CIVA computation) and the diffracted field (FDTD computation).
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1.4.3. Account of attenuation by post-processing

Ultrasonic attenuation observed in CFRPs can generally be divided into two distinct contribu-
tions. The first contribution comes from the inner structure of the healthy material and is called
intrinsic attenuation. The second contribution results from the presence of pores in the material
that causes scattering and attenuation.
The intrinsic propagation has three origins:
• Viscoelasticity of the resin: frequency dependence in f²

• Scattering by carbon fibers: linear frequency dependence between 0 and 10 MHz.
• Attenuation caused by the reflection at the interfaces between plies: resonance frequency
corresponding to twice the thickness of a ply.
The Independent Scattering Approximation (ISA) has been used to describe the attenuation
due to porosities. Three regimes can be identified:
• Low frequency scattering, pores are small compared to the wavelength: attenuation grows
slowly
• “Resonant” frequency scattering, pore sizes are close to the wavelength: attenuation grows
faster.
• High frequency scattering, pores are bigger than the wavelength: attenuation reaches a
plateau.
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Figure 2.28. : typical attenuation curves accounting for scattering by porosities
Attenuation with respect to ultrasonic propagation in attenuating materials can be accounted

for with elastic constants exhibiting non-zero imaginary parts. Attenuation in any direction of
space and for any wave mode (Longitudinal, Transverse or Quasi Transverse) is described by
these imaginary parts. FDTD code may handle complex elastic constants. Alternatively, the
attenuated signal may be obtained by post-processing the signal obtained without attenuation.
This filtering operation allows complex viscoelastic behaviors to be taken into account. Any
frequency filter can be applied, accounting for all the aforementioned causes of attenuation. A
sliding-window Fast Fourier Transform is applied on the Ascan as the frequency filter depends
on the distance of propagation inside the structure which itself depends on the current time-
step on the Ascan.
While the attenuation is applied by post-processing, the dispersion is not taken into account
in the simulation. The phase velocity increases with frequency in a CFRP. If this dependency
can be neglected for low porosity rates, it may become for higher porosity rates [(Jeong & Hsu,
1995)].
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Figure 2.29. : sliding-window FFT algorithm for

applying attenuation on the Ascan by postprocessing.
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2. UT - Active Model Setup

2.1. Specimen
To open the specimen window, one has to click one the "specimen" menu. Separate tabs
are provided for definition of specimen Geometry, Material and Mesh (the latter for 3D CAD
specimens and parametric nozzles only). From the dropdown File menu, it is possible to Load or
Save a specimen description file in XML format. The menu also permits loading of a parameter
file from a Recent Files list corresponding to the latest files of this type opened in the Specimen
window. The Close button closes the window.
Figure 2.30. The 3 tabs of the Specimen panel
2.1.1. Defining Geometry

A dropdown list shown in the figure below allows choice of the type of specimen geometry.
From this list, the user can define the parameters for a plane specimen, cylindrical specimen,
cone, sphere, elbow, nozzle, fastened plate, section transition, blade groove, blade root, TWP,
weld. 2D CAD specimens are either defined using the CAD editor included in Civa or imported
from another CAD program and saved in .dxf format. 3D CAD specimens are imported from
another CAD program in STEP or IGES format.
Figure 2.31. Specimen choice
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2.1.1.1. Planar specimen
A flat or planar specimen is defined by its length (along the x axis), its width (y axis) and its
height (z axis), all of which are expressed in mm or in inches. Plane specimen reference frame
axes are shown in the figure below. Frame origin belongs to the specimen entry surface (plane
z = 0), which has only positive x and y coordinates. Points located inside the volume have a
positive z coordinate.
Figure 2.32. Planar specimen
2.1.1.2. Cylindrical specimen
A cylinder is defined by its outer diameter, its length (along the y axis, generatrix), inner radius
and thickness (in mm or inches). Its angular sector (in °), which by default is 360° can be
reduced as shown in the figure below.
Note: Angular sector is not an exclusively graphic concept, but is truly accounted for
in computation. The inner radius of the cylinder is deduced from its outer diameter
and thickness; but the user can also define the cylinder from its inner radius (its outer
diameter is then deduced from its inner radius and thickness).
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Figure 2.33. cylindrical specimen
2.1.1.3. Conical specimen
A cone is defined by its small inner radius 1 at one end, its internal radius 2 at the other end,
its thickness and its length (along the y axis, i.e. axis of symmetry), all values being expressed
in mm or inches. Its angular sector (in °), which by default is 360°, can be reduced as shown
in the following figure.
Note: Angular sector is not an exclusively graphic concept, but is truly accounted
for in defining specimen geometry for the computation. Outer diameter 1 and outer
diameter 2 are deduced from specimen thickness and internal radii 1 and 2. The user
can also define the cone the other way around, i.e. from outer diameters 1 and 2, in
which case the elements deduced are its internal radii.
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Figure 2.34. Conical specimen
2.1.1.4. Spherical specimen
A sphere is defined by its outer diameter and thickness, both in mm or inches. Its angular sector
(in °), which by default is 360°, can be reduced as shown in the following figure.
Note: Angular sector is not an exclusively graphic concept, but is truly accounted for
in defining specimen geometry for the computation. Inner radius is deduced from the
specimen outside diameter and thickness. The user can also define the sphere the
other way around, i.e. from its inner radius, in which case the element deduced is
its outer diameter.
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Figure 2.35. Spherical specimen
2.1.1.5. Elbow
An elbow is defined by its inner radius, thickness, main radius and the two lengths (length1
and length2) of cylindrical segments extending the elbow torus, all of which are expressed in
mm or inches. Its angular sector (in °), which by default is 90°, can be modified as shown in
the following figure.
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Figure 2.36. Elbow specimen
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2.1.1.6. Nozzle
Figure 2.37. Nozzle specimen definition
The nozzle definition window has three panels:
• one for choice of the relevant parameters,

• one for explanatory 2D and 3D drawings,
• a list of associated parameters.
The "Validation" button changes color at the same time as the drawing in the 3D view, whenever
a parameter is changed. The user clicks this button to credit new parameters in 2D and 3D
drawings.
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Figure 2.38. Nozzle description
By clicking one of the characteristics in the choice of parameters panel, the user refreshes the
other two panels to credit this choice and accesses the following parameters:
• nozzle configuration,
• principal cylinder,
• secondary cylinder,
• fillet,
• secondary cone,
• connection.
The content of this panel is modified according to the parameters selected for nozzle config-
uration (if, for example, the user does not select an inner or outer connection, connection no
longer appears in the choice of parameters panel).
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Figure 2.39. Nozzle configuration
As shown above, the user determines whether or not the nozzle has an inner cone, outer
cone, inner connection or outer connection by checking the corresponding options on the list
of associated parameters.
The cylinder simplification box is checked to tell Civa that only two cylinders are involved. This
option has no impact on the graphic display of the specimen, but is useful if the user wishes to
simulate tests on the main or secondary cylinder without crediting a connection between them.
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Figure 2.40. Primary cylinder :
The main cylinder is defined by its height, inner radius and thickness (in mm orinches). Its outer
diameter is deduced from its inner radius and thickness. If the cylinder is defined the other way
around, from its outer diameter, then the element deduced is its inner radius.
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Figure 2.41. Secondary cylinder :
The secondary cylinder is defined by its height, inner radius and thickness (in mm or inches).
Its outer diameter is deduced from its inner radius and thickness. If the cylinder is defined the
other way around, from its outer diameter, then the element deduced is its inner radius.
Nozzle angle is expressed in degrees; it defines the angle between the main cylinder generatrix
and that of the secondary cylinder.
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Figure 2.42. Fillet
The fillet is defined by its outer and inner radii in mm (or inches).
Secondary cone:
The outer dimensions of the secondary cone (if "outer cone" is selected for the nozzle configu-
ration) are defined by the outer cone angle and length and its inner dimensions (if "inner cone"
is selected for the nozzle configuration) by the inner cone angle and length.
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Figure 2.43. Connection
The outer dimensions of the connection, where "connection" is selected under nozzle config-
uration, is defined by the outer connection length and its internal dimensions (where "connec-
tion" is selected under nozzle configuration) by the inner connection length.
2.1.1.7. Butt Weld
The weld definition window has two panels:
• One for choice of the relevant parameters

• Another to define the geometry of the weld
Figure 2.44. Weld definition overview
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By clicking one of the characteristics in the choice of parameters panel, the user accesses the
following parameters:
• Configuration of the weld,

• Thickness,
• Symmetry of the bevel,
• Type of weld groove
2.1.1.7.1. WELD CONFIGURATION

As shown below, the user determines whether the geometry is planar (defined by its length
and its extrusion (in mm or inches)), cylindrical or longitudinal (defined by its inner radius, its
length (in mm or inches) and its angle (in°)). The difference between the cylindrical case and
the longitudinal case is the direction of the weld which is circumferential in the cylindrical case
and along the cylinder in the longitudinal case.
2.1.1.7.2. THICKNESS
The user can choose a symmetric or a non symmetric weld. In case of different thickness, the
user defines the thickness of the both sides of the weld (in mm or inches), the length (in mm
or inches) and the angle (in °) of the tapering. The height of tapering is deuced from these
parameters. This tapering is symmetrical (same dimensions on the top and the bottom of the
weld).
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2.1.1.7.3. SYMMETRY OF THE BEVEL
The bevel can be symmetrical or not. In case of non symmetrical bevel, one side of the weld
is necessary square groove.
2.1.1.7.4. TYPE OF BEVEL
This panel has three parts:
• the choice of the bevel
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• a schematic of the chosen bevel

• the parameters of the bevel geometry
If "Symmetrical" is selected for the symmetry of the bevel, the following bevels are available:
• Square groove: defined by the gap

• V: defined by the gap, the root face and the angle
• Double V: defined by the gap, the root face, the top angle, the bottom angle and the parameter
h which is the dimension between the bottom of the weld and the middle of the root face
• Single V with V root: defined by the gap, the root face, the top angle, the root angle and
the parameter h
• X-VU: defined by the gap, the root face, the top angle, the bottom angle, the parameter h
and the radius of U bevel
• U: defined by the gap, the root face, the top angle and the radius
• Double U: defined by the gap, the root face, the top angle, the bottom angle, the parameter
h, the top radius and the bottom radius
• Single U with U root: defined by the gap, the root face, the top angle, the parameter h, the
top radius, the root radius and the root angle
• X-UV: defined by the gap, the root face, the top angle, the bottom angle, the parameter h
• X-VV|V: defined by the gap, the root face, the top angle, the bottom angle, the angle of the
V root, the parameter h1 which is the dimension between the bottom of the weld and the top
of the V root and the parameter h2 which is the dimension between the bottom of the weld
and the middle of the root face
• X-VV|U: defined by the gap, the root face, the top angle, the bottom angle, the angle of the
V root, the parameter h1, the parameter h2 and the radius of U bevel
• X-UU|V: defined by the gap, the root face, the top angle, the bottom angle, the angle of the
U root, the parameter h1, the parameter h2, the radius of U bevel and the radius of U root
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• X-UU|U: defined by the gap, the root face, the top angle, the bottom angle, the angle of the
U root, the parameter h1, the parameter h2, the radii of top and the bottom U bevel and the
radius of U root
Figure 2.45. List of available symmetric welds
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If " Non symmetrical" is selected for the symmetry of the bevel, the following bevels are avail-
able:
• Single bevel (Y): defined by the gap, the root face and the angle
• Double bevel (K): defined by the gap, the root face, the top angle, the bottom angle, the
parameter h
• K-VU: defined by the gap, the root face, the top angle, the bottom angle, the parameter h
• J: defined by the gap, the root face, the radius and the angle
• Double J: defined by the gap, the root face, the parameter h, the top and bottom radii and
the top and bottom angles
• K-UV: defined by the gap, the root face, the parameter h, the top radii and the top and bottom
angles
Figure 2.46. List of available non-symmetric welds
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The gap is always constant along the depth of the weld.
When one parameter (the gap s, h, h1 or h2) is modified, the dimension of the top of the weld
is automatically deduced in order that the dimensions of the other parts of the weld are not
modified. Furthermore, it is important to respect some conditions on these dimensions. For
example:
with H the weld thickness
2.1.1.8. Tee Weld
- One for the choice of relevant parameters
- The other to define the geometry of the weld
- Weld configuration,
- Thickness, angle
- Chamfer, root face
- Back strip
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WELD CONFIGURATION
As shown below, the user defines the length of P1 and P2, the length of the overlap and the
width of the weld.
THICKNESS, ANGLE
As shown below, the user defines the thickness of P1 and P2 and the angle between the two
parts.
CHAMFER, ROOT FACE
As shown below, the user has to select, for each side, if a chamfer is present. For each chamfer,
the user defines the angle and the length of the chamfer as presented below. The length of
the root is presented as a feedback.
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BACK STRIP
As shown below, the user has to select, for each side, if a back strip is present. For each back
strip, the user defines the length and the height of the back strip as presented below. The last
parameters is the space between P1 and P2.
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Figure 2.47. Tee Weld Configuration panel
In the Inspection window Configuration tab, a Zone (“Inspection face”) is added (see next Fig-
ure). In this new zone, the user selects the face on which the inspection will be configured.
2.1.1.9. Blade groove
Blade groove is one of the two new parametric specimens, related to blade configurations :
“blade groove” and “blade” root. For both specimens, the user needs to define the geometry of
the root (number of serrations, lengths, conic angle of the attachment), using the parameters
illustrated on the GUI, then specific parameters are used for both geometries.
Firstly, this specimen is defined by its overall dimensions (GUI, top). The total length of the
component is given by the front and back length (dimensions before and after the first and
last grooves – if several grooves have been defined) plus the groove spacing distance(s). If
only one groove is defined, then the length is given by front + back length distances, otherwise
the complete length is given by : front + back length + (N-1)*groove spacing (where N is the
number of grooves). The height of the component is simply given by the parameter “Height”.
The geometry of the root is given by several parameters which are interrelated. The root is
defined by the number of serrations, the bottom width, the conicity of the root, as well as dif-
ferent parameters related to length and fillet radius. Those parameters are not completely in-
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dependent, therefore some modifications of parameters lead to other modifications (and some
values can be refused if it is not possible to build the attachment geometry using the parame-
ters defined by the user.
The bottom part of the GUI is used to define the extension (width) of the specimen, as well as
the extrusion of the root, which may be planar or circular. For that latter case, it is possible to
modify the center of the axis of the circular extrusion of the blade groove.
The material of the specimen is defined using the second tab of the Specimen GUI “material”.
Only homogeneous specimens (made of one given material) may be defined.
The specimen built upon the definition of the parameters described above is built as a 3D
CAD, which means that the original parametric shape of the component will turn into a 3D
CAD part meshed with triangles. The meshing parameters are defined in the “Mesh” tab of the
Specimen GUI. Standard or “Expert” parameters may be used. The main parameter that shall
be accurately defined is the “mesh accuracy”, which corresponds to the maximum error to be
accepted between the native geometry of the component and the 3D CAD part built from the
meshing definition. A fraction of the wavelength (for instance, a tenth of the wavelength inside
the material) could be used as a correct criteria. The accuracy of the mesh of the component
may be checked by displaying the mesh structure (right click on the display of the component,
then selection of “Mesh” in the submenu, and “visible”). It is recommended to “visually” check
this consistency of the component as turned out into a 3D CAD part, especially if the user
wants to evaluate the response of flaws close to the serration parts (which is the key interest
of simulation over blade roots and groove).
2.1.1.10. Blade root

Blade root is the second of the two new parametric specimens, related to blade configurations :
This specimen is the “complementary” part with respect to the “Blade groove”, related to turbine
blade attachment. Only one blade root can be defined, using the same set of parameters used
to define the blade groove.
Only one parameter (height) is added to the definition of this component, which corresponds
to the top length above the root attachment.
Similarly to the Blade groove definition, such a specimen is therefore built as a 3D CAD, so
that similar checking of the meshed part shall be carried out prior to computations.
2.1.1.11. TWP
The Through Wall Penetration (TWP) specimen allows to take into account the geometry of
a Bottom Mounted Instrumentation nozzle used in Nuclear Power Plants. This specimen if
made of a tube welded on a plate with a given inclinaison angle. The following homogeneous
volumes can be distinguished : the plate (representative of the PWR vessel bottom), the weld,
the tube, the chamfer cladding, and the plate cladding. We can then define the material (and
its acoustic properties) of each volume, that will be taken into account in the beam computation
and inspection simulation module. The geometry of the weld volume varies in 3D as in TWP.
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CIVA generates the 3D geometry using several parameters devided in four tabs :
Plate
The length (Lp), the height (Hp) and the width (Wp) of the plate, as well as the plate cladding
thickness h must be defined in the 'plate' label (see figure below). All parameters are in mil-
limeters.
Tube
In the tab 'tube', we define the diameter (Dt), the thickness (Et), the length above the plate (L1)
and the length under the plate (L2) of the tube (see figure below), in millimeters. The angle
between the tube axis and the normal to the plate is θ, in degrees.
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Milling
In the tab named 'milling' the parameters necessary to generate the geometry of the chamfers
have to be defined. Φ min (resp. Φ max) is the minimum (resp. maximum) angle (in degrees)
between the chamfer and the horizontal (parallel to the plate surface, see figure below). Df is
the milling diameter, and ∆ is the distance (in millimeters) between the milling axis and the main
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axis. The main axis is the normal to the plate surface that intercepts the point defined as the
intersection of the tube axis with the plate surface.
Restriction :
∆, Df, Dt and θ must be compatible, i.e. chosen so that the tube is not outside the bottom of the
milled zone. This way, the bottom of the weld volume is planar (parallel to the plate surface).
The following figure shows examples of configurations not compatible with CIVA:
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Figure 2.48. Not available TWPs
H1 is the height of the weld zone above the plate surface ; H2 is the height of the weld above
the plate surface ; e is the thickness of the chamfer cladding. At last, R1 and R2 are the radii of
curvature of the weld surface, the former close to the tube, the latter close to the plate. These
radii are the same in every cutting plane intercepting the main axis.
Once all parameters have been set, click on the box 'validate the configuration' so CIVA can
compute the corresponding geometry.
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The 3D specimen is then shown in the visualisation window :
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The US beam computation and inspection simulation modules allow to use a transducer inside
the tube or above the plate and weld surface.
2.1.1.12. Fastened plate
This specimen allows to insert a rivet in a multi layer specimen and to add rectangular defects
around its body.
Inspection simulation module allows then to compute echoes obtained after several bounces
between the backwall, the rivet’s body and the defect. Geometrical echoes directly from the
backwall and the rivet, or after two bounces (i.e. corner echoes between the backwall and the
rivet) can also be computed following certain conditions.
Next figure shows a bore specimen in 3D.
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Figure 2.49. Rivet description
The rivet has got a head which thickness and diameter parameters can be adjusted. Orientation
of the head is the same as the body. But if the body is disoriented (with Beta angle), the head
is truncated, the part above the bore being discarded as can be seen on next figure
Figure 2.50. Head of rivet
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A headless rivet, to be defined, just needs to have the same diameter as the body diameter.
At the opposite of the body is a nut as can be seen on next figure. This nut is not taken into
account during the simulation. It is drawn only for aesthetic purpose.
The diameter and thickness of the nut can be adjusted.
Figure 2.51. Nut of fasterner
Finally the rivet has got a body which diameter, height and orientation can be adjusted. Orienta-
tion is adjusted through the Beta angle parameter which maximum value is fixed to 10 degrees.
specimen description:
The specimen is a plane specimen with adjustable length and width. In addition, the backwall
can have a slope which value is adjusted by Alpha angle.
The specimen can contain several layers of materials. Alpha angle is restricted to a value such
that the last layer has got a null thickness on one of its sides. By default the specimen has
got two layers.
Geometry of Bore:
If « Perfect contact » is checked in the geometry tab, then ultrasound propagation in the body
and the head of the rivet will taken into account during simulation calculations.
On the contrary, if the box is not checked, then the material rivet is ignored, and the rivet shall
considered as filled in with air.
Only rectangular defects can be inserted in bore specimens. They are positioned relatively to
the rivet. See Flaws.
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2.1.1.13. 2D CAD specimen
A 2D CAD specimen is defined as a profile to which a plane or cylindrical extension is added.
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The
button is used to read an already created CAO file, the
button to edit it or create a new file in a dedicated interface. See 2D CAD Editor, and in particular
Save / Load Files for the authorized file format and how to load a file.
The field Comment is a free field where you can annotate the 2D CAD model.
Choice of a Plane or Cylindrical extension gives access to the corresponding parameters at

the bottom of the panel. For a plane extension, a length is defined in mm. For a cylindrical
extension, a radius is defined in mm and an angle in °.
2.1.1.14. 3D CAD Specimen
Specimen construction, which takes place outside CIVA, must comply with a number of simple
rules.
A 3D CAD Specimen can be defined as an heterogenous specimen by adding several CAD

Files. Each File defines on part of it.
The position of each part of the specimen can be ajusted with the "Position (selected volume)"
parameters.
The "position (component)" parameters affects the whole specimen position inside the CIVA
scene. Its purpose is to subsequently facilitate positioning of other test configuration elements.
For cylindrical-type piece positioning, the CAD piece is oriented so that the Y axis of the CIVA
reference frame coincides with the piece rotation axis.
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Once a piece is entered for modelling, it is automatically meshed by CIVA. Its mesh construc-
tion is based on the geometric constraints defined by four operator-entered parameters: Mesh
accuracy (in mm), maximum and minimum lengths (in mm) and Max ratio. Mesh accuracy
takes priority over the other three parameters. It is advisable to define these parameters be-
fore opening the 3DCAD file. Excessive constraints may result in too many mesh units, radical
slowing of software operation and excessive memory consumption.
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Figure 2.52. Mesh tab for 3D CAD test pieces
Definition of meshing parameters and suggested default values.
Mesh accuracy: maximum discrepancy between the surface of the specimen defined by the
CAD file and the surface meshed into triangles. The predominant constraint is that imposed on
the mesh by mesh accuracy. For UT simulation, this value should be related to wavelength in
the coupling medium, which is denoted as λ C. A maximum of λ C/5 is suggested.
Figure 2.53. Mesh accuracy
Maximum length: absolute maximum length possible for the side of a triangle. In the absence
of special geometric requirements, the suggestion is to use a very high value (e.g. 100 mm).
Minimum length: absolute minimum length possible for the side of a triangle. In the absence
of special geometric requirements, the suggestion is to use a very low value (e.g. 0.01 mm).
Max Ratio: maximum value, for a given triangle, of the ratio of the length of its longest side to
that of its shortest side. Suggested maximum ratio is 3.
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Figure 2.54. Triangle ratio
Once defined, the triangle mesh can be visualized in the 3D view by right-clicking on the spec-
imen.
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Figure 2.55. Visualizing mesh
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2.1.2. Roughness
One can define piece whose surface is rough. This roughness is defined by a single statistical
parameter and results in an attenuation factor that depends on frequency.
Roughness can be defined for all the piece geometries.
Roughness is accounted for the entry surface of the piece only defined by the testing configu-
ration (parametric pieces) or through CAD files (CAD pieces).
The single parameter Ra is expressed in µm (micrometer). Its physical meaning and an expla-
nation on the physical model of roughness are given in the chapter UT Modeling Theory), .
Figure 2.56. roughness for specimen
2.1.3. Structure (Homogenous/Multilayers)

For each type of piece except 2D CAD, 3D CAD, nozzles, parametric welds, blades and TWP
the "Structure" zone of the Specimen window allows selection of one or more layers of material
(Homogeneous or Multilayer options).
Figure 2.57. Structure for specimen
If the multilayers option is selected, the Geometry box enables insertion of a new layer either
above the one highlighted or at the end of the list, using a set of blue-colored buttons located to
the left of the list. These buttons also serve to displace the highlighted layer to a lower or higher
position and to define layer thicknesses by changing the values in the list. It is also possible
to remove the highlighted layer.
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Figure 2.58. Multilayers structure
2.1.4. Defining Material

The "Material" menu in the Specimen window is intended for defining the material(s) making
up a piece. Depending on piece structure (Homogeneous, Heterogeneous or Multilayer as
described in the previous section), one or more materials need to be defined for each of the
volumes that comprise it.
There are two possible ways of defining a material:

by clicking the Load button
. This button gives access to a list of predefined materials saved in XML format;
or by directly defining in the desired material properties (type, density, L and T wave speeds,
noise and attenuation, …) via the GUI. Once a material has been defined, it can be saved by
clicking the button
as an XML file, which can subsequently be reloaded by clicking the load button.
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This section describes the options available to the user for defining the material associated
with a given volume (homogeneous medium). Pieces comprising more than one volume are
discussed at the end of this chapter.
For a homogeneous piece, the specimen window material menu takes different forms, depend-
ing on the type of the selected material. The user has several options (see figure below). Simple
(for defining an isotropic or anisotropic material), Single ply composite, Homogeneous multiple
ply composite, Granular composite or Coarse grained material.
Notes: coarse grained material is only available with plane or cylindrical piece.
2.1.4.1. Simple material
For the Simple material option, the user must choose the desired type of material symmetry.
This is done by specifying whether a material is isotropic or anisotropic.
a) Definition of isotropic material
The Material panel of the specimen window is as follows for an isotropic material:
Figure 2.59. isotropic material
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The mechanical properties of an isotropic material include:
density (in g/cm3),
longitudinal wave velocity (in m/s),
transverse wave velocity (in m/s),
It is also possible to define material attenuation properties and parameters relating to structural
noise. Both these sets of properties are accessed by clicking the advanced options button. For
a detailed discussion of attenuation and noise properties see Parameters defining attenuation
b) Definition of anisotropic material
The Material panel of the specimen window is as follows for an anisotropic material:
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Figure 2.60. Anisotropic material
For an anisotropic material, the user first define the density (in g/cm3), then selects the desired
type of crystal symmetry.
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Figure 2.61. Crystal symmetry
Different elasticity constants must be entered (in GPa) in the "Real elasticity" column of the
panel (see above figure). The number of required values varies with the type of symmetry:
Isotropic (2 values): c11, c66
Cubic (3 values): c11, c12, c44
Transversely isotropic (5 values): c11, c12, c13, c33, c44
Orthotropic (9 values): c11, c12, c13, c22, c23, c33, c44, c55, c66
Monoclinic (13 values): c11, c12, c13, c16, c22, c23, c26, c33, c36, c44, c45, c55, c66
Triclinic (21 values): c11, c12, c13, c14, c15, c16, c22, c23, c24, c25, c26, c33, c34, c35,c36,
c44, c45, c46, c55, c56, c66
The attenuation properties of an anisotropic material can be defined via the advanced options
button. Important: Attenuation anisotropy is not credited in the models. Attenuation is therefore
treated in the same way for both isotropic and anisotropic materials. Like for isotropic materials,
the user can define the structural noise properties of an anisotropic piece via the advanced
options button. For more information on these properties, see bellow.
After defining the crystal symmetry and associated constants, the material´s crystal orientation
must be specified with respect to the piece reference frame (X, Y, Z). For a given homogeneous
piece (or a given volume, in the case of a heterogeneous or multilayer piece), this orientation
is considered to be identical at all points in the volume. It is defined by three angles of rotation
(in degrees) around the X, Y and Z axes of the piece reference frame. If all these angles are
zero, the crystal reference frame coincides with the one of the piece. If several rotations are
defined, they are considered to take place successively around the X, Y, then Z axis and their
multiplication matrices are not commutative. The direction of rotation applicable to each of the
rotations around the three axes X, Y or Z is shown on the following figure:
Figure 2.62. Rotations around X, Y and Z axis
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Once the anisotropic material of interest has been defined, it is possible to display the slowness
surfaces of quasi-longitudinal (QL) and quasi-transverse fast and slow waves (QT1 and QT2)
shown in the 3D and 2D display window, at the center of the piece. To do so, just check the
QL, QT1 and/or QT2 options placed below the elastic coefficient table in the specimen window
material panel. You can also visualize crystalline orientations.
Figure 2.63. Slowness curves

Note: in practice, the most widely used crystal symmetries are cubic (material with three equiv-
alent directions), hexagonal, also called transversely isotropic (material exhibiting a plane of
isotropy), orthorhombic (material characterized by three axes of symmetry), monoclinic (mate-
rial with a single axis of symmetry) and triclinic (material having no symmetry).
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c) Advanced options for simple-type materials
Figure 2.64. Advanced options

Advanced options allow definition of material attenuation laws and piece structural noise. See-
ing the advanced “Options” button in the interface means that no attenuation or structural noise
has been defined for the material of interest (i.e. all these parameters are null). Clicking the
options button displays the attenuation and noise parameters interface. These parameters can
be hidden again by clicking "Close". Once attenuation or noise parameters are entered, the
corresponding values can no longer be hidden. A new button “Set default values” appears.
This button reinitializes all values and allows advanced options to be subsequently hidden if
desired. A warning message then asks the user to confirm resetting of all parameters to their
default values. Important: The default values are null, i.e. no attenuation or structural noise.
Attenuation and noise

Parameters defining attenuation
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As we emphasized above (for definition of anisotropic materials), attenuation is treated isotrop-

ically, regardless of the type of material being considered. The following paragraphs are de-
voted to definition of the attenuation parameters.
The attenuation afforded by a material is usually frequency-dependent. To define attenuation, a
law is used to describe material attenuation behavior within the desired range of test frequen-
cies. For each wave propagation mode (L and/or T), the user has the choice of two attenuation
laws: a power law or a polynomial law.
Figure 2.65. Attenuation laws

The power attenuation law is defined by the following formula:
where:
• α0 is the attenuation value measured at frequency f0,

• f0 is the frequency at which attenuation coefficient α0, is measured,
• p is the power of the frequency,
• f is the frequency.
Figure 2.66. Exponential attenuation law
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To define attenuation as a power law, the user must therefore input the above three parameters
(Table) and can visualize the corresponding curve (Curve).
The polynomial attenuation law is defined by the following formula:
where: p is the power of the frequency, f is the frequency, αp is the coefficient of the exponential
monomial p.
To define attenuation as a polynomial law, the user must therefore input the following parame-
ters and can also visualize the corresponding curve:
Figure 2.67. polynomial attenuation law
Figure 2.68. Parameters for defining structural noise
Structural noise is modeled as a set of diffracting points randomly positioned, in a piece ac-
cording to a uniform distribution scheme. The density of these points, i.e. the number of them
per unit volume is determined by the parameter ρ. Each diffracting point is assigned a reflec-
tivity amplitude determined randomly on the basis of a zero-mean Gaussian distribution and
a standard deviation of σ. To simulate a test involving structural noise, the user must specify
the set of parameters (ρ, σ):
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Figure 2.69. Structural noise
The response of all the scatterers as a whole is then computed by superposing the responses
of the individual points. This implies that multiple scattering phenomena are not credited in
such noise modeling.
Note: A noise generator simulates noise for the purpose of predicting SNR for a given medium.
Realistic description of scattered noise in terms of the two parameters density and amplitude,
requires use of experimental calibration. Such calibration consists of comparing an experimen-
tal image acquired in a "noisy" medium against an image simulated with a given density/ampli-
tude pair, for example using segmentation tools. Statistical analysis can also identify optimum
parameters for modeling the scattering medium. Once these parameters are known, they can
be used for simulation with all types of transducers.
For further details on structural noise modeling in Civa, the user is referred to the following
article:
"Simplified modeling of backscattered noise and attenuation phenomena for quantitative per-
formance demonstration of UT methods" S. Chatillon, C. Poidevin, N. Gengembre and A.
Lhémery, Review of Progress in QNDE 22, ed. by D. O. Thompson and D. E. Chimenti (AIP
Conference Proceedings 657, Melville, 2003), pp. 93-100.
2.1.4.1.1. Single Ply and Multiply composite
See the Composites Section
2.1.4.1.2. Granular composite
The Granular composite category is used to define a two-phase medium consisting of a ma-
trix that contains spherical inclusions (aggregate). This enables definition of media such as
concrete. In the same way as for the other composites accommodated by Civa (see previous
subsections), granular composites are homogenized before beam computation or inspection
simulation take place. The Material panel of the specimen window is as follows for a Granular
composite material:
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Figure 2.70. granular composite
For correct definition of a Granular composite, the user must first specify the mechanical prop-
erties of the materials it contains. In Civa, these materials are considered to be isotropic and
purely elastic, i.e. non attenuating (no allowance is made for attenuation by one or more of
them). For definition of an isotropic material, see § 1.3.1 a).
Following definition of the basic materials used the granular composite; the user indicates the
percentage and size (diameter in mm) of the aggregate it contains. This aggregate may include
grains of different sizes. The user is thus able to define several typical diameters. In the figure
shown above, the granular composite of interest has inclusions of different sizes. The GUI table
specifying grain size distribution includes a column labeled "Associated percentage". In this
column are defined the respective proportions of each "type" of inclusion (each characteristic
diameter) with respect to the total percentage of inclusions. The sum of the values in this column
must always be equal to 100%.
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To define a granular composite, the user must also select a frequency domain with a minimum
and a maximum value (Min frequency and Max frequency). This domain depends on the type
of transducer employed. The recommended min and max values are a few tens of kHz and a
value equal to twice the transducer´s center frequency respectively. The resulting domain is
the one for which the homogenization method is applied.
The specimen window Material panel after homogenization is as shown below:
Figure 2.71. Homogenized material
In short, the homogenization method applied here serves not only to define the elastic proper-
ties of the equivalent medium (L and T wave speeds and density), but also to automatically
compute an attenuation law for the frequency illustrative of the defined granular composite.
This law reflects multiple scattering between the different inclusions. It should computed for
the frequencies of ultrasound propagating in the specimen: the user-selected frequency do-
main should be larger than the bandwidth of the probe and generally centered on the probe
frequency.
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Important: The homogenization model only predicts longitudinal wave attenuation. It does not
credit T wave attenuation in a granular composite.
For further details on the homogenization method used here, see: “Multiple scattering of
waves”, P.C. Waterman and R. Truell, Journal of Mathematical Physics 2 4 (1961), pp. 512–
537; and “Caractérisation non destructive de l’endommagement de bétons - Apport de la mul-
tidiffusion ultrasonore“, Jean Francois Chaix, Doctoral thesis, Université de la Méditerranée
(Aix-Marseille, LCND), 2003.
2.1.4.1.3. Coarse grained
This category is used to model coarse grained materials like centrifugally cast stainless steels.
The macrostructure of such materials can be modelled using Voronoï diagrams, which consist
of a decomposition of the 3D space in convex cells. A macrograin of the metallurgical struc-
ture is represented by a convex cell of the Voronoï tessellation. The material properties at the
macrograin scale are fixed by assuming isotropic elastic properties.
The Voronoï decomposition algorithm used in Civa allows one to perform a 3D tessellation only
of cylindrical and planar shaped specimens
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Figure 2.72. Coarse grained
Velocity dispersion is taken into account by piquing random velocity values from a uniform dis-
tribution. Thus, the definition of geometric and elastic properties requires that five input para-
meters need to be fixed: the mean L wave velocity, the velocity dispersion ∆ VL (i.e. the width
of the uniform distribution), the mean T wave velocity, the velocity dispersion ∆ VT and the
number of cells of the specimen’s Voronoï decomposition.
Voronoï cells can be visualized in the 3D view by right-clicking on the specimen.
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Figure 2.73. Visualizing coarse grained material

The synthetic structure can be either constituted of equiaxed or columnar shaped grains, using
the "With elongated grains" check box. The ratio and direction of scaling can be defined.
Figure 2.74. Elongated grains
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It is also possible to define a non-uniform distribution of the grains, using the "With non uniform
mean grain size" check box. The grains positions will be generated using a power law which
exponent can be defined in the "Evolution speed" field. The direction of distribution can also
be defined.
Figure 2.75. Non uniform mean grain size
Finally, it is possible to regenerate the Voronoï diagram (distribution of grains) or the grains
velocities (distribution of L and T wave velocity) using the two "Reset" buttons.
Figure 2.76. Reset buttons
2.1.4.1.4. Polycristalline materials
DEFINE SPECIMEN
The user has to open the label "specimen". Then, it has to click on the geometry to define the
shape of the specimen and its dimensions.
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Once the geometry is defined, he has to click on "Material". Different type of structure can
be taken into account by CIVA software. Figure below shows the structures which can be
monophasic or biphasic medium with equiaxed or elongated macrograins.
First, the user has to define the morphological properties of the specimen. Three figures show
the input data for a monophasic and equiaxed medium (first Figure), the input data for a
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monophasic and elongated medium (second Figure) and the input data for a biphasic and
equiaxed medium (third figure).
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Secondly, the user has to define the elastic properties of the medium. Two figures show the
input data for a monophasic medium and the input data for a biphasic medium.
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A homogeneization process calculates the parameters of the equivalent medium: the speed of
sound and the attenuation coefficient. Finally, the user specify the noise type (next paragraph)
Figure 2.77. NOISE TYPE: BASED ON MATERIAL PROPERTIES
COMPUTATION OPTIONS
The user has to check "account for attenuation" in the label computation options. To limit the
computation time, he has to define the dimensions of an accounted volume (Figure below).
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The type of control is "Half skip" and the user can check different type of wave and mode
conversions (Figure below).
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Figure 2.78. Figure below shows an example of

Bscan and Ascan displayed on the general interface.
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2.1.4.1.5. Fluid
For a fluid material, the density (in g/cm3) and the compressional wave velocity (in m/s) need
to be specified. Additionnaly, an attenuation law for compressional waves can be defined.
You have to define a CAD2D specimen and you choose “Fluid” in material You can choose:
• Homogenous
• Variable temperature
• Variable speed
• Variable temperature and speed
File format (temperatures): V1
Number of lines
Number of columns
T1
T2
...
TN
File format (speed):. V1
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Number of lines
Number of columns
Vx1 Vy1
Vx2 Vy2
...
VxN VyN
Figure 2.79. Fluid
2.1.4.1.6. Parametric anisotropy orientation
Ogilvy. choose PARAMETRIC WELD OR “CAD2D”, and then choose “parametric anisotropy
orientation”
Analytic law defined by Ogilvy Ref: “Computerized ultrasonic ray tracing in austenitic steel”,
J.A. Ogilvy, NDT INTERNATIONAL. VOL 18. NO 2. APRIL 1985.
Figure 2.80. Ogilvy
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In “Visualization”, you can choose to visualize “Slowness curves” or “parametric anisotropy

orientation”
Figure 2.81. graphical visualization
Figure 2.82. Schematic drawing with Ogilvy parameters
Warning: You have to place the blue arrow like in the figure ie at the bottom of the weld. The
arrow location depends of the CAD description, you have to modify it in order to satisfy the
Ogilvy hypothesis.
Modelling limit: Ogilvy with a L0° inspection is not true in CIVA because of caustics.
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2.1.5. Depression
The "Depressions" tab in the "Specimen" panel is intended for defining deformation, irregular-
ities of the specimen surface or backwall condition.
Figure 2.83. Depression
A depression requires the definition of:
• A profile in the XZ plane, defined by:

– Parametric (ellipsoid)
– Point file
– Comb measurement or CAD file
• A parametric extension in the YZ plane and a ratio to get a smooth profile
• A positioning
2.1.5.1. XZ Profile
There are 3 modes for setting a depression profile
Figure 2.84. XZ profile definition
2.1.5.1.1. Parametric (ellipsoid)
The depression is defined by its length, thickness, width and “a” a ratio which determines the
geometry of the fillet. This is a coefficient applied to the length and width axis in order to define
an ellipsoid of smaller size at which the fillet will be tangent.
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Figure 2.85. Top view of a parametric depression
Figure 2.86. Parametric depression description
Depending on the radius, the depression shape is strongly modified as illustrated hereafter.
Figure 2.87. Depression ratio: ratios of 0.75 and 0.3
2.1.5.1.2. Point file
The depression is created from a points file in *.txt format containing the coordinates from the
depression profile (abscissa X in mm; Z coordinate in mm) of the characteristic points of the
profile (Z axis oriented outwardly from the part).
If the values are negative the depression is a lack of matter, if it is positive it is an extra volume
of matter.
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Figure 2.88. Depression defined by a text file
It is advised to set a small gap to get a smooth depression.
2.1.5.1.3. Comb measurement

The user can load a *.dxf file containing the profile of the depression. He has also the possibility
to edit it in the CAD editor of CIVA. The user can draw the profile of the depression in the CAD
editor superimposed over a picture of the comb, save it and load it in the model.
CIVA considers the extremities of the drawn segment as the specimen surface. Volumes above
represent extra matter and volumes below represent missing matter.
Figure 2.89. Depression defined by a CAD profile
Figure 2.90. 3D view of the CAD defined depression
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2.1.5.2. Parametric extension in the perpendicular profile
Two other parameters have to be set.
• The extrusion width is the width of the depression in the perpendicular plane
• As for the parametric definition of the XZ profile, a ratio has to be defined in order to set the
profile in the perpendicular plane parametrically.
2.1.5.3. Depression positioning
The positioning tab is the same for all depression geometries. There, the user defines the
positioning of the depression and the specimen face where it is located (surface or backwall)
and the center coordinates in the specimen frame.
2.2. Probe
The "Probe" window opened by clicking the display panel Probe button from the UT beam
computation and inspection simulation modules enables definition of the ultrasonic transducer
in terms of the properties described below.
It is possible to open a predefined, saved transducer description by clicking the file opening
menu or to define a transducer "from scratch", using parameters provided under the various
tabs. Once the parameters are defined, they can be saved (by clicking the file save icon). The
resulting file name has an .xml extension.
Different Types of transducers –are available from the "Probe Type" list. Depending on the
option selected, various tabs are opened to allow definition of transducer characteristics.
Transducer definition window
Civa can model configuration with one or two probes:
By default, one can only define one probe within the Probe panel. This probe is therefore con-
sidered both for transmitter and receiver, which corresponds to Pulse Echo inspection mode.
In the Inspection panel, one can modify the pulse echo mode default settings to an inspection
mode dealing with two probes, one being used as a transmitter, the second being used as a
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receiver : TOFD (the axis of both probes are opposite) or Tandem (the axis of both probes lie
in the same direction). If one selects TOFD or Tandem inspection mode, then a second probe
is defined, with identical parameters of the already existing probe.
Modification of the inspection mode setting in the Inspection panel to define one or two
probes
The characteristics of both probes are therefore reported in the Probe Panel. One may switch
the operating mode (Transmitter or Receiver) of both probes by selecting them in the probe’s
list table. As those probes are, by default, considered as identical, any modification of one
probe will be set to the other one.
Transducer definition window with two identical probes
It is also possible to use two probes with different characteristics. To do so, it is necessary to
modify the default option concerning the TOFD or Tandem configuration settings in the Inspec-
tion Settings panel, tab Positioning, which is set to "symmetric". The "symmetric" term stands
for identical probes characteristics, which corresponds to the most usual applications.
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Modification of the inspection settings configuration to allow the definition of two dis-
tinct probes
If the "No symmetric configuration" is selected, then different probes may be defined. The probe
which one wants to be modified has to be selected from the list in the upper side of the Probe
panel. NB: The same Signal waveform is assumed to be applied for both probes.
Transducer definition window with two different probes

Regardless of the type of transducer (contact, immersion...), some parameters – geometry of
the active element (Element shape), Focusing and Signal – must always be defined. For contact
and dual T/R transducers, the user likewise defines the geometry and material of the transducer
Wedge. The Wedge tab remains dimmed and is therefore inaccessible for transducer types
other than contact and dual T/R.
2.2.1. Types of transducers

The choice of the type of transducer will be done by selection in the "Probe type" list.
The different available types of transducers are described below.
2.2.1.1. Contact
To define Crystal shape, focusing and signal see further paragraphs
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2.2.1.1.1. Wedge definition
For Contact and Dual element transducer, the user defines the following:
wedge geometry (plane, concave or convex, parallel or perpendicular to the cylinder axis)
wedge dimensions (front and back lengths, height and width, all in mm),
element position in the wedge, by entering incidence or refraction angle, and supplementary
angles (all in °),
and characteristics of the wedge medium (Material).
Those parameters are available from two tabs reported in the Probe panel, Wedge tab as
displayed on next figure.
Probe panel display for Contact (or Dual element) probes
The first tab "Geometry" allows defining all the geometrical parameters of the wedge.
Wedge geometry: wedge geometry may be Flat, concave cylindrical or convex cylindrical; if it
is cylindrical, the axis of the cylinder generatrix parallel or perpendicular to the incidence plane
must likewise be defined. If it is not flat, the geometry is defined by the radius in mm.
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Definition of wedge geometry
Wedge dimensions: Height, Width and Front and Back Lengths, which define the overall geom-
etry of the wedge, are included in the computation. Only energy paths traversing the wedge
bottom contribute to the field (there’s no account of potential reflections on the lateral walls of
the wedge).
Crystal orientation in the wedge: here it is possible to also define the incidence angle or the
desired refraction angle (in the incidence plane) inside the material. If the second option is
chosen, the user specifies the Wave type (L or T inside the material) and the Propagation pa-
rameters (sound velocities in L and T mode). The incidence angle (resp. the refraction angle) is
computed from the defined refraction angle (resp. the defined incidence angle) and the velocity
of the wedge and the velocity of L or T wave depending on the wave type selected.
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Two Other angles may also be defined for a Contact transducer. They are squint angle (angle
of rotation of the element around X, i.e. the symmetry axis of the probe) and disorientation
angle (its angle of rotation around the axis normal to its surface or "acoustic angle").
All those geometric parameters are reported on the figure below.
Definition of contact transducer wedge geometry, dimensions and crystal orientation
2.2.1.1.2. Matched or unmatched contact
Although this choice is (logically) made in the Inspection panel properties, it is important here
to discuss the meaning of "matched" or "unmatched options in the wedge geometry definition
process described in the previous paragraph.
According to its definition in this version of Civa, a wedge has a plane-type, concave cylindrical
or a convex cylindrical bottom surface that is parallel or perpendicular to the transducer axis.
If the piece to be tested is itself plane or cylindrical with the same radius of curvature as the
transducer wedge, transducer/piece contact is optimal and the "matched" or "unmatched" op-
tion has no impact on computation.
If the same wedge is used on a piece surface that is not plane or cylindrical in some places
(irregular surface, CAD-defined piece, parametrically-defined piece of cylindrical geometry with
a radius different from that of the wedge), the wedge bottom surface no longer make "perfect"
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contact. A space – generally filled with a coupling liquid used for this type of test – is then
created between the two surfaces.
With the "matched" option selected (by checking Matched contact under the Inspection panel,
Configuration tab), this space is considered to contain the same material as the wedge.
If, however, the "unmatched" transducer option was selected (by clearing the Matched contact
option under the Inspection panel, Configuration tab), this space is considered for computation
purposes to be made of the coupling defined under the Inspection panel, Coupling tab (See
CIVA UT setup – Testing – Configuration Tab).
2.2.1.2. Immersion
2.2.1.3. Dual element
2.2.1.3.1. Wedge definition
For Contact and Dual element transducer, the user defines the following:
wedge geometry (plane, concave or convex, parallel or perpendicular to the cylinder axis)
wedge dimensions (front and back lengths, height and width, all in mm),
element position in the wedge, by entering incidence or refraction angle, and supplementary
angles (all in °),
and characteristics of the wedge medium (Material).
Those parameters are available from two tabs reported in the Probe panel, Wedge tab as
displayed on next figure.
Probe panel display for Contact (or Dual element) probes
The first tab "Geometry" allows defining all the geometrical parameters of the wedge.
Wedge geometry: wedge geometry may be Flat, concave cylindrical or convex cylindrical; if it
is cylindrical, the axis of the cylinder generatrix parallel or perpendicular to the incidence plane
must likewise be defined. If it is not flat, the geometry is defined by the radius in mm.
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Definition of wedge geometry
Wedge dimensions: Height, Width and Front and Back Lengths, which define the overall geom-
etry of the wedge, are included in the computation. Only energy paths traversing the wedge
bottom contribute to the field (there’s no account of potential reflections on the lateral walls of
the wedge).
Crystal orientation in the wedge: here it is possible to also define the incidence angle or the
desired refraction angle (in the incidence plane) inside the material. If the second option is
chosen, the user specifies the Wave type (L or T inside the material) and the Propagation pa-
rameters (sound velocities in L and T mode). The incidence angle (resp. the refraction angle) is
computed from the defined refraction angle (resp. the defined incidence angle) and the velocity
of the wedge and the velocity of L or T wave depending on the wave type selected.
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Two Other angles may also be defined for a Contact transducer. They are squint angle (angle
of rotation of the element around X, i.e. the symmetry axis of the probe) and disorientation
angle (its angle of rotation around the axis normal to its surface or "acoustic angle").
All those geometric parameters are reported on the figure below.
Definition of contact transducer wedge geometry, dimensions and crystal orientation
2.2.1.3.2. Additional parameters
Additional parameters are used to define the wedge of Dual element probes, which are related
to the symmetric arrangement of both probes. The characteristics of parameters related to Dual
element wedge are illustrated on figure below.
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Definition of Dual element transducer wedge geometry, dimensions and crystal orien-
tation
Wedge geometry (Flat, concave or convex), as well as Wedge dimensions (Front and back
lengths, width, height) are defined in exactly the same way as for a Contact transducer.
Crystal orientation in the wedge is defined by the Incidence angle or Refraction angle, which
are deduced one from the other, according to Propagation parameters, Wave type and wedge
material and the Roof angle.
The convergence point, which corresponds to the intersection of the Transmit and Receive axis
(and therefore defines the most efficient inspection area of the probe) is computed from the
knowledge of the wave type, sound velocities in the wedge and in the material, refraction angle,
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roof angle, and the distance (separation) between both probes. The Depth of the convergence
point is displayed.
NB: The depth of the point of acoustic axis convergence indicated in the interface is calculated
by considering the material and the geometry of the test piece in contact with the transducer.
Note that this point may differ from the point shown in the 3D display interface, particularly for
a flat wedge transducer positioned on a cylinder parallel to its axis.
Parameters defining the convergence point inside the material
Two other angles allows rotation of the two elements around their own axis:
"Rotation" corresponds to a "symmetric" rotation applied to both probes
"Disorientation" corresponds to an antisymmetric rotation applied to both probes.
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Additional angles for defining the orientation of the crystals in the Dual element wedge
Finally, the tab "Material" allows defining all the geometrical parameters of the wedge.
Under this heading are specified the elastic properties of the wedge Material. By default, the
wedge material is Plexiglass. Other materials can be defined by the user.
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Definition of wedge material
2.2.1.3.3. Matched or unmatched contact
Although this choice is (logically) made in the Inspection panel properties, it is important here
to discuss the meaning of "matched" or "unmatched options in the wedge geometry definition
process described in the previous paragraph.
According to its definition in this version of Civa, a wedge has a plane-type, concave cylindrical
or a convex cylindrical bottom surface that is parallel or perpendicular to the transducer axis.
If the piece to be tested is itself plane or cylindrical with the same radius of curvature as the
transducer wedge, transducer/piece contact is optimal and the "matched" or "unmatched" op-
tion has no impact on computation.
If the same wedge is used on a piece surface that is not plane or cylindrical in some places
(irregular surface, CAD-defined piece, parametrically-defined piece of cylindrical geometry with
a radius different from that of the wedge), the wedge bottom surface no longer make "perfect"
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contact. A space – generally filled with a coupling liquid used for this type of test – is then
created between the two surfaces.
With the "matched" option selected (by checking Matched contact under the Inspection panel,
Configuration tab), this space is considered to contain the same material as the wedge.
If, however, the "unmatched" transducer option was selected (by clearing the Matched contact
option under the Inspection panel, Configuration tab), this space is considered for computation
purposes to be made of the coupling defined under the Inspection panel, Coupling tab (See
CIVA UT setup – Testing – Configuration Tab).
2.2.1.4. Flexible
This type corresponds to probes directly in contact with the specimen, which radiating surface
is flexible so as to fit the specimen geometry. Indeed, these probes are made of small rigid
elements mechanically linked in order to ensure certain flexibility.
These probes can only splitted into Linear phased arrays (able to fit a 2D complex shaped
specimen) or Matrix phased arrays patterns (able to fit a 3D complex shaped specimen). The
definition of these patterns is identical for other types of probes (Contact, Immersion, Dual
element).
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Display of Linear and Matrix flexible phased arrays probes
The positioning tools (see section UT Setup- Inspection settings) allows to position and to move
the centre of the probe, then the neighbored elements are projected onto the profile of the
specimen, with account of disorientations due to an irregular profile.
NB: the distance between the rigid elements is maintained when the probe is located over
complex specimen profile, however there's no test to check that the elements may be in contact
one to each other due to the height of the elements. Besides, each element is located and
disoriented towards the profile, and then one considers the surface of each element does per-
fectly fit the surface (which is usually a relevant approximation, due to the size of one element
compared to smooth variations of the profiles)
2.2.1.5. Surrounding array and Surrounded array
To define Crystal shape, focusing and signal see below
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The definition of Surrounding and Surrounded arrays, which correspond to circular array (used
for partial or full tube inspection for instance), slightly varies from the other types of probes:
The only available patterns are single element and linear phased array.
Their dimensions are expressed in ° (Angular sector of the probe) and in mm (dimension in
the orthogonal direction). If a linear phased array pattern is applied, the curvilinear dimension
of the element is also displayed.
The radius of the circular array is defined in the Focusing tab (although it may also be consid-
ered as an intrinsic characteristic of the probe aperture geometry, not related to the focusing
characteristics).
The incidence angle, which corresponds to a cone whose rotation axis is perpendicular to the
element pattern plane, is also defined in the Focusing tab.
Parameters settings for a Surrounding array and display of a typical configuration

A "Surrounding array" is assumed to be lying outside of the specimen (mainly, outside of the
tube), while a "Surrounded array" is assumed to be located inside a tube. Meanwhile, the def-
inition and display of these probes are identical.
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At the bottom of this panel, the number of each element is reported, according to the following
default conventions in CIVA (NB: In the main visualization window, element number 1 is always
displayed in a "light" color with respect to the other elements). Clicking on "Numbering" allows
to modify these convention, regroup different elements to the same channels, remove some
elements (they would not be considered for computation), as discussed below.
2.2.1.6. EMAT transducers
*What are EMATs?
The acronym EMAT stands for electromagnetic acoustic transducer. EMAT offer an alternative
way of generating ultrasonic waves inside a material compared to traditional transducer tech-
niques. A standard ultrasonic inspection requires mechanical coupling between the transducer
and the solid that is to be inspected. This can be achieved either by immersion testing, where
the solid is immersed inside a liquid (usually water) or contact testing, where the transducer
is pressed directly against the sample. EMAT testing offers an alternative to this mechanical
coupling, as it functions according to an electromagnetic coupling between electrical fields and
mechanical displacement. See [1] and [2].
*Principle of EMAT generation
The generation of ultrasonic waves using EMAT probes is based on electromagnetical induction
principles. When a wire is placed near the surface of an electrically conducting object and driven
by a current, eddy currents are induced near the surface of the conducting object. If the driving
current takes a sinus wave shape at a given frequency, the induced eddy currents will have the
same shape and frequency. If a static magnetic field is also present, an interaction between
the induced current and the magnetic field takes place. This creates the so-called Lorentz force
that is responsible for the generation of ultrasonic acoustic waves in the testing sample. The
local direction of the Lorentz force is perpendicular to both the eddy current density vector as
well as the static magnetic field vector. The amplitude of the Lorentz force is obtained through
the following formula:
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In this formula, x denotes the cross product used in three dimensional space, F is the Lorentz
force, J is the eddy current density, B is the static magnetic field. F, J and B are all vector
quantities. Units are [Newton], [A / meters ²] and [Tesla], respectively.
*Outline of EMAT modeling in CIVA
EMAT modeling is introduced as an expert user feature in CIVA 11. As of CIVA 11, there is
no dedicated EMAT module, thus modeling is done in two steps combining the two existing
ET and UT modules:
• Lorentz force simulation in CIVA – ET module

• Acoustic propagation simulation in CIVA – UT module
The underlying philosophy here is that the electromagnetic phenomena are separated from
the ultrasonic propagation effects. This is made possible because electromagnetic propagation
speeds are several orders of magnitudes faster than typical ultrasonic speeds, thus allowing
decoupling of the problems. To give a general idea, the UT module will use the calculated
Lorentz body forces as a special kind of transducer definition, thus making the model fit in the
general frame of UT tools already present in CIVA (Specimen, Transducer, Options and so on).
The next sections will present a detailed account of modeling options for EMAT technology.
The ET module will be presented first, followed by the UT module.
• EMAT modeling: ET module
*Available coils and magnets
As explained in the introductory sections, an EMAT transducer results from the interaction of
eddy currents and a static magnetic field. Thus, EMAT probes in the ET module are constituted
of coils and magnets. Any geometry of coil available in the CIVA ET module can be used:
Cylindrical coils
Rectangular coils
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Racetrack coils
D-coils
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Spiral coils
Rectangular spiral coils
Meander coils
Static magnetic fields are generated using rectangular magnets:
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*Defining an EMAT model and running a calculation in the ET module
As EMAT modeling is an expert feature in CIVA, we are assuming you are already familiar with
the modeling order of the ET module:
1.Load the ET module
2.Specimen geometry selection: EMATs only work on planar specimens. Therefore please
select this option in the drop-down list:
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3.Characteristics of modeled material should be defined in the corresponding tab:
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4.Probe definition in the probe panel.
5.Inspection panel settings.
6.Computation parameters definition.
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7.When done with configuration settings, please hit the run button.
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8.Once the calculation is done, please save the file to your disk. It can be useful to append the
suffix “_ET” to your ET calculation file, as you will run a second calculation in the UT module
that will contain UT results and that could thus be named with the suffix “_UT”.
*Analysis of ET module calculation result
As explained before, the model simulates the Lorentz forces that are generated by the inter-
action of material-induced eddy currents with a static magnetic field. In CIVA ET module, the
result of an EMAT calculation is a three component Lorentz force field defined on the surface
lying directly underneath the EMAT probe. The surface force field has three components along
the axes. The calculation result appears after the computation is finished as a child node in
the configuration shown in the CIVA manager.
Each of the three components of the force field can be inspected using the standard image
tools. The default view displayed in CIVA is a color map of the amplitudes of the Lorentz forces.
The picture below shows an example of such a view.
To distinguish between the individual components of the forces, you can use the component
selector, accessed by clicking the letter
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(for components):
Based on the example shown above, the individual force components are as follows (from left
to right, x,y and z):
Once you have confirmed that the force distribution is as expected, the next step is to switch
to the UT module for UT simulation.
*EMAT modeling: UT module
We will assume that you have just saved a simulation result in the ET module as described in
the preceding section. The next step is to set up the CIVA UT module for an EMAT ultrasonic
simulation. Two simulation types are available:
1.Beam calculation lets you calculate the generated ultrasonic field in the inspection sample.
2.Inspection simulation lets you use the EMAT probe designed in the ET module to simulate
inspection testing results.
As an expert feature, we will not describe the standard way of handling the UT module here. It
is assumed that the user is familiar with the workflow of the CIVA UT module. We will however
explain how to define an EMAT probe in the CIVA UT module as well as explain what kind of
restrictions apply to the use of EMAT simulation.
*Defining an EMAT probe in the CIVA UT module
In the scope of the UT module, an EMAT probe is a category of ultrasonic probes, just like
standard probe types (for example Contact probes, Immersion probes, Dual probes…). There-
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fore, to define an EMAT simulation you will have to select this type of probe in the correspond-
ing panel.
1.To access the Probe definition panel, please use the
button.
2. Once displayed, select EMAT as probe type from the drop down menu.
3.The panel displayed following the last action is the one that lets you select the previously
simulated configuration (with the CIVA ET module) and use it as the current EMAT probe. To
load a configuration, click on the
button. Use the following window to select the previously saved configuration:
4.The selected file is loaded. The previously used settings are shown in the Signal tab.
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This concludes the EMAT specific part of running an EMAT simulation in the UT module. Please
proceed with the workflow as you would with a standard probe type.
*Restrictions on using EMAT probes in the CIVA UT module
Restrictions apply to the types of specimens that can be used in the case of EMAT simulation.
EMAT simulations need a plane surface to position the probe. The following specimens can
be used for EMAT simulation:
• Plane
• 2D CAD with plane positioning surface
• 3D CAD with plane positioning surface
*References
[1] « EMATs ». [Online]. Available: http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/Commu-

nityCollege/Ultrasonics/EquipmentTrans/emats.htm. [Accessed: 31-janv-2013].
[2] H. Gao et B. Lopez, « Development of Single-Channel and Phased Array Electromag-

netic Acoustic Transducers for Austenitic Weld Testing », MATERIALS EVALUATION, juill.
2010.
2.2.2. Crystal shape

The user first chooses between a monolithic (single element) transducer and a various phased
array transducer element patterns. This choice is made under the Crystal shape tab.
Figure 2.91. Choice of the crystal shape of the probe
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2.2.2.1. Crystal shapes for single element probes
For a Single element probe, of the following types - Contact, Immersion, Dual element - the user
has a choice of three basic element Contour in the corresponding box. The choices available
are shown below:
Figure 2.92. Choice of contour for a single element probe
For a Circular element, the parameter to be entered is a Diameter in mm.
For an Elliptical element, the required parameters are the large and small axes of the ellipse in
mm. The first parameter to be entered is the transducer dimension in the incidence plane (Inci-
dent diameter), followed by its dimension in the perpendicular plane (Perpendicular diameter).
For a Rectangular element, the dimensions entered are Length in the incidence plane and
Width in the perpendicular plane (both in mm).
For a Dual Element transducer (type of contact transducer with separate transmitting and re-
ceiving elements), an additional contour is available, the so-called "half-circular" pattern (com-
prising two semi-circular patterns). The parameter required to define such a pattern is a diam-
eter in mm.
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Figure 2.93. Additional choice of contour for

a Dual Element probe: Half circular pattern
For Flexible type probes, one can only select a Linear phased array or a Matrix phased array
pattern (see next paragraph for description of these patterns).
For Surrounding array and Surrounded array type probes, one can only select a single element
or Linear phased array shape (see hereafter, paragraph : Surrounding and Surrounded arrays)
When a phased array pattern is selected, whatever the type of probe (Contact, Dual element,
Immersion, Flexible, Surrounded or Surrounding arrays), the splitting pattern is reported in the
lower part of the Probe panel. This view may be zoomed in or out (using a slider), or rotated
using the following toolbar:
Figure 2.94. Display toolbar
2.2.2.2. Splitting patterns for Linear phased array probes
For a Linear phased array pattern, the user has to define
• the whole aperture dimensions (in the Incidence plane, which corresponds to the splitting
direction, and in the Orthogonal plane),
• the number of elements,
• the gap between elements,
• the Element width.
NB: those latest parameters are linked: if one modifies the number of elements or
the Element width, for instance, the aperture is changed.
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Figure 2.95. Linear phased array definition and display

displayed in a "light" color with respect to the other elements). Clicking on "Numbering" allows
Linear phased array elements are numbered from left to right, the axis of the probe (drawn as
an arrow in the main visualization window).
Figure 2.96. Default numbering convention for a linear phased array
2.2.2.3. Splitting patterns for Matrix phased array probes

For a Matrix phased array pattern, the user has to define :
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• the whole aperture dimensions (in the Incidence plane and in the Orthogonal plane),
• the number of rows and columns,
• the gap between elements along rows and along columns,
• the Element dimensions (length and width),
• the number of elements per row (by default, all rows have the same number of elements, as
defined by the main parameters). One can reduce the number of elements, but not increase
it (otherwise the aperture or the elements would be modified).
NB: As for the Linear phased array pattern, those different parameters are linked:
if one modifies the number of elements or the Element length and/or width, for in-
stance, the aperture is changed.
Figure 2.97. Matrix phased array definition and display
displayed in a “light” color with respect to the other elements). Clicking on “Numbering” allows
Matrix phased array elements are numbered in increasing columns and rows (along Y, then
X), as displayed on the next figure.
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Figure 2.98. Default numbering convention for a matrix phased array
2.2.2.4. Splitting patterns for Annular phased array probes
For an Annular phased array pattern, the user has to define :
• the radius of the whole aperture,

• the number of rings,
• the gap between rings,
• the outer radius per ring (by default, uniform radii are calculated using the number of rings
and the outer radius of the probe, but each ring may be manually modified), and the number
of sectors per ring (they can vary from one ring to another), the angle reference origin,
• the angular aperture per ring (by default, all sectors have the same aperture – 360°/number
of rings – but this can be modified from one sector to another).
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Figure 2.99. Annular phased array definition and display
The elements are numbered in increasing rings and sectors, the first ring being the internal
disk, and sectors being, by default numbered in non-trigonometric direction, the first sector
starting at origin angle equal to 0° with respect to the X axis.
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Figure 2.100. Default numbering convention for

an annular, elliptical or bi-elliptical phased array
2.2.2.5. Splitting patterns for Elliptical and Bi-elliptical phased array probes
For an Elliptical phased array, and Bi-Elliptical phased array, the same parameters have to be
defined, except that:
For an Elliptical array, one has to define the radii in the incidence plane and in the orthogonal
plane,
For a Bi-Elliptical array, one has to define two radii in the incidence plane, and one radius in
the orthogonal plane.
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Figure 2.101. Elliptical and Bi-Elliptical phased array definition and display
The elements are numbered in increasing rings and sectors, the first ring being the internal
disk, and sectors being, by default numbered in non-trigonometric direction, the first sector
starting at origin angle equal to 0° with respect to the X axis.
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Figure 2.102. Default numbering convention for

an annular, elliptical or bi-elliptical phased array
2.2.2.6. Custom phased arrays
Phased array designers can use the "Custom phased array" pattern type to create non-classical
elements distributions for specific applications.
A custom phased array can be designed following two approaches:
• Manual: for creation of an array, element by element, under the form of a table or file to
be loaded.
• Poisson distribution: for creation of a sparse array using a Poisson distribution (see refer-
ences [1,2]).
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Figure 2.103. Custom phased array choice
2.2.2.6.1. Manual
In the manual mode the user creates a pattern under the form of a table of elements.
Elements shapes can be:
• Rectangular (lenght, width),

• Circular (radius),
• Triangular equilateral (edge length),
• Hexagonal (diameter circumcircle).
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Figure 2.104. Manual custom phased array

Each element is positioned in the (x,y) plane of the array (flat surface). The specified X and
Y are the centre of the elements.
The pattern can be saved (resp. loaded) as a .txt file. The file format is directly the table of
elements, each element being a row, with the following columns:
Element shape / Dim1 / Dim2 / X / Y / Theta.
For instance the previous pattern is exported under the following form:
Element
Dim1 Dim2 X Y Theta
shape
0 1.0 1.0 -1.1 -1.1 0.0
1 0.5 0.5 0.0 -1.0 0.0
2 0.5 0.5 1.1 -1.1 0.0
3 0.5 0.5 -1.1 0.0 0.0
0 1.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
3 0.5 0.5 1.1 0.0 0.0
1 0.5 0.5 0.0 1.1 0.0
2 0.5 0.5 -1.1 1.1 0.0
0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 0.0
Table 2.1. Pattern export
2.2.2.6.2. Poisson distribution

The user shall specify:
• The crystal shape (rectangular, circular or elliptic) + dimension(s).

• The number of elements in the pattern.
• The inter-elements shape: the minimum distance "edge to edge" between 2 adjacent ele-
ments.
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• The elements shape (rectangular, circular, triangular or hexagonal) + dimension(s).
The generate button realizes a sampling following the Poisson distribution which associates a
spatial position to each element.
Warning:
• The Poisson distribution is a probability law. Then there is not a unique elements distributions
following such law in the crystal shape. Each press of the "Generate" button generates a
new elements distribution.
• If the crystal shape is too small compared to the number and dimension of elements, then
the Poisson sampling may fail and the number of elements reduced.
Figure 2.105. Poisson custom phased array definition
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Figure 2.106. Poisson custom phased array overview
References:
[2] A. Velichko, and P. Wilcox, "Quantitave Characterisation of Complex Defects Using Two-
Dimensional Ultrasonic Arrays", Proceedings of the ECNDT, pp. 1.3.18, 2010.
2.2.2.7. Phased Arrays numbering
When a phased array pattern is selected, whatever the type of probe (Contact, Dual element,
Immersion, Flexible, Surrounded or Surrounding arrays), the splitting pattern is reported in the
lower part of the Probe panel. This view may be zoomed in or out (using a slider), or rotated
using the following toolbar:
Figure 2.107. Display toolbar
2.2.2.8. Dead Elements (phased arrays)
Elements of a phased array which do not answer or work anymore can be specified and taken
into account both in the delay law calculation and in the simulation results.
These "dead" elements are specified in the "Probe / Crystal Shape" tab under the form of a
list of numbers separated by ";".
Lists of consecutive elements can be described with the syntax: "2..5".
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Figure 2.108. Dead elements
2.2.3. Focusing
The user selects the type of Focusing (surface) by clicking the corresponding button. This
option is available for immersion, contact or dual T/R transducers.
For immersion transducers without lenses and for contact or dual T/R transducers (in a dual T/R
transducer, the same focusing is applied symmetrically to both elements), the focusing surface
is the surface of the active transducer (piezoelectric element). For immersion transducers with
lenses, the focusing surface is the lens surface in contact with the immersion medium. If there
is a lens, its medium must also be characterized. The model considers the lens as an acoustical
delay line. The wave speed of the lens medium is expressed in m/s and its density in g/cm3.
Attenuation parameters can also be credited (to see how this is done in detail, see under CIVA
UT Setup – Test piece - Material).
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Figure 2.109. Parameters settings for a spherically

focused probe using a shaped crystal or with a lens
2.2.3.1. Planar focusing surface
In the case of a planar focusing, the crystal is considered as flat, unfocused.
2.2.3.2. Spherical focusing surface
In the case of a spherical focusing, the crystal is considered as spherical, defined by its radius,
as illustrated in the previous figure.
2.2.3.3. Cylindrical focusing surface
The focusing surface is defined by one curvature radius and its orientation (along the transducer
axis or perpendicular to it). It is possible to simulate two types of surfaces, by orienting the
cylinder generatrix so that it is parallel to the incidence plane (generatrix along transducer X
axis) or perpendicular to the incidence plane (generatrix along the transducer Y axis). Like the
spherical probe, a compatibility check is likewise performed for the entered radius value.
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Figure 2.110. Cylindrical focusing surface
2.2.3.4. Bifocal focusing surface
The radii of curvature in the incidence plane and perpendicular to the incidence plane are
required to define this surface. The (toroidal) surface is defined by the radii of curvature of the
torus at transducer center. A compatibility check is likewise performed for the entered radius
values.
Figure 2.111. Bifocal focusing surface
2.2.3.5. Trifocal focusing surface
The two incidence Radii in the incidence plane (bottom and top) and the Radius perpendicular
to the incidence plane are required. The (bitoroidal) surface is made up of portions of the two
different tori. The radius perpendicular to the incidence plane is common to both toroidal sur-
faces. Here again, entered values are checked for compatibility.
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Figure 2.112. Trifocal focusing surface
2.2.3.6. Fermat focusing surface
The choice of Fermat corresponds to the so-called “Fermat” surface, allowing to optimally fo-
cusing along a given angle of refraction, for a given coupling path and a given mode of wave
propagation through the piece, at a given depth.
Once the test configuration (piece, relative transducer position and propagation media) and
the transducer shape have been specified, it is necessary to compute the Fermat surface. In
the Probe panel, one has to click on “Compute” to set the Fermat surface parameters: Wave
mode, Transducer step and Focusing depth.
Figure 2.113. Probe panel display for Fermat probe definition before computation
of the Fermat surface and dialog box for Fermat surface computation
Once the computation has been completed, the Fermat surface is drawn inside the Probe Panel
(as a bitmap in colormap amplitude display). One may validate the Fermat surface computation
and close the dialog box by clicking on “Validate”, modify the parameters and launch a new
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computation by clicking on “Compute”, or quit the dialog box without account of the computed
Fermat surface by clicking on “Cancel”.
Figure 2.114. Probe panel display for Fermat probe definition

after computation of the Fermat surface and display of the
Fermat focused probe in the main visualization window
Some remarks about the Fermat surface computation module:
The Fermat computation allows determining:
Either the surface of the shaped transducer (for an immersion-type transducer without a lens).
In this case, the FERMAT module computes the so-called "Fermat" surface for the problem
of interest. If Po is the transducer center, the Fermat surface is the complete set of points "P"
situated such that the times required for an ultrasonic wave to travel from each of them to F
(geometrical focal point) are all equal to the time required for the wave to travel from Po to F.
These times are computed using geometrical optic laws, based on the geometry of the piece
being considered. Focusing is therefore ensured by the curvature of the transducer element.
Or the surface of a lens added to a plane transducer (or an immersion-type transducer with
a lens). In this case, focusing is afforded by changes in the thickness of the lens, which is
assumed to behave as a pure dephaser. The FERMAT module then computes the lens surface
such that all contributions from the points on the plane active transducer element reach point
F in phase.
Restrictions about the Fermat surface computation module:
Types of probes:
A Fermat surface computation can only take place if the selected transducer type is immersion.
It is, however, possible to define such a surface for a contact transducer, by defining the equiv-
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alent test configuration for an immersion transducer, selecting "Other" as a coupling medium
and using the elastic properties of plexiglass. Once the Fermat surface has been computed, it
can be used with a contact transducer by then selecting this type of transducer.
Specimen geometry:
Computation is only possible for a plane or cylindrical piece (the transducer being lying along
or perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, from the inside or the outside of the tube). If the
piece selected in the UT simulation interface has another geometry, the Fermat module cannot
be initialized. A Fermat transducer computed for a plane or cylindrical piece can nevertheless
be used for a piece with another geometry.
Material:
A Fermat surface computation can only take place where the material making up the piece is
homogeneous and isotropic. A Fermat transducer computed for an isotropic, homogeneous
piece can nevertheless be used for a heterogeneous anisotropic piece.
2.2.3.7. Apodization
By default, the displacement corresponding to the crystal vibration is assumed to be uniform

on its surface. The “Apodization” parameter allows specifying smaller vibrations at the edges
of the crystal. The adjustable percentage specifies the fraction of the probe affected by the
apodization. The amplitude of the vibration on that interval follows a Hanning function that
reaches zero on the edges. For multielements elements, the apodization is done separately
on each element.
Figure 2.115. Examples of Displacement at the

surface of different probes after apodization
2.2.4. Signal
The signal tab is to specify the excitation signal of the transducer.
The input signal can either be loaded from an external text file (obtained from a measured
calibration echo) or defined in CIVA as a “synthetic” signal (defined with parameters assuming
a Hanning or a Gaussian frequency distribution).
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Figure 2.116. Signal panel
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2.2.4.1. Synthetic input signal
2.2.4.1.1. First method: from data provided by the probes manufacturer
If available, the probe parameters from the manufacturers (centre frequency (fc), bandwith
(BW)) are often sufficient to define a reference signal in terms of waveform. The phase, in this
case, is put to 0° for example.
Two types of input signals are proposed (“Signal choice”): Hanning or Gaussian windowing.
The signal is defined by
• Center frequency, in MHz.

• Bandwidth (relative) at -3, -6 or -12 dB. The bandwidth cursor ranges from 0 to 100%, but a
value greater than 100% can be typed in the edit field.
• Phase, in degrees, between 0 and 360°.
For the same parameters specification (center frequency and bandwidth), “Gaussian” provides
signal with heavier tails on the frequency content as compared to “Hanning” which frequency
content decreases faster to 0.
Figure 2.117. Parametric input signal
2.2.4.1.2. Second method: from the experimental echo of a calibration flaw
The central frequency and bandwidth of the input signal can be directly deduced from the
experimental echo of a calibration flaw. In our example, this experimental echo is the specular
echo of a Ø2mm Side Drilled hole (SDH) positioned at 4mm depth. The Fscan of this echo is
used to determine the central frequency and bandwidth of the input signal:
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Figure 2.118. (Left) Ascan of the echo of the Ø2mm SDH at

4mm depth, (Middle and Right) Fscan of this specular echo
The central frequency of the input signal is 2.24 MHz. The bandwidth of the input signal is 61%.
2.2.4.2. Phase of the input signal
The inspection often requires only the envelop of the input signal. But if the phase is necessary
to enable the comparison between the experimental and simulated Ascans, it can be adjusted:
the procedure consists in adjusting the phase parameter of the input signal in order to reproduce
after simulation of the reference flaw inspection the same signal as the experimental echo from
the reference flaw.
In our example, the reference flaw is a Ø2 mm Side Drilled hole (SDH) positioned at 4 mm
depth. We calculated with Civa the echoes of this reference SDH with different input signals
having the previously determined centre frequency (2.24MHz) and bandwidth (61%) but hav-
ing various phases (0°, 280°, 300° and 320°, see figures below). We compare the different
simulated Ascans obtained with the experimental one (figure below).
Figure 2.119. Superposition of measured (black) and Civa simulated

(red) Ascans of the echoes of the Ø2mm SDH at 4mm depth obtained
for 4 different phases of the input signal (0°, 280°, 300° and 320°).
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We can see that the simulated Ascan obtained with the phase 300° is very close to the exper-
imental one: this value of 300° will be chosen for the input signal.
2.2.4.3. Experimental input signal
The user can load a .csv file containing the waveform he wants to be used as excitation signal.
The file format is very explicit. It can be obtained by saving any parametric signal and then
modifying the signal by the desired waveform.
In Civa “Inspection Simulation” module the input signal is supposed to be the second time
derivative of the acoustic particle velocity. It can be shown that in most inspection cases the
correct input signal can be deduced in a good approximation from the echo measured on a
calibration reflector.
In our example, we choose as an experimental input signal, the specular echo of a Ø2mm Side
Drilled hole (SDH) positioned at 4mm depth. This specular echo is represented on the next
figure (only the specular contribution of the echo is used as input signal, the creeping wave
contribution has to be eliminated):
Figure 2.120. (Left) Measured echo of the Ø2 mm SDH at 4 mm depth, (Right)

Specular contribution of this echo (part which will be used as input signal).
2.2.4.4. Sampling
The input signal has to be digitized. The sampling frequency of the input signal should be at
least 25 times its central frequency. The number of points just needs to be large enough so
that the signal at starting and ending times is close to zero, as in the following image.
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Figure 2.121. Input signal

For parametric signals (Hanning or Gaussian), the number of samples is linked to the length of
the signal (at fixed sampling frequency). The sampling frequency can be set to “Auto”, which
calculates the sampling frequency so that it satisfies the sampling criterion for a reliable com-
putation. The user can choose to modify this value by unchecking the “Auto” box.
For imported signals, the number of samples is linked to the sampling frequency (at fixed signal
waveform). Changing the number of points oversamples or decimates the imported signal and
does not change the main characteristics of the signal (center frequency and relative band-
width). The sample frequency is read in the .csv file header.
2.2.4.5. Signal view

At the bottom of the panel, CIVA displays the signal (amplitude depending on the time) as
well as its frequency contents. The values indicate the amplitude in time domain or frequency
domain at the current position of the cursor.
For imported signals, the center frequency and bandwidth are calculated and displayed on the
basis of the information provided in the .csv file. They are then non-modifiable.
Figure 2.122. Signal view
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The center frequency (fc) and relative bandwidth (Df) are calculated according to the
standard formulas:
2.3. Inspection
2.3.1. Description of the Inspection window

The Inspection settings window is used to position the transducer with respect to a piece,
regardless of the latter´s geometry. It serves also to define the different propagation media
present in the transducer and piece environment and to determine the transducer displacement.
The Inspection window gives access to five options detailed in later paragraphs: Configuration,
Positioning, Coupling medium, Bottom medium and Scanning (the latter is dimmed in the Beam
computation module).
The zone located above the option tabs tells the user which "Inspection system" has been
selected. Those possibilities are detailed also in later paragraphs.
The two options which concern the piece environment are described immediately below:
• Coupling medium: This is the medium credited in Beam computation for all ultrasonic wave
paths between the transducer and the surface of the specimen. For a contact or dual T/R
transducer, this medium is simulated between the wedge and the specimen only in an "un-
adapted" transducer configuration (computation option provided under the Inspection win-
dow Configuration tab).
• Bottom medium: This medium is credited in a beam computation that involves reflection of
the beam from the backwall of the specimen (the parameters defining the backwall medium
are then used to compute the reflection coefficients).
Both these media are assumed to be liquid or gaseous; the user provides only the longitudinal
wave propagation parameters, including: density, speed and attenuation parameters. A list of
default media is available to the user.
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2.3.2. Specimen frames

To position the transducer on the piece, the Inspection window uses a coordinate system specif-
ically suited to piece symmetry (e.g. cylindrical coordinates for a specimen extended by revo-
lution). A reference frame subsequently referred to as the Specimen reference frame is thus
determined for all pieces except the Nozzle. The latter is assigned two reference frames, one
for each of the two (primary or secondary) cylinders making up the piece. The following para-
graphs describe the Piece reference frames for each type of piece geometry. The coordinate
labels for each of these frames are given in the Inspection window.
The Piece reference frame is always associated with a Cartesian coordinate system (O, X, Y,
Z). The directions of the three coordinate axes are displayed in the bottom left-hand corner of
the 3D display window. The origin and orientation of the system are likewise specified below
for each type of geometry of the specimen.
Plane:
The Specimen reference frame is Cartesian. Its origin O is located on the piece surface, which
is the plane (O, X, Y), and its Z axis is directed toward the inside of the piece (Figure below).
Conventions for describing a flat piece
Cylinder :
The coordinate system is cylindrical. Origin O of the piece reference frame (O, R, theta, Y)
is located on the axis of revolution, which is the Y axis: and angle theta is defined by the
conventions shown in next Figure. X and Z axes of the associated Cartesian coordinate system
are defined as shown in Figure below.
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Conventions applicable to a cylindrical piece
Cone:
A cylindrical coordinate system is adopted. Origin O of the piece reference frame (O, R, theta,
Y) is located on the revolution axis, which is the Y axis; and angle theta is defined by the con-
ventions shown in Figure below. X and Z axes of the associated Cartesian coordinate system
are defined as shown in Figure below.
Conventions applicable to a conical piece
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Elbow :
As indicated earlier, an elbow defined in the Specimen window, is made up of two cylindrical
segments and a toroidal segment. Its origin lies on the revolution axis of the cylinder numbered
1 in the Specimen window, which coincides with the Y axis.
The curve formed by joining the all centers of elbow segments (i.e. the revolution axes of
the two cylinders and the equator circle of the torus) is called the "Generatrix curve"). The
Specimen reference frame (O, R, theta, U) used to position the transducer includes a curvilinear
coordinate U along the generatrix curve. Figure below shows the conventions used to define
an elbow.
Conventions applicable to an elbow

CAD profile extended by translation:
The CAD profile belongs to the X,Z plane and is extended in the Y direction. Reference frame
origin O is retrieved from the CAD file.
Important: The frame (known as "DXF frame") in which the profile CAD is captured differs from
the one used for simulation. The X axis for UT simulation is the DXF file X axis, but the Z axis
used in UT simulation corresponds to the DXF file -Y axis.
Conventions applicable to a CAD profile extended by translation
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CAD profile extended by revolution:
The CAD profile belongs to the Y,Z plane. Origin O of the piece reference frame is taken on
the revolution axis and the coordinate system is cylindrical.
Important: The frame (known as "DXF frame") in which the profile CAD is captured differs from
the one used for simulation. The X axis for UT simulation is the DXF file X axis, but the Z axis
used in UT simulation corresponds to the DXF file -Y axis.
Conventions applicable to a CAD profile extended by revolution
3D CAD piece:
The reference frame (O, X, Y, Z) used for UT simulation is normally the frame read from the
CAD file. The user can, however, modify the axes and the point of origin of a CAD 3D piece .
Nozzle:
As indicated earlier, a nozzle defined in the Specimen window is made up of two figures of
revolution (two cylinders or a cylinder + a cone), a so-called Main (or "Principal") figure to which
a Secondary figure is connected. Two Specimen reference frames are defined: (O-princ, R-
princ, theta-princ, Y-princ) for the Main cylinder; and (O-sec, R-sec, theta-sec, Y-sec), for the
Secondary cylinder. The conventions applicable to these two frames are similar to those for
a cylindrical piece.
Note: The cylindrical coordinate system axes referred to in the Inspection and Computation
parameters windows are those of the piece reference frame associated with the figure of rev-
olution selected for transducer positioning. For this reason, the subscripts princ and sec do
not appear.
Sphere :
The piece reference frame (O, R, theta, phi) is a spherical coordinate system centering on the
center of the sphere.
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2.3.3. Transducer frame and inspection plane

Transducer reference frame:
The transducer is associated with a Cartesian coordinate system (C, Xc, Yc, Zc) known as the
"transducer reference frame", where C is the transducer element center, (Xc, Yc) defines the
plane tangent to the element at C, and Zc is normal to that plane. The transducer incidence
plane (see Figure below) is (Xc, Zc).
Definition of the transducer incidence plane and reference frame
Transducer incidence plane :
Orientation of the transmitting transducer unit (made up of one or more piezoelectric elements)
is based on a "Transducer incidence plane" Pic, with two reference axes: "transducer axis" Zc,
which passes through center C of the unit and is normal to its surface at this point; and an axis
Xc perpendicular to it.
Transducer positioning involves positioning center C relative to the piece, then orienting the
transducer incidence plane. The Xc axis of this plane is depicted in the 3D Display window as
a small arrow on the transducer.
Note that the commonly used term "incidence plane" has two possible meanings. The first is
the just-defined transducer incidence plane, which concerns only the transducer itself and how
Civa makes use of it. The second, referred to here as "true incidence plane" Piv, defines the
incidence of a beam on the piece surface. This plane contains transducer axis Zc, together with
the axis normal to the piece at impact point (point where the transducer axis intersects with
the piece surface). A distinction is sometimes made between these types of incidence planes,
namely in defining inspection configurations.
Inspection plane:
It is possible, in the 3D display window, to view a cross-section of the inspection scene in the
Inspection plane. In this display, the inspection plane is always depicted as a set of yellow lines.
Radial direction and local reference frames:
As seen earlier, a system of spherical coordinates (R, theta, Y) is adopted for cylindrical, conical
and CAD pieces extended by revolution as well as for nozzles and elbows. In all cases, the
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"radial" direction for any point on the piece surface is the direction normal to surface R, which
is constant at that point. This direction may or may not coincide (in the case of cylindrical and
conical parts respectively) with the direction normal to the surface at said point.
A further, local reference frame (L, Xlocal, Ylocal, Zlocal) is available for definition of beam
computation zones. The center of this frame is the impact point L, which is the point at which
transducer axis Zc intersects with the piece. The Ylocal axis is perpendicular to the inspection
plane and the Zlocal axis is oriented either normally inward at L, or along the Z axis of the piece
reference frame (or radially, for a piece extended by revolution).
If a distinction is necessary between these two options, the user makes his choice using the
Area tab of the Computation parameters panel. The local reference frame (L, X-local, Y-local,
Z-local) is also associated with cylindrical coordinates (Y-local, theta-local, R-local) according
to the usual conventions.
L and T-wave axes:
The L-wave (or T-wave) axis is the axis obtained by refraction of the transducer axis Zc at the
surface of the piece according to Snell´s law and the speed of the longitudinal (or transverse)
waves in the piece.
For an unmatched, contact-type transducer, Zc refraction at the interface between the trans-
ducer wedge and the coupling medium is not credited in this definition.
For an anisotropic material, the concepts of L or T-wave axis is absent from the GUI.
2.3.4. Configuration panel

The Inspection window Configuration tab serves to select the Inspection configuration. This tab
gives access to three zones (see next Figure):
Zone 1, labeled Inspection plane, contains a list of possible configurations and associated
parameters. The content of this list depends on the type of specimen selected.
Zone 2, labeled Scanning direction, where the user orients reference frame Xc, Zc coordi-
nates in the inspection plane. By checking Positive he orients the Xc axis toward the positive
X half-space. By checking Negative, he orients the Xc axis toward the negative X half-space.
Zone 3, labeled matched contact, appears only when the transducer is the Contact-type. The
Adapted probe option may or may not be checked, thus enabling allowance for an unmatched
transducer contact. Such simulation entails automatic positioning of the wedge on the piece
entry surface. Note that the automatic wedge positioning algorithm is applied regardless of
contact status (i.e. whether or not the "matched" option is checked) If it is, however, following
automatic transducer positioning, the program ignores the "matching" error by modifying the
wedge (whose dimensions are keyed in via the Transducer panel) to "hug" the piece entry
surface. This change is not, however, viewable in the GUI.
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New parameters has been integrated in order to modify the origin (0,0) of the specimen regard-
ing the transducers positioning offsets.
The following paragraphs describe the configuration panel for each geometry of the specimen.
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2.3.4.1. Plane
Along X: inspection plane is the (X, Z) plane.
Along Y: inspection plane is the (Y, Z) plane.
Oblique: The user keys in a (positive or negative) angle in degrees between the X axis and
the inspection plane.
The following figure depicts these various configurations.
Configurations proposed for a flat piece
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2.3.4.2. Cylinder
Parallel to revolution axis, inspection from inside or outside: the inspection plane contains the
Y axis and the axis radial to the piece at impact point.
Perpendicular to revolution axis, inspection from inside or outside: inspection plane is the (X,
Z) plane.
Oblique: in this case, a positive or negative angle must be entered, in degrees. This angle is
the one formed by the inspection plane and the plane containing the impact point and the Y
axis of the specimen. If this angle is zero, the Oblique configuration is equivalent to the Parallel
to revolution axis configuration.
The following figure depicts these various configurations.
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Configurations proposed for a cylindrical piece
Note: The Oblique from inside configuration is not accessible for a Contact-type transducer.
2.3.4.3. Cone
Parallel to rotation axis: the inspection plane contains the Y axis and the axis radial to the
impact point.
Perpendicular to generatrix: the inspection plane is perpendicular to the generatrix at the impact
point.
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Perpendicular to revolution axis: the inspection plane is the (X,Z) plane. Note that the Perpen-
dicular to revolution axis configuration is not accessible for a Contact-type transducer.
Oblique: in this case, a positive or negative angle must be entered, in degrees. This angle is
the one formed by the inspection plane and the plane containing the X axis and the generatrix
at impact point. If the angle is zero, the Oblique configuration is equivalent to the Parallel to
rotation axis configuration.
Configurations proposed for a conical piece

2.3.4.4. CAD profile
Along the profile: the inspection plane is the plane containing the CAD profile, i.e. (X, Z) or
(Y, Z), depending on whether extension takes place by translation or revolution (and assuming
that θ = 0).
Perpendicular to profile plane: the inspection plane is perpendicular to the plane containing
the CAD profile and contains the axis vertical/radial to impact point. This configuration is not
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available for a contact (or flexible)-type transducer. For such transducers, the applicable con-
figuration is normal to profile as defined below.
Normal to profile: the inspection plane is perpendicular to the plane containing the CAD profile
and contains the axis normal to impact point. Note: The Normal to profile configuration is not
accessible if the Element center positioning mode is selected under the Positioning tab (see
later). This is because procedures for these two options are incompatible.
Oblique: For this configuration, a positive or negative angle is entered, in degrees. This angle
is the one formed by the inspection plane and the (X, Y) plane (assuming that, if the profile
is extended by revolution, the impact point is located at θ = 0). If the angle is 0°, the Oblique
configuration is equivalent to the Along profile configuration.
By the side: The From sidewall configuration is only accessible for CAD profiles extended by
revolution and immersion-type transducers. In the same way as for Along profile, the inspection
plane is the plane containing the CAD profile; but in From sidewall configuration, the goal is to
position the transducer with respect to profile vertical entities ("sidewall" of a piece extended
by revolution). The settings used to define this particular configuration are detailed in section
which describes the Inspection window Positioning tab.
Configurations proposed for a CAD piece
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2.3.4.5. 3D CAD
The user can upload 3D CAD files of which he has no prior knowledge. The approach used
to position the transducer on a 3D CAD piece is to liken it to the previous configuration, i.e. a
CAD profile obtained by translation or revolution.
For a 3D CAD piece, in addition to the list of configurations shown under the Configuration
tab (which are the same as for a CAD profile), there is a button for Typing the piece: the two
options available are Plane (flat) or Cylindrical. Based on the choice made here, the applicable
positioning procedure is the same as for a CAD profile obtained by translation (plane type) or
revolution (cylindrical type).
Clearly, for a CAD file reference frame (OCAD, XCAD,YCAD,ZCAD), relatively simple trans-
ducer positioning on a 3D CAD piece is only possible in two cases:
• where, for positioning purposes, the piece entry surface behaves as though it coincided with
a plane perpendicular to direction ZCAD. The piece is then typed "planar".
• where, for positioning purposes, the piece behaves as though it exhibited revolution symme-
try around the YCAD axis. The piece is then typed "cylindrical".
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2.3.4.6. Nozzle
Positioning in a nozzle is based on the reference frame of one of the two figures of revolu-
tion. The Configuration tab thus includes a Reference cylinder zone in which the user selects
Main cylinder, Secondary cylinder or around the fillet depending on whether positioning is to
be based. The third option is available for contact-type transducers only. The list of possible
options is then:
Parallel to rotation axis
Normal to the generator-fillet axis
Oblique
In the Parallel to rotation axis configuration, the inspection plane is the one containing the
revolution axis (Y or Z) of the cylinder of interest and the impact point on the piece (or, for a
contact transducer, the center of gravity).
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Inspection plane orientations associated with the Oblique options are identical to those defined
for a cylindrical piece if X, Y and Z axes are replaced by the corresponding axes of the selected
cylinder.
Finally, the inspection plane orientation associated with the Normal to the generator-fillet
axis option is identical to the orientation defined for a CAD profile extended by revolution, after
the same replacements as above.
Configurations proposed for a nozzle
Notes:
The Normal to profile configuration is not accessible if the Element center positioning mode is
selected under the Positioning tab (see later). This is because procedures for these two options
are incompatible.
The Oblique from inside configuration is not accessible for a Contact-type transducer.
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2.3.4.7. Elbow
The different inspections are represented on the figure below:

The oblique configuration requires definition of an angle in degrees. The orientation of the plane
depends not only on the value of the angle, but also on the position of the transducer in the
elbow (along its generatrix curve).
Configurations proposed for an elbow

Inspection plane orientations for an elbow are identical to those associated with the three op-
tions Parallel to revolution axis, Perpendicular to revolution axis and Oblique for a cylinder of the
same size as the elbow, with a revolution axis tangent to the elbow U-shaped generatrix curve.
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2.3.4.8. Sphere
The only choices proposed for a sphere are inside/outside and positive/negative.
2.3.5. Positionning panel

Transducer positioning relative to a inspection piece involves two steps:
The first step, which consists of determining the inspection plane (see definition above).
The second step is to position the transducer with respect to the inspection plane. This is the
subject of the following paragraphs, which define the positioning modes and options available
for each type of transducer.
Since CIVA 11.1 a new global offset called "New specimen origin" has been inte-
grated. While loading acquisition files, it is used to set the testing origin.
All the coordinates are now relative to this new origin.
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2.3.5.1. Immersion Transducer positioning
Inspection window Positioning tab for an immersion transducer
The Positioning tab for an immersion transducer comprises three main zones, as depicted in
the figure. To define transducer position on the piece, the user must first fill in zone 1, then,
depending on the choices made in that zone, the fields available in either zone 2 or zone 3.
There are two different positioning modes: "Impact point" mode and "Crystal center" mode.
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2.3.5.1.1. Impact point mode:
As already seen, for an immersion transducer, the impact point is the point at which the trans-
ducer Zc axis intersects with the surface of the piece.
When the impact point positioning mode is selected, the user must therefore fill in zone 2:
whose fields include the coordinates of the desired impact point and various "impact orienta-
tions" (transducer incidence, squint and disorientation angles), as well as coupling range (called
"coupling range" in the corresponding panel). These parameters are defined below:
1) Impact point coordinates:
These coordinates are expressed in the Piece reference frame as defined under specimen
section for each type of piece. For Flat pieces and CAD profiles extended by translation, the
three coordinates are X,Y and Z; for Cylindrical and Conical pieces, Nozzles and CAD profiles
extended by revolution, they are Y, θ, R; for the Elbow, they are U, θ, R; and for the Spherical
piece, they are θ, Φ, R. Two of the three impact point coordinates are accessible in read/write
modes. They are X and Y, Y and θ or U and θ or θ and Φ, depending on the type of piece. When
the user keys in the values of these two coordinates, Civa searches for the point or points that
have these coordinates and belong to the piece surface. Only for CAD profile and CAD 3D
pieces can there be more than one such point, since the concept of piece surface depends on
the choices made when the piece is constructed by CAD. Said piece may, for example, contain
several entities corresponding to surfaces (which are shown in red according to the CAD tool
color code – see Using CAD Pieces – 2D CAD pieces).
A distinction must also be made here between the Along profile and by the side, since the
search for possible impact points depends on the type of configuration selected (see the 2 fol-
lowing Figures). If Along profile is selected, the two coordinates available for specifying impact
point position are X and Y. The impact point search algorithm is then applied in the Z direction,
which corresponds to the depth of the piece (see corresponding Figure below). If the by the
side is selected (implying that the piece profile is extended by revolution), the two coordinates
available for specifying transducer position are R and θ. With the cylindrical coordinate system
used in this type of piece, the impact point search algorithm is applied in the Y direction, i.e.
parallel to the piece revolution axis (see corresponding Figure below).
If several impact points are identified, the user can select any one of them from the dropdown
list appearing in zone 1 of the Positioning panel. By default, the selected point is the point
numbered 1. The value of this point is the one displayed in the field relating to the third impact
point coordinate (which is accessible in read-only mode). Transducer element center fields
then display the coordinates of whatever the center corresponding to this impact point. If the
user replaces the point displayed with another taken from the list, transducer position in the 3D
display is modified accordingly; and all of these values are updated. If only one impact point
is identified, the number 1 appears in the dropdown list of impact points and this list appears
dimmed. If no point is found, the message "No impact point" is displayed in the dropdown list.
In such cases, transducer position is not modified.
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Impact point search for a CAD profile extended by translation in Along profile configuration
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Impact point search for a CAD profile extended by revolution in From sidewall configuration
2) Impact parameters:
The three parameters Incidence angle, Deflection angle and Rotation angle enable definition of
an arbitrary element orientation. These three angles are expressed in degrees and may have
positive or negative values. As already stated elsewhere, rotations are not commutative oper-
ations. The program thus computes element orientation by applying the rotations associated
with the Incidence, Deflection and Rotation angles, in that order. These rotations are defined
as follows:
Initial transducer orientation, corresponding to three zero angles, is the one for which trans-
ducer Xc axis belongs to the inspection plane associated with the choices made under Config-
uration, and Zc axis is normal to the piece surface at impact point;
the Incidence angle is the degree of rotation around the impact point, in the inspection plane;
the Deflection angle is the degree of rotation around the Xc axis
the Rotation angle is the degree of rotation around the Zc axis.
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In common applications for which the transducer incidence plane Pic coincides with the in-
spection plane, the Deflection angle and the Rotation angle are both zero. These two angles
represent and thus allow simulation of deviation from a "normal" situation.
3) Water path:
By keying in the Water path, the user can further refine the position of the element center whose
coordinates appear in Zone 3. This value corresponds to the distance in mm from the element
center to the impact point.
2.3.5.1.2. Crystal center mode

In Element center mode, the user can only act on the coordinates of the element center and the
element orientation parameters. All of these parameters are included in zone 3 of the Inspection
window positioning tab (see Figure above). Impact point coordinates and impact orientations
(zone 2) are accessible in read-only mode and are refreshed in real time as a function of the
values displayed in Zone 3. The list of impact points also remains apparent to ensure consistent
back and forth interplay between the two positioning modes.
Crystal center mode parameters are defined as follows:
1) Crystal center coordinates:
Crystal center coordinates are expressed in the Piece reference frame as defined in 3.2.1 for
the various piece geometries.
2) Crystal center orientation parameters:
Crystal center orientation is defined by three parameters – Tilt angle, Squint angle and Disori-
entation angle. These three angles, which are expressed in degrees and have positive or neg-
ative values, enable definition of an arbitrary center orientation. As already stated elsewhere,
rotations are not commutative operations. Civa thus computes element orientation by crediting
the Tilt, Skew and Disorientation angles, in that order. These angles are defined as follows:
Initial transducer orientation, corresponding to the three zero angles, is the orientation for which
transducer axis Xc belongs to the inspection plane associated with the choices made under
Configuration. The Zc axis is directed along the Z axis of the Piece reference frame for all
Flat pieces or CAD profiles extended by translation. It lies in the direction radial to the impact
point for Cylindrical, Conical, and Spherical pieces and for CAD profiles extended by revolution,
Nozzles and Elbows. As already seen above, for Cylindrical, Conical and Spherical pieces
as well as Nozzles and Elbows, definition of a configuration includes information on type of
access to the piece, i.e. From the inside or From the outside. When the inspection is performed
From the Inside, the Zc axis points toward the outside of the piece (outwardly radial) while, in
the opposite case, it points toward the inside (inwardly radial). For a CAD profile extended by
revolution, definition of a configuration does not include the Inside/Outside parameter. In such
cases, the Zc axis always points toward the revolution axis (inwardly radial).
The Tilt angle is the degree of rotation of the element around the Yc axis (i.e. a Zc rotation in
the inspection plane).
The Squint angle is the degree of element rotation around the Xc axis.
The Disorientation angle is its degree of rotation around the Zc axis.
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In common applications for which the transducer incidence plane Pic coincides with the in-
spection plane, the Squint angle and the Disorientation angle are both zero. These two angles
represent and thus allow simulation of deviation from a "normal" situation.
On the basis of the three element center coordinates and the three element orientation angles,
Civa searches for the points at which the Zc axis intersects with the surface of the piece. If at
least one such point is found, Civa automatically selects as Impact point the first point occurring
along the Zc axis. The coordinates of this point are displayed in Positioning tab zone 2, and
the impact orientations are refreshed accordingly. The dropdown list of impact points displays
the number of this point to enable consistent back and forth interplay between the Impact point
and Element center modes. If no intersection point is found, the message "No impact point"
is displayed in the dropdown list.
Note: Element center mode is not accessible for Normal to profile (CAD piece) or Normal to
nozzle generatrix (nozzle) configurations. In both these cases, inspection plane definition re-
quires knowledge of the impact point that makes the Element center mode inoperative.
2.3.5.2. Contact Transducer positioning
For Contact-type transducers, the Positioning tab (see Figure below) is simplified, since the
user does not have a choice between two positioning modes as in the case of an Immersion
transducer.
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Inspection window Positioning tab for a contact transducer

Contact transducer position is based on the position of a point known as the Wedge center
(of gravity). This is the point at which the vertical line passing through the center of the wedge
bottom intersects with the horizontal line passing through the wedge at mid-thickness. Wedge
thickness corresponds to the segment of the Zc axis that connects the center of the transducer
element to the impact point on the bottom of the wedge.
Definition of wedge center for a contact-type transducer

Positioning tab zone 2 contains the three coordinates for the Wedge center in the piece refer-
ence frame. Only the first two of these values are accessible in read/write mode. When the user
keys in values for these two coordinates, an algorithm automatically positions the transducer
on the surface of the piece. This algorithm makes allowance for wedge dimensions entered
by the user (see Civa UT Setup – Transducer). The principle of the algorithm is to act on the
two parameters that are left "open to choice." They are "elevation" of the wedge center, i.e.
the third coordinate of wedge center, and the wedge orientation around a rotation axis that is
perpendicular to the inspection plane and passes through wedge center.
By keying in values for the two wedge center coordinates, the user defines a so-called "landing"
axis. Civa then searches for the point or points at which this axis intersects with the surface of
the piece. Only on CAD2D and CAD3D pieces can there be more than one such point. Where
this is the case, the pair of coordinates keyed in by the user may correspond to any one of
several possible positions. The user then makes his choice among the options given by the
dropdown list in zone 1. The points of intersection identified by Civa are numbered starting
from 1.
Zone 1 displays the number of the selected point, around which the transducer is automatically
positioned. If the user replaces the point displayed with a number taken from the list, the trans-
ducer position in the 3D display is modified accordingly, and automatic positioning is reinitial-
ized. By default, the selected point is the one numbered 1. If a single point is identified, the
number 1 is displayed in the dropdown list, which then appears dimmed. If no point is found,
the message "No impact point" is displayed in the dropdown list. In such cases, transducer
position is not modified.
Once automatic positioning has taken place, the value obtained for the third wedge center
coordinate ("elevation") is displayed (in read-only mode) in zone 2. At the same time, the value
of an angle that gives the wedge orientation in the inspection plane ("misadaptation angle") is
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displayed in read-only mode. If the bottom of the wedge is perpendicular to the "landing axis",
the value of this angle is 0.
Zone 3 of the Positioning tab displays the coordinates of the impact point on the bottom of
the wedge. This is the point at which the transducer Zc axis intersects with the wedge bottom
surface.
Important note on CAO 3D pieces: for a 3D CAD piece, the automatic positioning algorithm
accounts only for the angle formed by the piece surface and the inspection plane. In the event
of a concave surface that exceeds the limits of this plane, final position will not be the real
position obtainable on the basis of a complete 3D geometry.
Additional note: example of a positioning of a flexible transducer
Typical position of a flexible transducer on an elbow
2.3.6. Consistency of positioning data

The mechanisms that permit interaction of the various Inspection window fields with one an-
other and with the 3D display will only work if positioning parameters defined in the GUI corre-
spond to realistic situations. Where this is not the case, they cannot play their role, and trans-
ducer positioning data is inconsistent.
In such cases, the user is alerted by a message displayed in the Information zone at the bottom
of the main modeling window. Among possible messages appearing in this zone, the following
relate specifically to positioning:
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• No impact point: The program could identify no point of intersection between transducer axis
and piece surface.
• Error in computing inspection reference plane at impact point: Definition of local reference
frame impossible at impact point.
• Error in computing inspection reference frame at transducer element: Definition of local ref-
erence frame impossible at impact point.
• Real impact point is not the one selected: Either the From inside/From outside configuration
or the coupling range is inconsistent with the impact point selected.
• Center of element is located inside the piece: The element center detected by Civa falls
inside the piece.
• Angles incompatible with inward normal at the impact point: The transducer axis detected
by Civa originates inside the piece.
• Center of gravity is located outside the piece: The axis defining initial position of the center
of gravity does not intersect with the surface of the piece.
• Invalid contact positioning: The positioning algorithm could not find a satisfactory solution.
On display of any of these messages and, before further action, the user must make whatever
positioning parameter changes required to achieve consistency.
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2.3.7. Scanning panel
Inspection window Displacement tab

When the inspection simulation module is activated, a Scanning tab appears in the "Inspection"
window.
As already seen earlier, the set of parameters proposed by Civa to define transducer positioning
differs according to the type of piece, inspection configuration and type of transducer selected.
In most cases, a displacement is made up of two movements that alternate successively in
time: the transducer is displaced along a "scan line" (first movement) in a given direction, then
undergoes increments often in a direction perpendicular to the first (second movement), before
it is displaced along the next scan line.
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The previous figure shows the general layout of the Inspection window Displacement tab. This
panel is divided into four main zones:
Zone 1: Zone 1 is used to define scanning, which is the first movement associated with trans-
ducer displacement. The user first selects a "Type of scanning mode" from the various options
available in a dropdown list. The options proposed in this list depend on the configuration,
transducer position and type of transducer selected.
Zone 2: Zone 2 is used to key in increments (second type of movement associated with trans-
ducer displacement).
Zone 3: Once the user has defined scanning and increment parameters in zones 1 and 2, Civa
automatically computes the transducer displacement path. The user can thus "verify" the re-
sulting displacement, either by moving the position cursor from the first to the last displacement
positions or by manually inputting the number of a given position.
Zone 4: This is an information zone that gives the user access to certain parameters relating
to the displayed transducer position.
To define each scanning or increments in Civa, the user must key in the following two para-
meters under Displacement:
step: distance in mm (or degrees) between two successive transducer positions.
number of steps: number of desired transducer positions.
The following paragraphs describe the options available to the user in transducer displacement
zones 1 and 2, based on the different positioning configurations for each piece geometry. An-
other determining parameter here is the type of transducer credited for the simulation.
2.3.7.1. Scanning on a flat piece

The displacement options available to the user are as follows, by type of configuration
Along X configuration
Along profile, increment defined along axis
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Scanning Along profile on a flat piece in Along X configuration

Transducer scanning takes place in the inspection plane (X, Z) and increments are made in
the plane perpendicular to the inspection plane (Y, Z).
Important: For an immersion transducer positioned in Crystal center mode, the displacement
corresponding to the option described in the previous figure is obtained by selecting Translation
(and not Along profile, increment defined along axis).
Oblique
Oblique scanning (at 45°) on a flat piece in Along X configuration

Transducer scanning takes place along a plane that is disoriented by an angle θ (in degrees)
relative to the inspection plane (X, Z) and increments are made in the plane perpendicular to
this disoriented plane.
Rotation around Z (degrees)
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Rotation around Z by an angle of 60° for a flat piece in Along X configuration
Transducer scanning is achieved by rotating the transducer around the Z axis located at the
center of the piece, by an angle θ (in degrees). Increments are made in the Y direction (plane
Y, Z). This type of displacement is not available for immersion transducers.
Along Y configuration
Scanning Along profile on a flat piece in Along Y configuration
Transducer scanning motion takes place in the inspection plane (Y, Z) and increments are
made in the plane perpendicular to the inspection plane (X, Z).
Important: For an immersion transducer positioned in Crystal center mode, the displacement
Oblique
Oblique scanning (at 45°) on a flat piece in Along Y configuration
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relative to the inspection plane (X, Z) and increments are made in the plane perpendicular to
this disoriented plane.
Rotation around Z by an angle of 90° for a flat piece in Along Y configuration

Transducer scanning consists of translation along the Y axis. Increments are made by rotating
the transducer around the Z axis located at the center of the piece, by an angle θ (in degrees).
This type of displacement is not available for immersion transducers.
Oblique configuration
In this configuration, the inspection plane is disoriented by an angle θ (in degrees) relative to
the (X, Z) plane. Transducer scanning motion takes place in the (X, Z) plane and increments
are made in the perpendicular plane (Y, Z).
Scanning Along profile on a flat piece, in Oblique configuration with an angle of 45 degrees
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Important: For an immersion transducer positioned inCrystal center mode, the displacement
Oblique
relative to the inspection plane (X, Z) and increments made in the plane perpendicular to this
disoriented plane. Transducer orientation is likewise defined by an angle θ (in degrees) selected
by the user.
Oblique scanning (at 45°) on a flat piece in Oblique configuration (45° angle)
Rotation around Z by an angle of 60° for a flat piece in Oblique configuration (with an angle
of 45°)
Transducer scanning consists of rotation around the Z axis located at the center of the piece, by
an angle θ (in degrees). The rotation radius is equal to the distance from the center of the piece
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to the impact point associated with the initial transducer position. Increments are made in the
Y direction (plane Y, Z). Transducer orientation is likewise defined by an angle θ (in degrees)
selected by the user. This type of displacement is not available for immersion transducers.
2.3.7.2. Scanning on a cylindrical piece
For a cylindrical piece, the applicable transducer scanning option depends on its configuration.
It is not, however, necessary to distinguish between inspections performed from the inside and
outside. The displacement options available for cylindrical pieces include:
"Parallel to revolution axis" configuration:
Transducer scanning takes place in the (Y, Z) plane, i.e. in a direction parallel to the piece
revolution axis and increments are made by rotating the transducer around this revolution ax-
is. For an immersion transducer positioned in "Element center" mode, the previous motion is
obtained by selecting "translation" as the scanning option.
Scanning on a cylindrical piece in "Parallel to revolution axis" configuration
For this type of configuration (immersion /"Element center"), an additional movement is avail-
able to the user, by selecting the "Rotation" option, as shown in the previous figure. This rotates
the element, first around a point whose coordinates are entered via the GUI (scanning), then
around the cylinder revolution axis (increment).
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Scanning on a cylindrical piece, in "Parallel to revolution axis" configuration for an immersion

transducer positioned in "Element Center" mode
"Perpendicular to revolution axis" configuration:
In this configuration, transducer scanning consists of rotation around the piece revolution axis
and increments are made by translation in the (Y, Z) plane.
Scanning on a cylindrical piece in "Perpendicular to revolution axis" configuration
For an immersion transducer positioned in "Element center" mode, this type of movement is
obtained by "translation" increments.
"Oblique" configuration:
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In the "oblique" configuration, the transducer displacement path is the same as the one followed
in a "Parallel to revolution axis" configuration, except for transducer disorientation.
Scanning on a cylindrical piece, in "Oblique"configuration at an angle of 30°
2.3.7.3. Scanning on a conical piece
The different paths associated with transducer scanning on a conical piece are described below
according to type of inspection configuration. No distinction is necessary between inspections
performed from the inside/outside of the piece.
Configuration "Parallel to revolution axis":
Scanning on a conical piece, in "Parallel to revolution axis" configuration
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Transducer scanning takes place in a direction parallel to the piece revolution axis and incre-
ments are made by rotating the transducer around this axis. In "Element center" positioning
mode, this displacement is obtained by selecting "Translation" as the scanning option.
In "Element center" mode, it is also possible to define scanning as a rotation (increments are
still made by rotating the transducer around the cone axis), whose center is defined by the user.
This rotation is similar to the one described for a cylindrical piece. It is therefore not described
again here.
"Perpendicular to generatrix/revolution axis" configuration:
Transducer displacement on the cone is the same for both the "Perpendicular to generatrix"
and "Perpendicular to revolution axis" configurations. The two configurations do, however, dif-
fer in terms of transducer position and the path followed by the transducer is the same in both
cases. The following figure depicts transducer displacement on a conical piece for the "Per-
pendicular to generatrix" configuration only. Again, note that the "Perpendicular to revolution
axis" configuration is not accessible for contact transducers.
Scanning on a conical piece, in "Perpendicular to generatrix" configuration
"Oblique" configuration:
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Scanning on a conical piece, in "Oblique"configuration at an angle of 30°
In an oblique transducer configuration for a conical piece, the transducer displacement path
is identical to the one followed in "Parallel to revolution axis" configuration, i.e. scanning in a
direction parallel to the revolution axis then increments by rotation around this revolution axis;
these two configurations do, however, differ in terms of transducer orientation.
2.3.7.4. Scanning on a 2D CAD piece
For CAD profiles, different scanning options are available for the two positioning modes ("Im-
pact point" and "Element center") available in the “positioning” panel). Since these two modes
apply only to immersion transducers, the user is referred, for contact transducers and 2D CAD
pieces, to the paragraphs on "Impact point" mode.
Impact point positioning mode:
The scanning modes described in the following paragraphs apply to both immersion and con-
tact transducers. No distinction is therefore made by type of transducer
There are two possible scanning modes for a 2D CAD piece. Both of them entail following the
piece profile in the (X, Z) plane, then performing a translation along Y. In Civa, the correspond-
ing displacement modes are called "Along profile" and "Along true profile" as described below
"Along profile mode"
In "Along profile" mode, for a contact transducer, the transducer center of gravity is displaced by
a constant step DX, in a direction parallel to the X axis, between successive shots (see Figure
below with the contact transducer). The transducer position is recomputed as it moves up and
down along the piece surface Z axis to also credit the wedge dimensions. For an immersion
transducer, in lieu of the transducer center of gravity, the impact point on the piece is displaced
parallel to the X axis. The coupling range, incidence, deflection and orientation of the transducer
remain constant with respect to the local reference frame at impact point (see Figure with the
immersion transducer).
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"Along true profile mode"
Unlike the previous mode, in "along true profile", transducer displacement actually follows the
"curve" of the piece. Constant step DX is then obtained by computing the curvilinear distance
along the piece profile. If the transducer is the contact type, it is then positioned by maintaining
its center of gravity vertical (along the Z axis), with respect to this curvilinear abscissa. For
an immersion transducer, the coupling range, incidence, deflection and orientation are kept
constant with respect to the local reference frame at impact point.
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Once the scanning modes specific to a 2D CAD piece have been determined, definition of
scanning and increment movements depends on which transducer configuration, i.e. "Along
profile", "Perpendicular (or Normal) to profile" (for immersion/contact transducers respectively),
"Oblique" or "From sidewall" is selected:
"Along profile": by default, scanning takes place along the CAD profile and increments are
made by translation along Y.
"Perpendicular to profile plane" (identical to "normal to profile"): by default, scanning takes

place along Y and increments are made along the CAD profile.
"Oblique": both scanning and increment take place along a direction theta (in degrees) entered
by the user. The direction theta = 0° corresponds to the "Along profile" option.
"From sidewall": this type of positioning is only available for immersion transducers and CAD
pieces extended by revolution. Both scanning and increment-type displacements are defined
in the same way as for an "Along profile" configuration.
"Crystal center" positioning mode:
For an immersion transducer positioned in "Element center" mode, the various possible dis-
placement options are independent of the configuration selected.
Translation
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The translation is associated with a user-defined direction (angle entered in degrees). Once
the translation direction is known, the transducer is translated along it. There is a constant step
between two successive positions in the selected direction of translation. During displacement,
the element parameters (tilt, squint and disorientation angles) are kept constant so that the
coupling range, as well as transducer incidence, deflection and orientation with respect to the
local frame at impact point can vary.
Rotation
For a 2D CAD piece, the principle of transducer rotation is in fact identical to that described
before for displacement on a cylindrical or conical piece. The user defines the coordinates,
in the piece, of a point corresponding to the center of rotation. The transducer center is then
simply rotated around this point.
Oblique
For an oblique scanning , the user defines a direction in degrees that reflects a disorientation in
the X,Y plane, with respect to piece axis X. The scanning then associated with the transducer is
a translation, as defined above, whose direction is 0° in the (X, Z) plane (direction of translation
of the element center) in the (X, Z) plane). The figure below illustrates this type of scanning for
a configuration that is "Along profile".
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Once the scanning modes specific to immersion transducer "Element center" positioning on
a 2D CAD piece have been determined, definition of scanning and increment movements
depends on which transducer configuration, i.e. "Along profile", "Perpendicular to profile" or
"Oblique" is selected (the "Normal to profile" option does not exist in "Element center" mode):
Along profile: by default, scanning takes place along the CAD profile and increments are made
by translation along Y.
Perpendicular to profile plane: by default, scanning takes place along Y and increments are
made along the CAD profile.
Oblique: both scanning and increment take place along a direction θ (in degrees) entered by
the user. The direction θ = 0° corresponds to the "Along profile" option.
By the side: this type of positioning is only available for immersion transducers and CAD pieces
extended by revolution. Both scanning and increment-type displacements are defined in the
same way as for an "Along profile" configuration.
2.3.7.5. Scanning on a nozzle

The scanning options available for a nozzle are the same as those proposed for a piece with
cylindrical geometry. Before defining the transducer scanning option, the user must select a
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type of configuration for which he is first asked to define a reference cylinder (primary or sec-
ondary). Once this is done, the proposed displacements are the same as for a cylindrical piece.
However, an additional scanning option, applicable only to contact-type transducers, exists

for nozzles. This option enables transducer rotation around the connection zone between the
primary and secondary cylinders. Scanning/increment displacements in "around nozzle con-
nection" configuration are shown below for transducer positioning "Parallel to nozzle genera-
trix" and "Normal to nozzle generatrix" (see the 2 Figures below). The last possible option is
"Oblique", for which the transducer is disoriented by an angle in degrees selected by the user.
In this case, scanning and increment displacements are equivalent to the "Parallel to nozzle
generatrix" option, except for nozzle disorientation (a disorientation angle of 0° results in ex-
actly the same displacement as for the "Parallel to nozzle generatrix" option).
Scanning around a nozzle connection zone in "Parallel to nozzle generatrix" configuration
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Scanning around a nozzle connection zone in "Parallel to nozzle generatrix" configuration
2.3.7.6. Scanning on an elbow
The choice of displacement options available for this type of piece is very simple: scanning
by translation along the elbow generatrix curve and increments by rotation around the same
generatrix curve. By choosing the oblique configuration, the user can, where appropriate, credit
a disorientation angle of θ in degrees.
2.3.7.7. Scanning on a sphere
For a spherical piece, there is only one possible scanning, regardless of type of transducer
(contact, immersion) or positioning mode ("Impact point" or "Element center"). It consists of
two rotations as depicted in the figure below.
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Scanning on a sphere
2.3.8. Inspection mode
2.3.8.1. Single transducer
It corresponds to an inspection with one transducer.
2.3.8.2. TOFD
It corresponds to an inspection with two transducers with opposite scanning directions.
2.3.8.2.1. TOFD inspection mode: symmetric and non symmetric configuration
To define a TOFD (Time Of Flight Diffraction) configuration, open the panel “inspection” and
choose the inspection mode “TOFD”
2.3.8.2.2. Symmetric TOFD configuration
If you change from a pulse echo inspection mode to a TOFD inspection mode, by default, a
“symmetric” TOFD configuration is created, in which the two transducers are identical. The two
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transducers are both positioned in the inspection plane (yellow plane on the figure below) and
in the configuration panel, the parameters of the second transducer are forced to be the same
as those of the first transducer except the direction of scanning witch is the opposite
The “first” transducer is positioned by defining the position of the wedge center (for immersion
probes, it is also possible to define the position of the impact point of the first transducer).
The position of the second transducer is determined from the position of the first one: in the
panel “positioning”, the parameter PCS (Probe Center Space).
The PCS, , in mm or degrees, determines the distance between the impact points of the two
transducers (first figure below).
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Note: in CIVA 10, the PCS was the distance between the wedge centers of the 2
probes. From CIVA 11, the PCS is the distance between the impact points of the 2
probes. Thus, when loading in a newer CIVA version a TOFD configuration created
with CIVA10, the value of the PCS changes. For example in the figure below the
PCS is 27 mm in CIVA11 when it was 30 mm in CIVA10.
Figure 2.123. PCS measurement on the impact points
2.3.8.2.3. Non Symmetric TOFD configuration
In the panel “positioning”, you can choose a “non symmetric” configuration:
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In the case of a non symmetric configuration, all the parameters of the two tranducers are
separate, there is no more PCS parameter, you have to define the configuration of each probe
separatly:
You have also to define the configuration of each probe separatly:
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Note: as the probes can be different, in the probe panel, you can choose this option
“different” and define each probe separatly:
2.3.8.2.4. Displacement and specific options for TOFD
For both “symmetric” and “non symmetric” configurations the displacement is define only for
the “first” transducer: the second transducer is linked to the first one during the displacement.
An example of displacement is shown below:
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In TOFD inspection mode the lateral wave can be calculated (see in the panel Simulation
settings, Intercation tab figure below).
2.3.8.3. TANDEM
It corresponds to an inspection with two transducers with the same scanning direction.
To define a TANDEM configuration, open the panel "inspection" and choose the "inspection
mode "TANDEM".
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Figure 2.124. Choice of the inspection mode
Figure 2.125. Inspection mode, from pulse echo to TANDEM
The parameters of a tandem inspection are similar to the parameters of a TOFD inspection
and defined in the previous section.
2.4. Array Settings

2.4.1. Principle and terminology
A phased array setting results in a series of sequences and shots.
The following principles and terminology applies in CIVA:
• Sequence:
A “sequence” is defined by the combination of a transmission pattern and a reception pattern.

A “sequence” can be made of one or several shots.
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• Shot:
A “shot” is associated to one sequence and corresponds to
• One transmission law, with the particular transmission law of the shot,
• One or several reception laws associated to the applied transmission.
Each reception law is used to build one resulting signal as the sum of the elementary signals
(channels) according to the time delays and amplitudes of the reception law. The result of a
shot is then one Ascan signal per reception law.
• Pattern:
A pattern is a set of elements of the array (e.g. transmission pattern and reception pattern).
• Law:
A law is a set of time delays and amplitude coefficients to be applied at emission and reception.
A phased array setting can include several sequences, and each sequence can include several
shots.
The phased array settings approach in CIVA is the following:
The laws edition is the result of the setting.
2.4.1.1. Examples
Examples:
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• “Classical” sectorial scanning

• Unisequential, using the full aperture of the array
• Transmission: 30° to 70° by steps of 1°
• One reception law per shot : Reception=Transmission
=> One sequence with several shots (the sequence level is removed).
• “Classical” linear electronic scanning

• Linear sweep, with apertures of 8 elements
• Transmission: null delay law
=> Several sequences of one shot (the shot level is removed).
• Linear electronic scanning with multiple depth focusing at emission

• Transmission: Focusing at 3 different depths
=> Several sequences with several shots, each shot has one reception law.
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• Linear electronic scanning with multiple depth focusing at reception

• Transmission: Focusing at 1 depth
• Reception: Focusing at 5 different depths
=> Several sequences with one shot, each having several reception laws (the shot level is
removed).
• Linear electronic scanning with multiple depth focusing at emission and reception
• Transmission: Focusing at 3 different depths
• Reception: Focusing at 5 different depths
=> Several sequences with several shots, each shot has several reception laws.
2.4.2. Initialization
The “Initialization” tab offers the choice of array settings among families of settings or pre-
defined settings:
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• Unisequential
the array setting is made of one sequence, then involving the use of one transmission pattern
together with one reception pattern. The “sequence” can be made of one or several shots.
Definition of the sequence shall be made in the “Sequencing” tab.
• Simple Electronic Scanning
For linear and matrix arrays only. Electronic commutation of transmission and/or reception
apertures along the array. A parametric description of the electronic scanning is provided in
the “Initialization” tab directly and no further action is required in the “Sequencing” tab.
• Advanced Electronic Scanning
For matrix arrays only. Electronic commutation of transmission and/or reception apertures
along the matrix array. Sequencing is made through the “Sequences editor” of the “Sequenc-
ing” tab.
• Planar Wave Front Full Array
Unisequential and mono-shot setting with all elements working at emission and reception with
a null delay law. Elementary signals on channels can be recorded if specified in the “Simulation
Settings/Gates” panel.
• Full Matrix Capture
For a phased array of N elements, the "Full Matrix Capture" setting plays N sequences of one
element in emission and N elements in reception. Each of the N element emits successively,
while all elements receive for each shot. There is no parameter to set in the transmission and
reception tab and the focusing type is forced to "null delay law" for both transmission and
reception.
• Manual
For configurations which cannot be set by using the previous predefined settings the user is
provided with a “Manual” mode in which every setting can be made. Custom sequencing can
be defined by using the “Sequences Editor” in the “Sequencing” tab.
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Tip: to restart in the “Manual” mode from a predefined sequencing, just set the predefined
configuration to restart with and then choose “Manual” in the function list. The sequence is
automatically transferred to the “Sequences editor” and can now be modified manually in this
editor.
Also notice that for matrix arrays the “Sequences editor” integrates features to assist the user in
the sequencing definition for “Simple and Advanced Electronic scanning” and “Manual” modes
(renvoi “Sequences editor”).
• SAUL
The SAUL (Surface Adaptative Ultrasound) method is an adaptive inspection technique that
has been implemented in M2M acquisition system to control aeronautical composite struc-
tures with complex geometries [(Robert, Casula, Nijki, & Roy, 2012)]. In an immersion testing
configuration, the technique allows to transmit a wavefront locally parallel to any complex
surface. This is achieved by means of an iterative algorithm that does not require a specific
prior knowledge about the geometrical and acoustical properties of the component.
The iterative process begins with the transmission of a plane wave by simultaneously firing all
the elements of the array. Times-of-flight for each individual Ascan are measured to compute
the delay law that is applied to the next shot.
Simulated Bscans obtained with classic paintbrush acquisition (left) and SAUL (right)
2.4.2.1. Unisequential
In this mode the array setting is made of one sequence, then involving the use of one trans-
mission pattern together with one reception pattern.
The active patterns have to be defined in the “Sequencing” tab with the “Sequences editor”.
2.4.2.2. Simple Electronic Scanning
An Electronic scanning is a commutation of transmission and/or reception apertures along the

array.
For a "Simple Electronic Scanning", a parametric description of the electronic scanning is pro-
vided in the “Initialization” tab directly and no further action is required in the “Sequencing” tab.
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Mandatory parameters:
• Number of elements in sequence: number of consecutive elements of the array defining the
"aperture".
• First element in sequence: the starting point of the electronic commutation.
• Scanning step (nbr of elts): defines by how many elements the aperture is displaced from
one sequence to the next. The user can enter either a positive or a negative integer number.
• Number of steps in sequence: is a read-only field giving the number of aperture positions as
a consequence of the above parameters.
Optional parameters:
The user has the possibility to specify
• an aperture as fixed (especially in cases with different Transmission/ Reception scannings).

• a half step scanning scheme (see dedicated paragraph).
For linear arrays
• the "Simple sweep" option indicates that the Transmission and Reception apertures are the
same and are commuted the same way.
• the "Transmission/Reception" option is for different apertures and/or trajectories in Trans-
mission and Reception.
Notice that with the latter option (Transmission/Reception), the "Number of steps in sequence"
remains the same for Transmission and Reception. A parameter change on transmission (resp.
reception) automatically adjusts the “number of steps in sequence” and takes the value of the
smallest number of allowed positions in transmission or in reception. The sweeping stops as
soon as one of the two apertures has scanned the entire array.
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Matrix arrays
For matrix arrays the choice of same apertures and/or trajectories at Transmission and Recep-
tion is made via a checkbox "Same as transmission" in the "Definition of scanning (Reception)"
field.
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2.4.2.2.1. Half step scanning
The "Half-step" electronic scanning scheme is an operating mode that is commonly used in
phased array applications to improve lateral resolution.
Its principle is illustrated in the figure below: when a phased array transducer is used in elec-
tronic commutation, ultrasonic beams radiated from one sequence to another are usually stag-
gered by an interval equal to the commutation scanning step multiplied by the center-to-center
distance between two transducer elements.
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To obtain better spatial resolution for electronic scanning, a "half-step" option is used. With this
option, the setting is modified by duplicating the sequences, i.e. by removing an element from
the group for one out of every two sequences.
The figure below depicts the first four electronic scanning sequences for a same 32-element
transducer, with an 8-channel gate, the first of which corresponds to channel 1, and two options:
scanning step = 1 and scanning step = +1/2.
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In the half-step option, there are two times more sequences than for a full step (if the full step
option has N sequences, the half-step option has 2N+1 sequences).
Lateral resolution is better with the half-step option, since the ultrasonic field is "centered" with
respect to the aperture (i.e. the active elements for a sequence) and therefore moves, for each
successive sequence, from the center of one aperture to the next, that is by a half-step (thus
the name "half-step"). The next figure shows echodynamic curves of the radiated field in half-
step option for the first three sequences and in full-step option for the first two sequences (the
profiles of full step sequences 0 and 1 naturally coincide with sequences 0 and 2 of the half-
step option).
Special requirements for the half-step option:
• +1/2 specifies a "positive" channel displacement (i.e. it takes place in increasing order, for
example, first channel = 1, scanning step = 1 or +1/2).
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• -1/2 specifies a "negative" channel displacement (i.e. it takes place in decreasing order, for
example, first channel = 32, scanning step = -1 or -1/2).
Similarly to the full step option, the half-step option does not provide a consistency check of
user-defined parameters.
(Further requirement for the half-step option): For electronic scanning with the half-step option,
selection of more than two elements is necessary; use of a single element would mean switch-
ing from 0 to 1 active element from one sequence to the other.
2.4.2.3. Advanced Electronic Scanning

The "Advanced electronic scanning" is available for matrix arrays only.
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In the "Advanced electronic scanning" mode the user can define transmission-reception pat-
terns and trajectories which are not possible in the "Simple electronic scanning" mode (ex. non-
contiguous elements in one pattern, complex trajectories).
Such definition shall be made through the "Sequences editor" of the "Sequencing" tab.
Notice that the user can switch from "Simple" to "Advanced" Electronic Scanning by changing
the selection in the "Function" menu of the Initialization tab or by application of any trajectory
modification in the "Sequences editor". In both cases the parameters of the simple configuration
are kept and the user restarts in the advanced mode with the setting of the simple mode.
2.4.2.4. Planar wave front full array
In this mode each burst comprises a single sequence and a single shot.
There is no parameter to set in the transmission and reception tab because the focusing type
is forced to "null delay law" for both the reception and the emission.
By default, all channels of the transducer will both transmit and receive (it is not the case with
a dual T/R probe, one transmits and one receives).
The user can choose (like for all array setting) to record either the summed signal over the
elements in reception or the elementary signals on the channels or both.
Example of a particular case of "Planar wave front full array":
Case where 2 elements are not connected to a channel
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2.4.2.5. Full matrix capture
For a phased array of N elements, the "Full Matrix Capture" function plays N sequences of one
element in transmisison (each of the N element emits successively) and, for each sequence
in emission, there is one sequence in reception composed with the N elements together (see
figure below for a linear phased array).
There is no parameter to set in the transmission and reception tab (see description later) be-
cause the focusing type is forced to "null delay law" for both the reception and the emission.
By default, each channel of the transducer will successively transmits and all channels receive
(it is not the case with a dual T/R probe, one transmits and one receives).
Example of a particular (unusual) case of "Full Matrix Capture":
For the following numerotation of the probe:
The full matrix capture animation will be:
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2.4.2.6. SAUL
SAUL parameters
Transmission is always unisequential
Reception scanning can be set to group elements and increase the aperture of each channel.
The number of iteration can be automatic : stop the algorithm when the process has converged,
or set manually.
2.4.2.7. Manual
In the "Manual" mode the user can define any kind of array sequencing, by manual selection
of each sequence thanks to the "Sequences editor" of the "Sequencing" tab.
Notice that the user can switch from a "Simple" or "Advanced" Electronic Scanning to the Man-
ual mode by changing the selection in the "Function" menu of the Initialization tab or by appli-
cation of any "Adjustment" in the "Sequences editor". In both cases the parameters of the initial
configuration are kept and the user restarts in the manual mode with the set of sequences
computed in the Electronic scanning mode.
2.4.3. Sequencing
The “Sequencing” tab proposes:
• An animation tool to visualize the result of the sequences that have been defined by the
user,
• Access to the “Sequences editor” for the following cases :
• Unisequential,
• Simple Electronic scanning with matrix arrays,
• Advanced Electronic scanning (matrix arrays only),
• Manual.
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2.4.3.1. Sequences editor for Unisequential mode
In the “Unisequential” mode, the sequences editor gives access to the selection of one trans-
mission and one reception patterns.
• If Transmission and Reception patterns are identical (checked tickbox) then only one pattern
has to be defined,
• If Transmission and Reception patterns are not identical (unchecked tickbox) then each pat-
tern has to be defined separately by selecting Transmission and Reception in the “Show
Pattern” field.
Pattern selection is made with the mouse:
• Ctrl+click allows multiple elements selection,

• Ctrl+mouse glide allows multiple selection of adjacent elements,
• Return validates the selection.
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2.4.3.2. Sequences editor for Manual mode
In the “Manual” mode, the sequences editor gives access to as many selections of combinations
of transmission and reception patterns.
The sequences are managed as a list under the form of a table with 3 columns:
• Sequence number
• List of elements working in transmission
• List of elements working in reception
A tree view of the sequences is also proposed on the left of the window.
Transmission and Reception patterns of the sequences can be defined together by selecting
the appropriate sequence number and then mouse selection.
Transmission and Reception patterns of the sequences can be defined separately by selecting
the appropriate cell in the table and then mouse selection.
Sequences can be added and removed either by the + and x buttons on the right of the table
or by the “Add” and “Remove” buttons at the bottom of the tree.
For each pattern, the selection is made with the mouse:
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2.4.3.3. Sequences editor for Electronic scanning on matrix arrays
For matrix arrays, the “Sequences editor” is proposed for all types of Electronic Scanning (Sim-
ple and Advanced).
It gives the possibility to define:
1. Transmission and Reception patterns,
2. Scanning trajectories of the patterns,
3. and make manual adjustments.
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-Patterns
Selection is made with the mouse (identical or different Transmission and Reception patterns):

-Trajectories
The trajectories define the way the patterns are moved along the matrix array in the electronic
commutation scenario. Transmission and Reception trajectories can be “Identical”, “Indepen-
dent” or with a “Cyclic reception over emission”.
• If “Identical” is selected then the specified patterns move together as they are defined in the
“Patterns”. In particular their relative positions are kept and the “First element in sequence”
applies to the first element of the pattern resulting from the union of the Transmission and
Reception patterns.
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• If “Independent” is selected then the specified patterns move independently, each with its
own trajectory.
• If “Cyclic reception over emission” is selected then for each Transmission pattern position
the Reception pattern trajectory is applied.
-Adjustments
Like in the Manual mode, the sequences are managed as a list under the form of a table. A
tree view of the sequences is also proposed on the left of the window.
Transmission and Reception patterns of the sequences can be defined together by selecting
the appropriate sequence number and then mouse selection.
Transmission and Reception patterns of the sequences can be defined separately by selecting
the appropriate cell in the table and then mouse selection.
Sequences can be added and removed either by the + and x buttons on the right of the table
or by the “Add” and “Remove” buttons at the bottom of the tree.
When starting from a “Simple Electronic Scanning”, any change on the “Patterns” or the “Tra-
jectories” automatically switches the setting into the “Advanced Electronic Scanning” mode
when applying the setting (“Apply” button). Application of “Adjustments” switches the setting
into the “Manual” mode.
When starting from an “Advanced Electronic Scanning”, any application of “Adjustments”

switches the setting into the “Manual” mode.
2.4.3.4. Sequences editor - General layout
The sequences editor always proposes the buttons:
• Load: loads a previously defined (and saved) set of sequences,
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• Save: saves the current set of sequences,

• Apply: applies the sequence settings made in the editor and quit the editor to go back to the
general CIVA interface
• Quit: quits the sequences editor without applying the settings made in the editor.
• Animation: activates display of the animation toolset. Clicking the “Settings” button allows
going back to the sequence edition parameters.
Color code:
Transmission elements are displayed in red and reception elements in blue. Elements working
both at transmission and reception appear in purple.
2.4.4. Transmission
In the Transmission menu, the user defines and parameterizes one or more delay laws for
application in transmission mode to each sequence defined under Sequence.
In the Type of focusing field of the Transmission panel, the user selects, from a list, the appli-
cation for which the settings are made; the delay law or set of laws for the sequence are then
computed. This is illustrated by the figure below.
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Each of these options has a different set of parameters as reflected in different suboptions.
Additional options are proposed (common parameters) allowing to:
• Specify the ultrasonic wave path to be considered for the delays calculation (Delay law cal-
culation).
• Apply (or not) an apodization on the active elements in transmission (Amplitude law).
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2.4.4.1. Description of common parameters
The following options are proposed for any type of phased array transmission:
• Delay law calculation = specification of the ultrasonic wave path to be considered for the
delays calculation.
• Amplitude law: allows to apply (or not) an apodization on the active elements in transmission.
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2.4.4.1.1. Delay law calculation
The user chooses here the ultrasonic path for which delay laws are computed. He has to choose
• the Wave type in the specimen (L or T wave),

• if the delay law calculation considers direct paths or paths with one reflexion at the backwall
surface.
• In case of a calculation with one reflexion at the backwall the user shall also specify if the
reflexion has to be considered with a mode conversion (L to T or T to L) or not. The beam
after reflection corresponds to the selected mode and angle.
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2.4.4.1.2. Amplitude law

Amplitude laws can likewise be applied in transmission and/or reception. This option is, how-
ever, limited to linear array and annular array transducers.
Three analytical laws are available:
• Uniform (default option): all elements are activated with the same amplitude.
• Hanning : the elements at transducer center have a higher transmission amplitude (or trans-
mission gain) than those at its edge.
• Inverse Hanning: this is the opposite of the Hanning law: edge elements have a higher am-
plitude than those at transducer center.
The following figure depicts these three laws for a 24-element linear transducer in unisequential
mode (amplitude histograms obtained under Edit laws, after selecting "display of amplitudes").
An amplitude law is applied in each sequence: for electronic scanning, it is applied to each
group of active elements.
Note: In the same way as for delay laws, after computing a law, it is possible to man-
ually change the amplitude of each element using the list of automatically displayed
values under Edit laws, by clicking the line and the value that is to be modified. NB:
Although the modification is not refreshed on the 3D view, these modifications are
taken into account in the computation.
Important: If a delay law has already been computed and an amplitude law different
from the current law is selected, delay computations must be repeated (which also
leads to recomputing the delay laws themselves).
2.4.4.2. Delay law algorithms defining a single law
2.4.4.2.1. Single point focusing

This option is selected to compute delays that enable the most accurate beam focusing at a
given point. It calls a panel in which the user specifies the coordinates of the point selected
in the piece.
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The focal point is depicted in the test scene display as a red dot (or a blue dot for a reception
delay law). Its position is defined using the same conventions as for Beam computation zones.
The user is referred for this purpose to the definitions given in Civa UT Beam computation –
Computation definition.
In the first field, the user selects a Positioning option. There are two such options: In the in-
spection plane and Arbitrary.
A) Position: In the inspection plane
By selecting this option, the user imposes a focal point that is located in the test plane as
defined in Civa UT Setup – Test. The focal point is thus defined relative to the Local reference
frame (see Civa UT Setup – Test). A panel then appears with the following content (case of
a plane specimen):
Case 1 of the previous figure
With the option “in the inspection plane”, if either of the suboptions Along L-wave axis (or
Along T-wave axis), is selected, the focal point is positioned along the selected axis. These are
geometric axes defined in Civa UT Setup – Test. A single coordinate is adequate. The user
opts to input either the Depth or the Distance along the axis of interest, the field not selected is
deduced from the other field and displayed. The Depth here is the distance to the plane that is
tangent to the surface at the point of impact (determined in the absence of delay laws and as
defined in Civa UT Setup - Test) if the Zlocal axis of the local reference frame is oriented along
the normal axis. If the Zlocal axis is oriented along the vertical (or the radial) axis, this Depth is
the distance to the horizontal plane (or the plane normal to the radial axis).
Case 2 and 3 of the previous figure
With the option “in the inspection plane”, if the suboption Arbitrary is selected, the user defines
the focal point position in the test plane by entering two coordinates expressed in the local
reference frame. To do so, he first selects in the Reference Frame field the type of system to
which these coordinates belong: the Cartesian frame (Xlocal, Ylocal, Zlocal) has been chosen
in case 2. The cylindrical frame (Ylocal, ?local, Rlocal) has been chosen in case 3.
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Note: in the case of a CAD or cylindrical specimen, the following parameter appears:
Direction of depth: Along normal (if CAD piece), Along vertical/radial (if flat/cylindrical
piece)
If the specimen geometry is such that a distinction is necessary between local normal
and vertical-radial for a CAD piece extended by revolution, then the user selects the
reference frame Zlocal axis orientation in the Direction of depth field. This distinction
is made in particular for CAD pieces.
This possibility is not available in CIVA V9.0. The value for a new configuration is
“Vertical”, for an old one, it is the one of the file.
B) Position: arbitrary
The focal point is positioned by entering three coordinates expressed either in the Local frame,
or the Specimen frame (frame defined for each type of piece). This choice is made in the Frame
field.
When the local frame is selected for these coordinates and a distinction is required between
local normal and vertical (or radial for a piece extended by revolution), the user selects the
orientation of the frame Zlocal axis. He also opts to enter Cartesian coordinates (Xlocal, Ylocal,
Zlocal), cylindrical coordinates (Ylocal, ?local, Rlocal) or spherical coordinates (R,?,F) for this
frame.
Use of the specimen frame requires specification of focal point coordinates for whatever the
frame associated with a flat piece, a cylindrical piece or a CAD piece with a planar or cylindrical
extension.
Note that in "Inspection Simulation", when a specimen frame is used, dynamic law computation
is based on a fixed focal point. However, if the focal point is positioned in a local frame, it
"follows" the displacement of the transducer.
2.4.4.2.2. Direction and depth focusing

This option is similar to "Single point focusing" insofar as there is only one focal point. However,
the "Direction and depth focusing" law involves an optimized algorithm that can handle both
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the angle of refraction and the focusing depth required by the user. While this law is available
in CIVA for any type of piece, its optimised algorithm is based on geometrical principles that
limit its usefulness to flat and cylindrical pieces. The following figure depicts the principles of
the above two focusing laws and the differences between them.
When the optimized algorithm is selected, the delay law is computed so that the focal point
is positioned at the Depth specified in the Settings panel and the resulting beam forms an
angle with the vertical (or radial axis). This angle is as near as possible to the also specified
Deflection angle.
Note that this algorithm does not impose a focal point position (in particular its abscissa). How-
ever, the coordinates of the "optimized" focal point, which are computed to afford a refracted
angle as near as possible to the specified deflection angle, are displayed in the Settings panel
display.
This principle is depicted in the following figure, which shows the example of a field radiated
by a same phased array transducer, in both Single point focusing and the Direction and Depth
focusing configurations.
Computation parameters for each focusing law are also shown in the figure:
in the Direction and depth focusing configuration with a specified deflection angle of 45° and
a focusing depth of 30 mm, a focal point abscissa of approximately 185 mm (a 35 mm shift
with respect to transducer impact point abscissa) is obtained in the piece reference frame. The
beam angle obtained is around 44°.
the Single point focusing law, with local frame coordinates of X=Z=30 mm, also focuses the
beam, but with a deflection angle of much less than 45° (about 38°).
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Difference between Optimized Point and Geometrical Point
As already seen earlier, the algorithm that optimizes focal point position to control the refraction
angle is only useful for flat and cylindrical test specimens. For other types of specimens, the
Direction and depth focusing option enables specification of a focal point in terms of direction
and depth, but does not afford a refraction angle as near to the specified value as is possible
with optimization: As shown by the figure below, the angle defined is that formed by the vertical
axis and the axis passing through both the focal point and the center of the transducer (or, more
generally, the center of the first active transducer sequence projected onto the specimen after
allowance for the angle of incidence. The refracted angle is thus necessarily different from the
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specified angle. Where delay laws are computed dynamically, this option nevertheless allows
positioning of focal points at a constant depth with respect to plane Z = 0.
Figure 2.126.
2.4.4.2.3. Beam steering
With this option, the user imposes a beam direction without focusing. The algorithm thus gen-
erates plane wave fronts in the piece, with an oblique angle of incidence.
For a linear-type array, the beam can be deflected in the phased array plane, by arbitrarily
user-specified angle (see below).
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Figure 2.127.
The angle of deflection is defined with respect to a reference axis, with two possible suboptions:
Along normal and Along vertical/radial (for a CAD-type piece). For a flat or cylindrical piece,
only Along vertical/radial is available.
As shown on the two following figures, which depicts two transducer positions along a complex
surface (positions 1 and 2 are the same in both figures):
The "Along vertical/radial" suboption "ignores" the axis that is locally normal to the point of
impact and thus affords a constant angle of deflection for different positions in the piece refer-
ence frame.
The "Along normal" suboption, on the other hand, credits the local normal axis in computing
the deflection angle.
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Figure 2.128. Beam steering option "Along vertical /radial"
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Figure 2.129. Beam steering option "along normal"
For a matrix-type array, two angles are defined:
• angle of deflection (in degrees),

• angle of the deflection plane (in degrees).
It is possible to select a plane of deflection other than the test plane. As shown below, this de-
flection plane is then subjected to whatever the specified rotation, starting from the transducer
axis projected on the piece surface. A deflection in this new plane is then possible to obtain
the desired deflection angle as depicted below.
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Figure 2.130. Beam steering in a plane
2.4.4.2.4. Null delay law
With this option, the user applies a null delay law to all transducer elements.
While no settings are made for this option, the user must nevertheless click "com-
pute" to update the law.
2.4.4.2.5. Cylindrical focusing with 2D probes
The Cylindrical focusing function computes delays that enable focusing along a given line. This
option is accessible only for 2D matrix array probes and 2D sectorial probes.
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The Cylindrical focusing function calls a panel in which the user specifies the targetted focal
line.
The user first defines the plane of incidence by positioning the focal point P0 in the inspection
plane. The focal point P0 is depicted in the test scene display as a red dot (or a blue dot for
a reception delay law). Its position is defined using the same conventions as for Direction and
depth focusing law. The same positioning options are applied to flat and cylindrical pieces:
Geometrical point and Optimized point. With Optimized point, the focal point P0 is positioned
in such a way as to achieve, for the Depth specified in the Settings panel, a refraction angle as
near as possible to the specified deflection angle. With Geometrical point, this point is simply
positioned in accordance with the specified angle. When the component is not a plane or cylin-
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drical geometry, the user doesn’t have access to the Optimized point option of the cylindrical
focusing, only the Geometrical point is then accessible.
For Cylindrical focusing, the deflection angle is defined with respect to a reference axis, with
two possible options:
• The Focusing axis (vertical or radial axis) option "ignores" the axis that is locally normal to
the point of impact and thus affords a constant angle of deflection for different positions in
the piece reference frame.
• The Along normal option, on the other hand, credits the local normal axis in computing the
deflection angle.
The following figures show the differences between these two options:
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By default, the inspection plane and the plane of incidence are coincident, i.e. the direction
vector v of the focal line is a normal vector to the inspection plane. The Incidental plane orien-
tation angle induces a rotation of the plane of incidence around the Z-axis.
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In the field Orientation of the Settings panel, the user specifies the orientation of the direction
vector v relative to the local reference frame with origin at the point P0. The Y-axis of the local
frame is chosen to coincide with the direction vector v. The Z-axis is defined with respect to a
reference axis as shown in the figure below.
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When the user selects "No orientation", the focal line is perpendicular to the incidence plane.
For orientation type "Fixed", the orientation of the direction vector v of the focal line is described
with two parameters:
• The Squint angle induces a rotation of the direction vector v around the X-axis of the local
reference frame.
• The Skew angle induces a rotation of the direction vector v around the Z-axis of the local
reference frame.
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The following examples show cylindrical focusing for various squint and skew angles.
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2.4.4.3. Delay law algorithms defining several laws
2.4.4.3.1. Multi-points focusing
This option computes a delay law sequence that enables focusing at several points succes-
sively.
These different points may or may not be aligned.
• Points not aligned:
If the user selects Points not aligned, he must specify the number of focal points, then individ-
ually position of each of them. The points are positioned as described earlier. The user first
selects the number of the point to be positioned in the corresponding field (points can be posi-
tioned using different positioning options for each).
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Note: In the same way as for other delay law options, when the transducer operating
mode is electronic scanning (commutation of element groups), the different laws
computed are applied to each sequence.
However, in electronic scanning mode, if the number of sequences is equal to the

number of focal points defined, it is possible to define a single point for each se-
quence. This operation is performed via an additional button that appears above the
computation option zone.
• Aligned points:
If the user selects Aligned points, he must position two focal points (Extremity number) to rep-
resent the extremities between which the N-2 remaining points are positioned at regular inter-
vals (N = total number of desired focal points). The user also enters the Number of samples
(equal to N-1) to be taken.
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If the coordinates of these two extremities are Cartesian, the alignment is a sampled straight
line. If the user has opted to express the coordinates in a cylindrical system, the alignment is an
arc centered on the center of the selected reference frame (if the position option is “arbitrary”,
the reference frame can be the piece frame or the local frame, but if the position option is “in
the inspection plane” the reference frame is forced to the local frame, see figure below).
In all these cases, the user can obtain a 3D display of focal points by actuating the Display
focusing/deflections button at the bottom of the panel.
2.4.4.3.2. Several depths focusing
This option computes a delay law sequence that allows focusing at several depths in succes-
sion and at a specified angle.
To do so, the user enters the two depths, minimum Pmin and maximum Pmax, that he wishes
to achieve, along with a number of steps Np. The depths for which delay laws are computed
are Pi depths such that i ( [0, Np] Pi = Pmin + i * (Pmax – Pmin)/Np.
The same positioning suboptions – "Geometrical point" and "Optimized point" – are applied to
flat and cylindrical pieces. With "Optimized point", focal points are positioned in such a way as
to achieve, for each depth, a refraction angle as near as possible to the specified deflection
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angle; with "Geometrical point", they are all simply positioned in accordance with the specified
angle. The following figure shows the differences between these two suboptions.
For a CAD specimen, the "Optimized point" algorithm cannot be used. The same is true in
"Direction and Depth focusing" mode. In both these cases, only the "Geometrical point" option
is valid, which amounts to situating the desired angle relative to the transducer reference frame,
without allowing for the local normal axis and the considering depth relative to Z=0, as shown
in the figure below (focal points displayed in two different transducer positions on a misaligned
specimen, with dynamic law computation).
2.4.4.3.3. Sectorial scanning
The Sectorial scanning function computes a delay law sequence enabling beam deflection at
different angles successively.
The user makes the same settings as for the Beam steering option along with the following
data: Initial angle and Final angle (which correspond to the first and last laws in the sequence
respectively), as well as the number of delay laws to be computed. From this number of laws,
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together with the two (initial) and (final) angles is deduced the angular “step size” for the se-
quence. This step is accessible in read-only mode.
As for “beam sterring”, the angle of deflection is defined with respect to a reference axis, with
two possible suboptions: Along normal and Along vertical/radial (for a CAD-type specimen).
For a flat or cylindrical specimen, only Along vertical/radial is available.
Settings for the "Sectorial scanning" law, 2D CAD specimen, difference between Reference
frame “vertical radial” or “along normal”
2.4.4.3.4. Direction and depth scanning
This option computes a delay law sequence that allows focusing at several depths and beam
deflection successively (i.e. chaining of the Direction and Depth function for several depths
and direction).
To do so, the user enters the two depths, minimum Pmin and maximum Pmax, that he wishes
to achieve and the two angle of deviation minimum Amin and maximum Amax, along with a
number of steps Np. The depths for which delay laws are computed are Pi depths such that
i ( [0, Np] Pi = Pmin + i * (Pmax – Pmin)/Np. The angles for which delay laws are computed
are Ai depths such that i ( [0, Np] Ai = Amin + i * (Amax – Amin)/Np. The Np+1delaw laws are
computed for each (Pi, Ai) couple.
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2.4.4.3.5. Tilted, skewed scanning and series of scanning
It is possible to calculate delay laws corresponding to desoriented scanning or series of scan-

ning. The options for that are accessible from the “orientation type” parameter of the “array
settings” windows.
• The skew angle induces a rotation of the plane containing the various shots around the Z axis.
• The squint angle corresponds to a deflection of the plane containing the shots in the XZ plane.
When dealing with simultaneous skew and squint deflections, the skew angle is first applied
then the squint angle.
These deflections are accessible for:
2D matrix array probes and 2D sectorial probes (circular, elliptical and bi-elliptical crystal shape)
And the following delay law algorithms:
• Sectorial scanning
• Multi-points focusing
• Several depths focusing
The tilted and skewed scanning are only available if the focal spots are contained within the
inspection plane. As a result, it is not possible to calculate a tilted or skewed scanning mul-
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ti-points focusing delay law with an arbitrary position. The parameter position has to be defined
as “in the inspection plane” as shown in the following figure.
The tilted and skewed scanning are available for any geometries. However when the compo-
nent is not a plane or cylindrical geometry, the user doesn’t have access to the “optimized
point” option of the “several depth focusing”; only the “geometrical point” is then accessible.
Fixed orientation:
Delay laws are calculated in only one plane, which can be tilted, skewed or a combination of
both.
Following example: sectorial scanning (-20 to 20° in the inspection plane) with a skew = 20°.
The inspection plane appears in yellow and all angles are measured from it.
Following example: sectorial scanning (-20 to 20° in the inspection plane) with a squint = 20°.
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Serial orientation:
It is also possible to define series of scanning along one of the two angles (skew, bigle) while
keeping the other angle fixed. In the orientation panel, once “series” is selected, two new pa-
rameters are available. It is necessary to define which angle is going to stay constant during
the calculation by selecting “constant squint” or “constant skew”.
The following example shows a series of scanning for a sectorial scanning (0 to 30°) with a
constant skew angle of 0° and a squint angle varying from -20° to 20° around 0°.
The following example shows a series of scanning for a sectorial scanning (0 to 30°) with a
constante squint angle of 0° and a skew angle varying from -20° to 20° around 0°.
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2.4.4.3.6. Direction and depth scanning local frame
This option computes a delay law sequence that allows focusing at several depths and beam
deflection in succession.
To do so, the user selects the number of steps N, the two distances, initial D0 and final DN that
he wishes to achieve and the two angles of deviation initial A0 and final AN. The distance Di
and the angle Ai for the ith delay law, i in [0, N], are computed by the following formulas:
Di = Dmin + i * (Dmax - Dmin)/N
Ai = Amin + i * (Amax - Amin)/N
Thus, the N+1 delay laws are computed for each (Di, Ai) couple.
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For this option, the i-th delay law, i in [0, N], is computed so that the focal point is positioned
at the distance Di from the point of impact along the axis which forms the angle Ai with the
local normal.
The following figure depicts the principle of the “Direction and depth, local frame” law.
2.4.5. Reception
Under this tab, the user selects settings for the delay laws or sequences of delay laws applied
in reception mode.
Choice between Reception = Transmission or Reception ≠ Transmission is available.
If the user selects Reception = Transmission, the same type of focusing and settings are used
in T and R. If the same sequences are used in both, delay laws and amplitude laws are also
identical.
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If the user selects Reception ≠ Transmission a zone appears in which delay laws are defined
for Reception mode (same definition as Transmission laws). A button “copy transmission pa-
rameters” serves to copy all Transmission law settings
In the case of Reception ≠ Transmission and when a transmission law algorithm defining sev-
eral laws in transmission, the user can then choose to check or not the option “bijection for
Transmission /Reception”. If “bijection” is chosen, for each law in transmission the same law
in reception is applied. If “bijection” is not chosen, for each law in transmission all the laws in
reception are applied
Figure 2.131. Reception panel
An additional focusing type is available in Reception: Dynamic Focusing (often called Dynamic
Depth Focusing - DDF).
Definition of Dynamic Focusing:
This algorithm is used for focusing at different depths, in Reception mode, along the axis de-
fined by the Transmission law (whether for Beam steering, Sectorial scanning, Single point
and Direction and depth focusing, Null delay law). The following figure shows an example of
Dynamic Depth Focusing applied along an axis defined by the Beam steering law.
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Figure 2.132. Application of DDF in Reception mode

for a shot in Transmission mode with Beam steering
Parameters of DDF:
In the Type of focusing field of the Transmission panel, the user selects, from a list, the trans-
mission law for which the settings are made, the computation of the delay law or set of laws
that allows focusing at different depths. The different algorithms available are listed below and
described in the specific paragraphs: Single point focusing, Beam steering, Direction and depth
focusing, …
After that, in the zone of the Reception panel labeled Parameters, the user enters the following
parameters:
• two depths:
– minimum depth Pmin and maximum depth Pmax, in the case where the transmission focus-
ing point cannot be defined, that is, if the user has selected the transmission law Beam
steering or Sectorial scanning or Null law delay;
– minimum depth variation ∆min = Pmin + P focand maximum depth variation ∆max = Pmax -
P foc, in the case where the transmission focusing point is defined, that is, if the user has
selected the transmission law Single point focusing or Direction and depth focusing;
• number of steps NP
• aperture:
– constant aperture;
– optimal resolution (this option is available only if the transmission focusing point is defined);
– homogeneous resolution.
The figures below show the settings for two of the cases described above and the differences
between them.
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Figure 2.133. Example of application of DDF in Reception

mode for a shot in Transmission mode with Beam steering
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Figure 2.134. Example of application of DDF in Reception mode

for a shot in Transmission mode with a Single point focusing
The depths for which delay laws are computed are depth Pi such that
The two options optimal resolution and homogeneous resolution as proposed in the field Aper-
ture enables to automatically adjust the active aperture of the transducer in reception mode so
as to ensure that the beam width is kept constant with depth.
If the user has selected the option optimal resolution, the maximal aperture authorized in re-
ception mode reduces for all depths inferior to the depth of the transmission focusing point.
If the user has selected the homogeneous resolution, the maximal aperture authorized in re-
ception mode reduces for all depths inferior to maximum depth.
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The option constant aperture preserves the maximal aperture of the transducer in reception
mode for all depths.
In all cases considered above the maximal aperture in reception mode corresponds to the one
used in transmission mode.
The figures below show the difference between the options constant aperture, optimal resolu-
tion and homogeneous resolution.
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Figure 2.135. > Case where the transmission focusing point cannot be defined
(transmission law : Beam steering, Sectorial scanning and Null delay la) :
difference between “constant aperture” and “ homogeneous resolution” options
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Figure 2.136. Case where the transmission focusing point is defined (transmission
law: Single point and Direction and depth focusing) : difference between
”constant aperture”, “homogeneous resolution” and “optimal resolution” options
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The “Initialisation” button initialises the minimum and maximum depths or depth variations and
the number of steps. The depths are chosen between the surface and the limit of the near-field
zone and the number of steps is defined according to the wavelength.
2.4.6. Edit laws

Laws and index points File Format
Delay laws computed by CIVA can be exported to specific files :
A « .law » extension file, which contains delay values.
A « .pte » extension file, which contains the index point for each law.
Access to the functionality :
Select the Edit Laws tab in the Array Settings Panel. Press the “Save” button.
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File description of « .law »

This text file, compatible with Excel, is formatted as a table whose columns are separated by
a tab symbol.
First and second lines define the version.
# LOIS DE RETARD
Version 1.0
Then a header part lists the columns titles:
numR : column n°1 : position index
numS : column n°2 : sequencing index
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numT : column n°3 : shot index (emission)

numL : column n°4 : law index (reception)
numV : column n°5 : channel index
retE : column n°6 : emission delay
ampE : column n°7 : emission amplitude
retR : column n°8 : reception delay
ampR : column n°9 : reception amplitude
The header is followed by a table composed of as many lines as shots.
Example :
0 0 0 0 1 0.47939444 1.0 0.47939444 1.0
0 0 0 0 2 0.23969722 1.0 0.23969722 1.0
0 0 0 0 3 0.16098234 1.0 0.16098234 1.0
0 0 1 0 1 0.45122764 1.0 0.45122764 1.0
0 0 1 0 2 0.23969722 1.0 0.23969722 1.0
0 0 1 0 3 0.02816677 1.0 0.02816677 1.0
0 0 2 0 1 0.42290282 1.0 0.42290282 1.0
0 0 2 0 2 0.23969722 1.0 0.23969722 1.0
0 0 2 0 3 0.05649161 1.0 0.05649161 1.0
File description of « .pte »
This text file, compatible with Excel, is formatted as a table whose columns are separated by
a tab symbol.
First and second lines define the version.
# POINTS D'EMERGENCE
Version 1.0
Then a header part lists the columns titles:
numR : column n°1 : position index
numS : column n°2 : sequencing index
numT : column n°3 : shot index (emission)
numL : column n°4 : law index (reception)
X : X coordinate of index point
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Y : Y coordinate of index point
Z : Z coordinate of index point
The header is followed by a table composed of as many lines as shots.
Example :
0 0 0 0 -8.403097381318418 0.0 24.77580111353195
0 0 1 0 -7.421469069239748 0.0 25.108735587007
0 0 2 0 -6.44273689213739 0.0 25.44068779136696
0 0 3 0 -5.46998323175481 0.0 25.77061228901577
0 0 4 0 -4.506661240570452 0.0 26.097337889709525
0 1 0 0 -8.609428890347715 0.0 25.384151606116962
0 1 1 0 -7.603697459889418 0.0 25.72526102618644
0 1 2 0 -6.600933276745366 0.0 26.065364058288015
0 1 3 0 -5.6042944081410155 0.0 26.40338959492001
0 1 4 0 -4.61731879602354 0.0 26.7381376881746
0 2 0 0 -8.815760399377012 0.0 25.99250209870197
0 2 1 0 -7.785925850539172 0.0 26.341786465365864
0 2 2 0 -6.75912966135337 0.0 26.69004032520906
0 2 3 0 -5.738605584527278 0.0 27.03616690082425
0 2 4 0 -4.727976351476599 0.0 27.37893748663968
2.4.7. Specific conventions
2.4.7.1. Focal point positioning with respect to transducer displacement
When a probe’s displacement is defined, if the user focuses the beam at a given point, there
are two possibilities:
• the focal point(s) remain "fixed" during the transducer displacement.

• the focal point(s) "follow" the displacement of the transducer.
Both configurations are made available on choice of focal point position.
2.4.7.1.1. In Single point focusing or Multi point focusing modes
If the focal point (points) is defined in the specimen reference frame, their coordinates are
independent of the transducer displacement, i.e. they remain "fixed".
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This principle is illustrated in the following figure, which represents a transducer that is trans-
lated along a misaligned specimen, with a focal point positioned in the specimen reference
frame (and displayed on the panel). The delay laws and associated paths are represented for
different focusing positions. As is obvious from the figure, these laws and paths are adapted
by Civa to the selected focal point.
Figure 2.137. Focusing at a point defined in a

specimen frame with dynamic delay law computation
If the focal point or points are defined in the local frame associated with the transducer, their
coordinates follow transducer displacement.
There are two ways of defining a focal point in the frame associated with the transducer:
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Positioning "In the inspection plane": Since the test (inspection) plane is defined relative to the
transducer reference frame, positioning the focal point in this plane implies that the focal point
is displaced with the transducer frame.
"Arbitrary" positioning in a "local reference frame": this positioning mode directly relies on the
local reference frame associated with the transducer (i.e. with the latter´s center or the center
of the sequence).
These two positioning options operate in a similar manner (the only difference is that, in arbitrary
positioning, it is possible, with the local frame, to define a focal point outside the test plane). Both
options are illustrated in the following figure for a same misaligned specimen with dynamically
computed laws.
Figure 2.138. Focusing at a point defined in a local frame or test plane

with dynamic law computation and depth direction "Along normal"
This figure, like the previous one, superposes several transducer scanning positions as well
as the paths associated with the delay laws. In this case, the focal point follows transducer
displacement.
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Note: The figure also depicts the reference frame associated with the transducer. In
computation settings, the parameter denoted as "Depth direction" is "Along normal".
With this setting, the local frame associated with the transducer, which is defined
as the projection of the transducer (or sequence) center on the specimen, is rotated
with respect to the local normal axis, resulting in the "focal point path" likewise shown
in the figure.
There is another possibility: if in the "Depth direction" field the option "Along vertical" is selected,
the rotation associated with the axis normal to the specimen is not applied to the transducer
reference frame (and the frame keeps its initial orientation, without being rotated). This option
modifies the focal point path as depicted on the following figure.
Figure 2.139. Focusing at a point defined in the test plane with

dynamic law computation and depth direction "Along vertical"
2.4.7.1.2. In Direction and depth focusing mode
As stated above, for a CAD specimen, the "Direction and depth focusing" option amounts to
situating a deflection angle relative to the local frame of the transducer sequence, without ro-
tating the frame if the axis normal to the impact point evolves, and determining the focusing
depth relative to plane Z=0. If the specimen is misaligned, this leads to the focal point positions
depicted below.
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Figure 2.140. Direction and depth focusing with dynamic

law computation: focusing depth determined relative to Z=0
and deflection angle to the transducer local reference frame
The following figure summarizes the different options (fixed focal point or point following trans-
ducer displacement, with Single point focusing or Direction and depth focusing) and their as-
sociated paths.
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Figure 2.141. Summary of focal point paths obtained with

different types of delay algorithms and positioning options
Note: In Electronic scanning mode, delay law calculations are automatically repeated
for each position of the gate or gates (1 or 2), i.e. for each burst sequence insofar
as the scene "viewed" by said gate(s) changes from one sequence to another. In
other words, wherever necessary, delay laws will differ from one scanning sequence
to another. Similarly to what takes place in dynamic computation, a focal point either
remains in a fixed position or follows gate displacement, depending on the reference
frame in which its coordinates are specified (see above).
2.4.7.2. Deflection angle for a delay law computation with backwall reflection
In the user selects Beam steering or Sectorial scanning algorithms, the deflection angle must
be specified (see, for example, "Beam steering" algorithm). If the option “Backwall reflection”
is selected, the user-specified an angle is defined with respect to a normal to the back wall
as shown below:
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Figure 2.142. Definition of the deflection

angle if the backwall reflection is considered.
2.4.7.3. Deflection angle for cylindrical specimens
For a cylindrical specimen, the angle of deflection is defined with respect to a reference (radial)
axis as illustrated by the figure a). This radial axis passes through the centre of the transducer
(or, more generally, the centre of the first active sequence) and the centre of the cylinder (see
"Array settings", "Beam steering" algorithm for more details).
In CIVA10, a new algorithm for correcting the angle of deflection has been developed to obtain
the user-specified angle defined with respect to a normal to a surface at the point of impact
as shown in figure b).
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Figure 2.143. Definition of the deflection angle

before correction (a) and after correction (b).
This algorithm is valid for the following configuration:
• Specimen : homogeneous isotropic cylindrical specimen;

• Probes : immersion phased array;
• Inspection :
– perpendicular to revolution axis of cylinder,
– inspection from outside or inside (in the last case the inner radius of cylinder must be
greater than the water path);
• Delay law algorithms (without backwall reflection):
– Beam steering,
– Sectorial scanning,
– Direction and depth focusing,
– Direction and depth scanning.
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2.4.7.4. Definition of the inspection plane for linear-type arrays
For a Beam steering, Sectorial scanning, Direction and depth focusing, Direction and depth
scanning algorithms, the user specifies a number of beam directions (or, focal points) that are
located in the inspection plane (or, test plane defined in CIVA UT Setup-Test).
The inspection plane corresponds to the plane of deflection, which contains the refracted axis
for the selected type of wave and the axis cutting the surface of the transducer.
For a Single point focusing and Multi-points focusing algorithms, the choice "in the inspection
plane" is also interpreted as “in the plane of deflection”.
The figure below shows the difference between the settings for Sectorial scanning in the in-
spection plane and the plane of deflection.
Figure 2.144.
2.4.8. Laws computing options

The “Array settings” panel comprises a fixed area (displayed for every tab) containing the fol-
lowing options relative to the delay laws computation options:
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• Dynamic computing
If this option is selected the delay laws will be recomputed for all probe positions. Such setting
can be relevant for a mechanical scanning of a complex shape specimen. If the option is uns-
elected the applied law will be the law calculated for the first probe position in the mechanical
scanning. If the law to be applied has to be the same for all probe positions then the option
shall be unselected.
• Computing Type (2D/3D)
This option is a choice of algorithm for delay law calculation. For a linear array transducer or
for an annular array transducer with non sectored rings, a 3D calculation is useless and slows
the computation process. In such cases, the 2D option can be used and provides the same
results as the 3D option. For matrix or sectored annular arrays and for dual T/R transducers
regardless of type of array, only 3D calculation is relevant.
In case of doubt it is recommended to use the 3D computing option.
• Take account of dead elements
The probe definition can include specification of "dead" array elements. It is in particular usefull
if the user wants to simulate the fact that elements of the physical array do not work anymore
and evaluate the consequences in terms of detection performances.
If "dead" elements are specified in the "Probe" panel then ticking the "Take account of dead
elements" option allows considering this fact in the delay laws computation.
• Computing state
The "Compute laws" button has to be pressed to launch the delay law calculation. When the
laws are consistent with the parameters definition the field is highlighted in green while it is red
if the laws have to be (re)computed.
Notice that any parameter change will make delay laws inconsistent and then "to be recom-
puted".
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2.5. Flaw
By "flaw" or "defect" is meant a surface or subsurface object that occupies a part of the space
contained in a piece, itself contains one or more materials and is considered to be potentially
detrimental. In Civa, the following planar defects are available:
• rectangular
• semi-elliptical plane
• CAD-contoured planar
• Multi-faceted defect
• flat-bottom hole
• side drilled hole
• hemispherical-bottom hole
• branched
• surface-breaking flaw (2D)
Civa is able to model inclusions of several shapes:
• spherical
• cylindrical
• ellipsoidal
The cylindrical inclusion and the ellipsoidal inclusion are filled by an isotropic medium whereas
the spherical defect can be a void or an inclusion. Specificities of the modelling of inclusions
responses will be described in CIVA UT inspection simulation-Computation theory.
2.5.1. Flaw properties panel
Figure 2.145. Flaw properties panel for an empty flaw (rectangular)
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Figure 2.146. Flaw properties panel for an inclusion (spherical)
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The flaw properties panel (first figure above) comprises three main zones: the top zone, which
is always visible and serves to create, duplicate or delete all or part of a list of flaws. The option
“inclusion” is for the moment only useful for spherical flaws and gives the choice between a
cavity or an inclusion. The flaw properties panel includes two tabs for empty flaws and three
tabs for inclusions (see 2nd figure above). Under the first tab, the user defines the type of flaw
and its dimensions; under the second, he positions the flaw in the piece. The third (2nd figure
above) enables him to define the isotropic medium inside the inclusion.
2.5.2. Flaw list management

The list of flaws is initially empty. By clicking the add button, the user creates a rectangular
flaw numbered 1. The operator can then duplicate (or delete) this flaw by clicking the Add (or
Remove) button which are respectively quoted +and X. The flaws are assigned numbers in the
left column, starting with 1. Flaws are also numbered by type from 1 upward. The type number
appears in the right column, together with the flaw name (e.g. Rectangular defect no. 4).
2.5.3. Geometry tab

Under this tab, a dropdown menu gives access to different flaw options:
• Calibration reflectors: flat-bottom, side drilled and hemispherical-bottomed holes,

• Crack-like flaws: rectangular, semi-elliptical, CAD-contoured planar, multi-faceted, branched
and surface-breaking (2D) flaws,
• Inclusions: spherical, cylindrical and ellipsoidal inclusions.
After the choice of a flaw type, a set of fields for specifying flaw dimensions is displayed. The
number and contents of these fields obviously depend on the selected flaw type.
2.5.3.1. Rectangular flaw
Definitions of the different dimensions are intuitive enough to not require further explanation.
2.5.3.2. Semi-elliptical planar flaw
2.5.3.3. CAD-contoured flaw
A planar CAD flaw is a surface flaw contained in a plane with an arbitrary contour. This contour
is defined either by loading a .dxf file or by using the CAD tool built into Civa. Regardless of the
option selected, the flaw contour definition must comply with Civa-specific construction rules
(see Using 2D-3D CAD pieces).
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Geometry tab for a planar CAD flaw

If the Civa CAD tool is used to define the contour of a planar flaw, a CAD capture interface,
identical to the one for 2D CAD piece definition appears. This interface initially contains a cross
section view of the piece in the test plane represented as a solid black line. This view gives
an idea of the size of the objects defined, since the dimensions of the CAD planar flaw are
determined by those of the various entities making up its profile. The full contour of the flaw
is then defined by a sequence of contiguous segments and/or arcs. An example of one such
contour is shown in Figure below.
Figure 2.147. Typical CAD planar flaw
2.5.3.4. Multi-faceted flaw

A multi-faceted flaw is a CAD-defined flaw. The user can either load an existing .dxf file or use
the CAD tool built into Civa.
To create a multi-faceted flaw, the user must define elements of different colours via
Civa CAD tool as for 2D CAD piece definition:
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• the flaw profile in red

• the flaw extrusion in magenta
Each of these elements is made of one or more contiguous segments (arcs cannot be used
to define multifaceted flaws). Contrary to branched flaws, it is not possible to have more than
one child for a parent.
The length of the magenta segment corresponds to the extrusion length and its inclination
(compared to the frame) determines the extrusion direction.
Figure 2.148. Extrusion orientation
The flaw profile is considered in the inspection plane but there are two possibilities of orientation
of the multifaceted flaw:
Figure 2.149. Extrusion planes P1 and P2 for multi-faceted flaws
To define the extrusion in the P1 plan the user will have to select the horizontal plane of extru-
sion or the following icon:
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To define the extrusion in the P2 plan the user will have to select the vertical plane of extrusion
or the following icon:
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A preview of the flaw is available, then the flaw shape can be validated.
2.5.3.5. Flat-bottom hole
Only the bottom of the flaw is considered during simulation.
2.5.3.6. Side-drilled hole
The extremities of the flaw are not considered for simulation, only its cylindrical surface.
2.5.3.7. Hemispherical-bottomed hole
Only the bottom of the flaw is considered during simulation.
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2.5.3.8. Spherical
By default this flaw is void. If "Inclusion" is ticked, a new tab allows the definition of the inclusion
material.
2.5.3.9. Cylindrical inclusion
Definitions of the different dimensions are intuitive enough to not require further explanation
A new tab allows the definition of the material.
2.5.3.10. Ellipsoidal inclusion
The user needs to define the 3 diameters along the 3 axis of the ellipsoid.
A new tab allows the definition of the material.
2.5.3.11. Branched flaw
A branched flaw is similar to a multi-faceted crack except that it is possible to have several
branches in the profile and/or extrusion coming from the same parent. The computation model
allows one and only one skip on the facet and takes into account shadowing.
The geometry tab corresponding to this type of flaw is the same as for a planar CAD flaw and
two areas are created. In these tabs, the user can find characteristics of the profile and the
extrusion of the branched defect. The panel is reported on the following picture.
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These two tabs are reported in the geometry panel so that the user can define variations, or
POD (right-click on parameter). However, the tabs can not be modified in the geometry panel.
To define or modify a branched defect, the user can load a dxf file or create a new defect using
the CIVA CAD tool.
As for the multi-faceted defect, to create a branched flaw with the CAD tool, the user must
define two elements of different colours:
• the flaw profile (red segment) in the inspection plane

• the flaw extrusion (magenta segment) in one of the two perpendicular planes
These elements can be either defined in the “CAD profile” panel or in the CAD GUI by clicking on
button. The different elements are necessary made of segments (arcs cannot be used)
The CAD tool for the creation of a branched flaw is reported on the following picture:
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In the CAD profile panel, there are two tabs in which characteristics of the flaws are reported.
The first one, called “2D profile” refers to the profile of the defect, and the second one called
“2D extrusion” refers to the extrusion of the flaw. In these tabs, the user can find:
• Name: name of the element, numbered from 1 to N

• Parent: index associated with the element from witch results the considered element. In the
previous example, elements 2 and 3 are ramifications of element 1. So Parent parameter
equals 1 for elements 2 and 3. Note that element 1 did not have any parent (index 0).
• Length: length of the element
• Angle: angle between the element and its parent. For element 2, angle refers to the angle
between element 1 and element 2.
• Absolute angle: angle between the element and the U axis.
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Note that if the user:
• modifies the geometry of one element, the following elements will be affected by this mod-
ification.
• deletes one element, the following elements are deleted too.
One segment has to be connected with another one (node) to be taken into account. The user
can connect as many segments as desired on one node.
It is exactly the same for the extrusion.
2.5.3.12. Surface breaking cracks
Surface breaking cracks can be defined in CIVA as specific type of flaw:
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• "Length" defines the dimensions of the base of the surface breaking crack.
• "Height" parameter is the distance of propagation of the crack inside the specimen, and from
the center of the projected segment or surface.
• The "Edge orientation" defines the direction of projection (vertical or normal to the surface)
• The "Type of length" defines the projected segment measurement type. It can be chosen
between Euclidean or Curvilinear conventions.
• The "Shape" defines the shape of the crack, between "Straight", "Following surface", "Tri-
angle" or "Ellipse".
Figure 2.150. Differences between "Following surface" and "Straight" notch:
In CIVA, the surface breaking cracks cannot cross several entities. In these cases,
an ERROR message will appear in the 3D scene viewer.
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2.5.4. Flaw positioning tab

Flaw positioning and orientation are determined in two stages:
The first step is to choose a flaw Reference plane, by selecting an option in a list of Positioning
options proposed to the user. This list of options differs for each type of piece.
The second step is to position the Reference point in the piece and to orient the flaw relative to
the Reference plane. There are two ways to position the Reference point. These are referred
to as "positioning Modes" in the same way as for transducer positioning: either the user directly
keys in the reference point coordinates in the Piece reference frame, or he refers to a point on
the piece surface (or backwall). This point is said to be Directly below the flaw. The first mode
is known as Defect center and the second From surface/backwall. Depending on the mode
selected, the Reference plane contains the Reference point or the point Directly below the flaw.
2.5.4.1. Flaw positioning options
The options proposed depend on the type of piece tested. They are listed and described below
for each case. In all cases the orientation used is the "natural" orientation of the flaw for the
option concerned, i.e. the orientation it would have if its orientation angles were all set to 0°.
The natural orientation is given as the orientation of the reference frame (Xdef, Ydef, Zdef)
relative to the piece frame denoted here as (X, Y, Z).
Note: The natural orientation of the flaw as defined above, is not entirely reflected by the posi-
tioning option. The orientation of axis Zdef differs according to positioning mode, i.e. to whether
the Reference point is positioned in the piece (Defect center mode) or relative to a piece sur-
face (From surface/backwall mode). For purposes of simplification, the following paragraphs
describe the natural orientation associated with each positioning option in Defect center mode.
For the From surface/backwall mode, we then consider the Zdef to be oriented in the Direction
of translation, regardless of the positioning option.
The following list shows the various positioning options available for the different types of
pieces.
2.5.4.1.1. Flat piece
There are three possible options:
• Along X: in "natural" orientation, the (Xdef, Zdef) plane is the (X, Z) plane. The Zdef axis
lies along the Z axis (Defect center mode).
• Along Y: the (Xdef, Zdef) plane is the (Y, Z) plane. The Zdef axis lies along the Z axis (Defect
center mode).
• Oblique: the user enters the angle (in degrees) between the X axis and the (Xdef, Zdef)
plane. The Zdef axis lies along the Z axis (Defect center mode).
For example, in a flat piece for which the Along Y axis option is selected, the default orientation
of a rectangular flaw is such that its height lies along Z and its length along Y, while the revo-
lution axis of a side-drilled hole is parallel to Y and the axis of a flat-bottomed hole is vertical.
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Important: The names of the three positioning options described above differ ac-
cording to the type of flaw. The options Along X and Along Y are respectively called
Length along X and Length along Y for a rectangular flaw, and In plane XZ and In
plane YZ for a CAD-contoured flaw.
2.5.4.1.2. Cylinder
As stated earlier, the Y axis of a cylinder is its axis of revolution. There are three possible
positioning options:
• Parallel to the revolution axis: The (Xdef, Zdef) plane is the one containing the Y axis and
the radial axis at the point Directly below the flaw. The Xdef axis coincides with the Y axis
(axis of revolution) and Zdef lies in the radial direction (Defect center mode).
• Perpendicular to the revolution axis: The (Xdef, Zdef) plane is the (X, Z) plane perpendic-
ular to the cylinder axis and Zdef lies in the radial direction (Defect center mode).
• Oblique: In this case, the user enters an angle in degrees that defines the (Xdef, Zdef) plane
orientation in the plane containing the point Directly below the flaw and the Y axis. This angle
is 0° when the Oblic option is equivalent to the Parallel to revolution axis option. The Zdef
axis lies in the radial direction (Defect center mode).
For example, in a cylindrical piece for which the Parallel to revolution axis option is selected,
the default orientation of a rectangular flaw is such that its height lies in the radial direction and
its length along the cylinder axis, while the revolution axis of a side-drilled hole is parallel to Y
and the axis of a flat-bottomed hole lies in the radial direction.
2.5.4.1.3. Sphere
There are no options. Only the flaw center coordinates can be keyed-in.
2.5.4.1.4. Cone
There are four possible positioning options. Three of them are similar to the three options for
positioning a cylindrical flaw. The fourth reflects the distinction made, in the case of a conical
flaw; between cone generator and revolution axis.
• Length along the rotation axis: The (Xdef, Zdef) plane is the plane containing the Y axis
and the vertical axis at the point Directly below the flaw. The Xdef axis coincides with the Y
axis (revolution axis) and Zdef lies along the vertical axis (Defect center mode).
• Perpendicular to revolution axis: The (Xdef, Zdef) plane is the (X, Z) plane. The Zdef axis
lies along Z (Defect center mode).
• Perpendicular to generator: The (Xdef, Zdef) plane is perpendicular to the generator at the
point Directly below the flaw. The Zdef axis lies in the radial direction (Defect center mode).
• Oblique: the user enters an angle in degrees that defines the (Xdef, Zdef) plane orientation
in the plane containing the X axis and the generator at the point Directly below the flaw. This
angle is 0° when the Slanted option is equivalent to the Parallel to revolution axis option,
except as concerns Zdef axis orientation. Under the Slanted option, the Zdef axis in fact lies
in the radial direction (Defect center mode).
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2.5.4.1.5. Elbow
(Xdef, Zdef) plane orientations associated with the three positioning options proposed for an
elbow are identical to those associated respectively with the three options for a cylinder of the
same size as the elbow and whose revolution axis is tangent to the elbow U-shaped generator
curve. These three options are:
• Along generator curve: The (Xdef, Zdef) plane is the one containing the axis tangent to
the generator curve, and the radial axis at the point Directly below the flaw. The Xdef axis
coincides with the axis tangent to the elbow "U-shaped" generator curve and Zdef lies in the
radial direction (Defect center mode).
• Perpendicular to the generator curve: The (Xdef, Zdef) plane is the plane perpendicular
to the elbow generator curve and Zdef lies in the radial direction (Defect center mode).
• Oblique: The user enters an angle in degrees. (Xdef, Zdef) plane orientation does not de-
pend only on the value of the angle, but also on the position of the flaw in the elbow (along
its generator curve).
2.5.4.1.6. Nozzle
Flaw positioning in a nozzle is based on the reference frame of one of the two figures of revo-
lution. The user first selects Main cylinder or Secondary cylinder, depending on which is used
as a reference for flaw positioning. The list of possible options is then:
• Along joint axis

• Perpendicular to revolution axis
• Normal to joint axis
• Oblique.
Under the Along joint axis option, the (Xdef, Zdef) plane is the one containing the revolution
axis (Y or Z) of the cylinder of interest and the point Directly below the flaw in the piece. The
(Xdef, Zdef) plane orientations associated with the Perpendicular to revolution axis and Slanted
options are identical to those defined for a cylindrical piece after replacement of the X, Y and
Z axes with the corresponding axes of the selected cylinder. Finally, the (Xdef, Zdef) plane
orientation associated with the Normal to joint axis option is identical to the orientation defined
for a CAD profile extended by revolution, after the same replacements as above.
The Normal to profile option is not accessible for the Reference point positioning
mode. This is because procedures associated with these two options are incompat-
ible.
2.5.4.1.7. 2D or 3D CAD piece
There are three positioning options for these types of specimen:
• Perpendicular to profile plane

• Along profile
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• Oblique.
Under In profile plane, the (Xdef, Zdef) plane is the one containing the CAD profile, i.e. (X, Z)
or (Y, Z), depending on whether the piece is extended by translation or revolution (assuming
that θ = 0). The Perpendicular to profile plane and Normal to profile options are associated with
an (Xdef, Zdef) plane perpendicular to the plane containing the profile. Under Perpendicular to
the profile plane, the test plane contains the vertical (or the radial) translation direction. Under
Normal to profile, it contains the axis normal to the point Directly below the flaw. For the slanted
option, the user must enter an angle in degrees that defines the (Xdef, Zdef) plane orientation
in the (X, Y) plane (by assuming that if the profile is extended by revolution, the position of the
point Directly below the flaw is at θ = 0). This angle is 0° if the Slanted option is equivalent
to In profile plane.
In all cases, the Zdef axis lies along Z (Defect center mode) if the piece has a planar extension
and in the radial direction if the piece is extended by revolution.
For example, in a 2.5 D CAD piece with planar extension for which the option In profile plane
is selected, a rectangular flaw is oriented by default such that its height lies along the vertical
axis of the plane used to define the profile (Z axis) and its length lies along the horizontal axis
of this plane (X axis), while the revolution axis of a side-drilled hole is horizontal in the same
plane (parallel to X) and the axis of a flat-bottomed hole is vertical.
The Normal to profile option is not accessible for the Defect center positioning mode.
This is because the procedures associated with these two options are incompatible.
2.5.4.1.8. Section transition, Blade root, Blade groove and Weld
The positioning mode depends on the specimen extrusion as for 2D CADs.
2.5.4.1.9. Fastened plate
There are no options. Only the flaw position and orientation can be keyed-in.
2.5.4.1.10. Through Wall Penetration
2.5.4.2. Flaw positioning menu : modes
Two positioning modes – Defect center and From surface/backwall – are available to the user.
The operator can switch from one to the other; when he does so, the fields defining flaw position
are automatically refreshed.
2.5.4.2.1. Defect center positioning mode
One means for determining the location of a flaw in the piece is to select a Reference point,
then to orient the flaw relative to this point.
This mode is available for all types of flaws and all positioning options except Normal to profile
(CAD piece) or Normal to joint axis (nozzle). Under both the latter options, definition of the flaw
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´s "natural" orientation implies that the point on the piece surface Directly below the flaw is
known. This makes it impossible to use Defect center mode.
If Defect center mode is selected, the user inputs the coordinates of the flaw reference frame
origin which, depending on type of flaw, coincides with the Defect center or is labeled Reference
point. These coordinates are expressed in the Piece reference frame as defined in the Piece
specifications for each type of piece.
reference point for Rectangular flaw:
The Reference point is the barycenter of the rectangle.
Xdef and Zdef belong to the plane containing the flaw; Xdef is oriented along the length of the
flaw and Zdef along its height.
reference point for Spherical flaw:
The Reference point is the centre of the flaw.
A spherical flaw has no orientation. The three vectors Xdef, Ydef and Zdef are defined arbi-
trarily.
reference point for Side-drilled hole:
The Reference point is located on the axis of revolution in the middle of the cylinder.
Xdef is oriented along the length of the flaw (hole axis of revolution). Ydef and Zdef are defined
arbitrarily.
reference point for Flat-bottomed hole:
The Reference point is the center of the disk representing the bottom of the hole.
Zdef is oriented along the hole axis of revolution. Xdef and Ydef are defined arbitrarily.
reference point for Hemispherical-bottomed hole:
The Reference point is the center of the hemisphere representing the bottom of the hole.
Zdef is oriented along the hole axis of revolution. Xdef and Ydef are defined arbitrarily.
reference point for PlanarCAD flaw:
This flaw is defined as an encapsulating rectangle which is the smallest rectangle that can
contain the flaw contours. The Reference point is the barycenter of this rectangle.
Xdef is the horizontal axis of the CAD plane and Zdef is the vertical axis of the same plane.
reference point for Multifaceted flaw:
This flaw is defined as the smallest encapsulating parallelepiped that can contain the flaw such
that two parallelepiped surfaces coincide with the two planes containing the flaw-defining CAD
profiles. The Reference point is the barycenter of this parallelepiped.
Flaw orientation is specified by the orientation of an equal scale reference plane (R, Xdef, Ydef,
Zdef) known as the Flaw reference frame such that R is the Reference point of the flaw. The
three vectors (Xdef, Ydef, Zdef) are defined differently, depending on the type of flaw.
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As stated earlier, this flaw is defined by two profiles of different colors in two planes perpen-
dicular to one another. (Xdef, Zdef) is the plane used to define the first CAD profile (in red),
with Xdef the horizontal and Zdef the vertical axis. (Ydef, Zdef) is the plane used to define the
second profile (in magenta).
reference point for branched flaw:
As stated earlier, this flaw is defined by two profiles of different colors in two planes perpen-
dicular to one another. (Xdef, Zdef) is the plane used to define the first CAD profile (in red),
with Xdef the horizontal and Zdef the vertical axis. (Ydef, Zdef) is the plane used to define the
second profile (in magenta).
reference point for Plain cylinder flaw:
The Reference point is located on the axis of revolution in the middle of the cylinder.
reference point for Ellipsoïdal flaw:
The three vectors Xdef, Ydef and Zdef are defined as the axis of the ellipsoid.
Flaw orientation is defined by three angles known asTilt, Skew and Disorientation. These three
angles, which are expressed in degrees and may have positive or negative values, can define
any orientation via three successive rotations starting from an initial orientation. As already
stated above, rotations are not commutative operations. In Civa, the orientation of the flaw is
thus computed by crediting the Tilt, Skew and Disorientation angles in that order.
The initial orientation of the flaw, which corresponds to three zero angles, is the already men-
tioned "natural" orientation associated with the choice of a Positioning option.
The Tilt angle is the degree of flaw rotation around the Xdef axis (e.g. for a planar flaw, it is the
rotation applied to the flaw plane, without change to the "ength of flaw" direction).
The Skew angle is the degree of rotation of a flaw around the Zdef axis (e.g. for a planar flaw,
it is the rotation applied to the flaw plane, without change to the "height of flaw" direction).
The Disorientation angle is the degree of rotation around the Ydef axis (i.e., a planar flaw is
rotated in its own plane).
Based on the three coordinates of the flaw center and the above three angles, Civa searches
for the points at which the Zdef axis intersects the piece surface (or backwall), to determine the
positioning parameters for the From surface/backwall mode.
2.5.4.2.2. From Surface/backwall positioning mode
"From surface/backwall" positioning mode is available for all types of flaws in a flat piece and
a 2.5 D CAD piece.
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Figure 2.151. Flaw positioning mode from surface/backwall

- left) for a flat test piece right) for a 2.5 D CAD piece
To define the position of this specific point in the piece, two of the three coordinates displayed
in the GUI can be written in. The third coordinate is defined by selecting the surface to which
the point belongs (i.e. the reference surface selected by the user to define the flaw), which he
specifies differently for each type of piece.
For a Flat piece, the user chooses between Surface and Backwall.
For a Cylindrical, Conical or Spherical piece, a Nozzle or an Elbow, he chooses Inside or

Outside.
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Figure 2.152. Definition of the "impact coordinates" used

in Surface/Backwall positioning of a 2.5 D CAD piece
For a 2.5 D CAD piece, the concepts Surface/Backwall (or Inside/Outside) are somewhat inap-
propriate. It is namely difficult to define a surface or a backwall in a complex piece profile,. That
is why the term "impact coordinates" is preferred and the user must define a reference point
from a list of possible coordinates. The corresponding GUI is similar to the tool used in Civa to
position an ultrasonic transducer on a CAD piece under the "Impact coordinates" option.
Positioning the flaw relative to a piece surface requires definition not only of the surface used
as a reference but also, for more complex geometries, of a "Translation direction" from which
the distance to this surface is measured.
In "From surface/backwall" mode and where necessary for the type of piece geometry, the user
selects Translation direction by choosing between one of the following two sub-options:
• Along vertical/radial: The Translation direction is the vertical or radial axis directly below the
flaw, depending on piece geometry.
• Along normal: The translation direction is oriented along the inward normal axis directly below
the flaw.
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Figure below shows flaw positioning in a 2.5 D CAD piece with the two Translation direction
options.
Figure 2.153. Choice of "Translation direction"
Once the reference surface and the translation direction have been specified, the user can
further define flaw positioning and orientation by inputting numerical parameters.
This entails first providing a Ligament parameter (real positive number) corresponding to the
distance along the shortest translation direction between the piece and all points on the flaw.
Nevertheless, for some volumetric flaws (HBF, spherical and ellipsoidal), it means for the mo-
ment the distance between the specimen and the centre of the defect (for a HBF the centre of
the half sphere). With a bore specimen, the ligament refers to the shortest distance between
all points of the flaw and the outside of the rivet.
Flaw orientation is defined by three angles known as Tilt, Skew and Disorientation. These three
angles, which are expressed in degrees and may have positive or negative values, can define
any orientation via three successive rotations starting from an initial orientation. As already
stated elsewhere, rotations are not commutative operations. In Civa, the orientation of the flaw
is thus computed by crediting the Tilt, Skew and Disorientation angles in that order.
The initial orientation of the flaw, which corresponds to three zero angles, is the already men-
tioned "natural" orientation associated with choice of a Positioning option. As also stated above,
under this approach, the Zdef axis is oriented along the Translation direction, regardless of the
selected positioning option.
The Tilt angle is the degree of flaw rotation around the Xdef axis. Note that this rotation may
be accompanied by a translation movement to preserve the Ligament value (see below).
The Skew angle is the degree of rotation around the Zdef axis. Again, this rotation may be
accompanied by a translation movement to preserve the Ligament value (see below).
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The Disorientation angle is the degree of rotation around the Ydef axis. Such rotation may
likewise be accompanied by a translation movement to preserve the Ligament value.
For the purposes of defining these angles, the Xdef, Ydef, and Zdef axes define the
current flaw reference frame, i.e. the earlier described initial frame to which any Tilt,
Skew or Disorientation-type rotations were applied.
The flaw is then positioned as follows: once flaw orientation and the Translation Direction are
known, Civa computes the point on the flaw (or on the encapsulating "box" for a CAD-defined
flaw) that is closest to the piece in the translation direction. Once this point has been deter-
mined, the flaw is translated (from its initial position) such that the distance of this "end" point
from the piece along the translation direction is equal to the Ligament.
When one of the three (Tilt, Skew or Rotation) angles is modified, the flaw rotates
about its center and not about its end as might seem more natural to the user (but
would cause inconsistencies). Such rotation may be accompanied by translation of
the reference point along the straight line linking it to the point directly below the flaw,
to preserve the same Ligament value.
For a Flat-bottomed or Hemispherical-bottomed hole, the Ligament parameter is

measured relative to hole center.
For CAD-defined flaws, the ligament defined in the GUI refers to the encapsulating
"box" and not the flaw itself.
Finally, for "From surface/backwall", the user has access, in read only mode (see bottom of
panel) to flaw center coordinates in the reference frame.
2.5.5. Flaw Material menu

This menu is only available when the flaw is an inclusion, this tab enables to define the medium
inside the inclusion.
This medium must be:
• isotropic (with choice "Simple" for Type). The Material Menu is the same used in the Set-
up-Test Specimen (See CIVA UT Setup-Test Piece for more details).
• different from air or vacuum. Otherwise, the following warning will appear at the start of
running :"No computation if inclusions defined with velocity or volumetric mass density close
to zero. Do you want to continue? (if yes, no computation of corresponding echoes)".
It is possible to define attenuation inside the inclusion. This attenuation is taken into account in
the simulation only for direct echoes. Consequently, the following warning can occur at the start
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of running: « Attenuation within the inclusion not taken into account if skips are allowed. Do you
want to continue? (if yes, account of this attenuation only for direct echoes of inclusions )Yes/
No »
There is no use to define a noise inside the inclusion since it won’t have an effect on the
modelling result.
The simulation of inclusions in Civa is only based on the modified Born approximation which
leads to an important number of limitations concerning the running options (see in particular
the Born model chapter).
2.5.6. Probe Pre-positioning

In some cases, it may be useful to set the probe position according to the position of a flaw
in order to simulate the maximum response. The probe pre-positioning is available by right-
clicking on the flaw. The use of this tools is described for a nozzle inspection in an Extende
video on Youtube.
2.6. Raypath display

The Ray Path Display tool is available in the UT Inspection simulation and UT Beam Compu-
tation modules in the "3D view" of the model or in a "3D view" of an analyze window.
It allows, for the purpose of qualitative analysis, plotting rays starting from the probe surface,
then through the test piece, allowing for refraction in the coupling medium/piece and for various
piece transmission/reflection modes. The ray path may be enriched with the beam properties.
We will describe below the way to parameter the Ray Path Display in the two "3D view" and
the link between them. The computation of the beam properties and the way to parameter the
display will be presented.
2.6.1. Ray path and beam properties display

The Ray Path Display tool is available in the UT Inspection simulation and UT Beam Compu-
tation modules in the "3D view" of the model or in a "3D view" of an analyze window.
It allows, for the purpose of qualitative analysis, plotting rays starting from the probe surface,
then through the test piece, allowing for refraction in the coupling medium/piece and for various
piece transmission/reflection modes. The ray path may be enriched with the beam properties.
We will describe below the way to parameter the Ray Path Display in the two "3D view" and
the link between them. The computation of the beam properties and the way to parameter the
display will be presented.
2.6.1.1. Ray path Display in the 3D view of the UT inspection simulation model
The Ray Path Display tool box is represented below. The choices made in each part of the 5
boxes "Options", "Modes", "Beam", “Coverage” and "Time of flight" will be used to display the
rays and the beam characteristics.
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2.6.1.1.1. Options
• “Central” / “Delay laws” / “PA Settings”
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In the case of a single element probe the central ray (ray starting from the center of the crystal
probe in a direction normal to its surface) is displayed.
In the case of a phased array probe, you can choose to display different information like:
– Central rays for L and/or T modes (same as for a single element probe).
– Array setting parameter: representation of the law´s parameters (points of focalization,
rays of beam steering...) are represented in the 3D View. They can be modified using the
interactivity.
– Delay laws: rays corresponding to the current, calculated delays laws. You can display the
ray for a given sequence and shot or for all sequences and shots.
• “Transmission” / “Reception” / “Trans./Recep.”
If the paths in transmission and in reception are different, you can choose to display both of
them or only one of them (see example below for a dual element probe).
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• “Back to probe”
You can choose to display only the ray going back to the transducer when considering spec-
ular reflections off the specimen geometry and off the defect (see figure below).
Warning: this option is not efficient in the case of distinct transmission and reception paths.
• “Critical rays”
If they do exist the critical rays generated at interfaces are displayed (velvet rays). The button
"show critical rays" is available only if the options "L +T + mode conversion" are checked in
the "computation parameters options"
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Next figure shows the impact of enabling or not the “Show critical rays” options on a weld
depicted as a heterogeneous and anisotropic structure.
• Annotations : “Angles”
You can choose to display on the ray path of the current shot the angles at the interfaces.
• Annotations : “Distances”
In the case of a weld specimen, you can choose to display the distance between the front
of the probe and the weld center.
In the case of a TOFD configuration, the Probe Centre Separation (PCS) and the depth of
the beam intersection are also displayed.
• Annotations : “Mirror”
In the case of a planar specimen or a weld with a plane geometry, you can choose to display
the mirror of the specimen. The mirror is made using the back wall of the specimen.
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2.6.1.1.2. Modes
• “Computation options”, “L”, “T”, “L+T+conversion”, “L+T no conversion”
When “Computation options” is selected in this scroll-down list, the modes chosen in the
panel "computation parameters"/"options" are considered: only the calculated modes defined
in this panel and selected in the list of modes are displayed in 3D view. The aim is to represent
only the rays for the modes that will be indeed computed.
When the other options are selected (“L”, “T”, “L+T+conversion” or “L+T no conversion”), the
user defines the modes with the number of rebounds to be displayed.
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2.6.1.1.3. Beam
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Three possibilities are proposed to help characterizing the beam: “beam of rays” / “Analytical
properties” / “Beam properties” and the resulting visualization is displayed in 3D view by check-
ing the “Display” checkbox.
• “Beam of rays”
To help understanding the propagation of the ultrasound beam, the user can activate the
display of a beam of rays, choosing the number of rays along X and Y axis and the aperture
angle.
• “ Analytical properties ”
A second option to characterize the properties of the beam is to apply directly the analytical
formulas presented in the following standard: “A09-325 Non-destructive testing. Ultrasonic
testing. Acoustic beams. Generalities”. In particular, the used formula are the following:
Near field:
Spread angle:
With D: crystal diameter, : wave length.
The following information are available for the display in the beam toolbox and in the 3D view:
In the case of an unfocused transducer:
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– “Near field” is the distance from the transducer to the point corresponding to the natural
focus of the transducer.
– “Spread angle”, characterizes the increase of beam diameter with distance from the trans-
ducer.
In the case of a focused transducer:
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– “Focal distance” is the distance from the transducer to the focal point.
– “Focal zone width” (as illustrated on the picture below)
– “Focal zone length” (as illustrated on the picture below)
• “ Beam properties ”
The last option allows the computation and the display of beam characteristics in the inspec-
tion plane with more precision than the previous methods. In that case, the computation of
the beam characteristics is done in two steps: a first approximation of the characteristics
is obtained using analytical formulas (presented above). From these first results, a limited
area is defined where the CIVA beam computation is applied. The beam characteristics are
extracted from the resulting beam.
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2.6.1.1.4. Coverage
The coverage option allows to visualize on the 3D view the beam display selected over all
the positions, all the sequences, all the shots. All the combinations are possible using the
checkboxes.
Taking for example the case on the above picture: the current shot is “Pos” = 34, “Seq” = 49,
“Shot” = 5. The coverage is computed and displayed with all the sequences (the checkbox of
the sequences is selected) of the position 34, for the shot 4.
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2.6.1.1.5. Time of Flight
This toolbox allows to display only the part of the rays corresponding to the time of flight defined.
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3. UT - Beam computation
3.1. Active model setup
3.1.1. Panels
The Beam Calculation function of the Civa UT module is intended to simulate the ultrasonic
field. The parameters used to simulate the test configuration, i.e. to define the test piece, the
transducer and the position of the transducer where the field has to be simulated, are common
to both the Beam computation and Inspection simulation modules. They are described in this
manual under Civa UT Setup. The following paragraphs describe only the settings for Beam
computation and for the associated post-processing functions. Various theoretical aspects of
the model are also described in the theoretical aspects section.
The Beam computation module is accessed from the Civa start window, by selecting the UT
menu, then the drop-down Beam Computation sub-menu as illustrated.
Figure 2.154. Access to the Beam computation module from the Civa start window
Note: The Beam computation module is also accessed if a settings file is loaded via
the Civa "File" menu.
3.1.2. Implicit choice

Some choices are made implicitly by entering data at user interfaces as described in the pre-
ceding paragraphs. These choices are reiterated or described for the first time below.
3.1.2.1. Signal/Sampling frequency

The signal credited by default is the one defined in the Transducer interface. This signal is used
in particular for convolution operations performed automatically at the end of the computation.
As already stated elsewhere, the signal sampling frequency is used as a basis for computing
impulse response and remains applicable to the rest of the computation.
3.1.2.2. Selected law for array settings

The law used for the final automatic convolution at the end of the computation is the one se-
lected in the Array Settings panel. If several laws were computed (e.g. for sectorial scanning),
the first law is by default the one applied for post-processing. If no law was computed, the
default law is uniform for all channels with a constant-amplitude and zero-delay law.
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3.1.2.3. Visualized UT field

At the end of the computation, the visualized ultrasonic field is the modulus of the displacement
at any point of the calculation zone for all of the chosen modes.
3.1.2.4. Computation with attenuation

If damping has to be considered in computation then the beam calculation take into account
of the attenuation parameters. However, note that it still possible to visualize a posteriori the
beam calculation without attenuation.
3.2. UT Beam Computation parameters

The Computation parameters window opened by clicking the Computation definition button
allows selection of the computation Options, Computation area (containing all the points for
which a Beam computation is performed) and Storage options tabs (the latter defines how
results are stored in the file).
Figure 2.155. Tabs available in the Computation settings window

The Options and Storage Options tabs are described below. The Computation area tab is de-
scribed separately in the document that also deals with transducer positioning. The positioning
function is now closely linked with Piece and Test data, to make definition of the computation
zone as simple as possible for the user.
3.2.1. Computation options

Under Options, the user defines the Computation mode (2D or 3D), the Propagation mode (L-
wave, T-wave, P-wave only for immersed transducers or Rayleigh wave – the latter of which is
proposed only for immersed transducers for flat, cylindrical or spherical, isotropic test pieces),
and determines whether or not allowance is made for attenuation, computation Accuracy and
Type of mode conversion.
Figure 2.156. Computation options tab
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3.2.1.1. Computation mode
3.2.1.1.1. Dimension of the calculation
The user chooses either a two-dimensional (2D) or a three-dimensional (3D) computation mode
(by clicking the relevant button). The plane in which the 2D computation takes place is the
one defined by the transducer central radius and the axis normal to the piece at the point of
impact. Note that 2D computation is only meaningful in cases where this is also the plane of
symmetry for all computation settings. The user must verify that such symmetry exists; other-
wise results obtained will not be physically significant. Even if such symmetry exists, this option
cannot precisely predict the field radiated by the transducer, since the latter´s extension outside
the 2D plane is not credited. It does, however, enable quick computation and, as such, thus
defining a computation zone in cases where beam position in the piece is unknown (e.g. for
CAD or anisotropic pieces). It thus enables "preliminary analysis" of the setup before 3D beam
computation takes place.
3.2.1.1.2. Attenuation
When this option is checked, the computed result computes attenuation in both the piece and
the coupling medium (which is a liquid for an immersion-type transducer or L-wave attenuation
by the wedge of a contact or dual T/R transducer). Otherwise, the different attenuation coeffi-
cients entered via the coupling media panels are not credited.
The attenuation influence is an approximate value. For each point in the computation zone
and each wave propagation mode, the system computes an average distance per type of path,
denoted as < d > i
This distance is the average value of distances di(j), where Atti(f) = exp(-α i(f) <d>i) is the distant
th th
in the i medium of the j path allowing to evaluate the computed contribution between the
transducer surface and the computation point.
In the focal zone of a focused transducer or the far field of a flat transducer, the standard devi-
ation is very low (the smaller the transducer aperture, the lower this deviation). For each medi-
um, a frequency-dependent filter is deduced from the following formulation: α i(f) where corre-
th
sponds to the damping law (exponential or polynomial attenuation) defined for the i medium
(cf. § 2.2.1).
The global transfer function modelling the attenuation effect is the product of filters for each
medium of the ray path corresponding to the propagation mode of interest at the computation
point (one filter per mode and per point).
Note that if the attenuation is checked, the calculated result is displayed with account of atten-
uation effects. However, a simple post-processing allows one to compare, for the same con-
figuration, this result with another one without considering damping effects. It is not necessary
to compute another calculation.
In the case of samples made of anisotropic materials, the attenuation is considered

to be isotropic contrary to elastic properties.
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No attenuation is computed on a lens, since lenses are generally assumed to be thin.
3.2.1.1.3. Accuracy
The Accuracy setting, whose default value is 1, refers to the number of contributions accounted
for in the computation. This number is proportional to the center frequency and independant
of the transducer largest dimension.
For an interface between the coupling medium (or wedge) and a CAD-defined piece, the sys-
tem automatically multiplies this number by a factor of 2.5. An accuracy of 1 thus implies com-
putation of 2.5 more contributions than for parametrically-defined interfaces.
The factor 2.5 is applied to account for geometric variations in the coupling medium-to-CAD
piece interface with respect to a parametrically-defined interface. If the CAD-defined interface
comprises very few elements, this factor may be overestimated and the user can then reduce
the accuracy factor proposed by default. If the CAD-defined interface comprises many ele-
ments, thus producing a test piece geometry that is far from canonical, this number may be
underestimated. In such cases, the user can increase the accuracy factor proposed by default.
For a phased-array transducer, this number is automatically multiplied by a factor of 2. An
accuracy of 1 thus implies computation of twice the number of contributions computed for a
monolithic transducer.
This means that, for a coupling medium (or wedge)-to-CAD piece interface and a phased-array
transducer, the number of fields is multiplied by a factor of 2 x 2.5 = 5. An accuracy of 1 thus
implies computation of five times more contributions than for parametrically-defined interfaces
and a monolithic transducer.
To ensure the desired quality of results, it is generally advisable to verify their convergence
by performing computations with successively increasing accuracy factors. In most cases, an
accuracy of 2 to 3 is adequate.
3.2.1.2. Wave mode
3.2.1.2.1. Computation of radiated field for bulk waves

The user chooses which modes will be computed: L or T or L and T (by ticking the corresponding
boxes).
For anisotropic materials, selection of L-waves leads to computation of the quasi-longitudinal
(qL) mode and selection of T-waves leads to simultaneous computation of both quasi-trans-
verse modes (qT1 and qT2).
3.2.1.2.2. Computation of radiated field in the coupling medium

For immersion transducers only, it is possible to compute the field radiated in the coupling
medium when the computation area is partially or totally located in the coupling medium. The
user has to tick the P-wave box corresponding to the pressure wave propagating in the coupling
medium.
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3.2.1.2.3. Computation of radiated field for Rayleigh waves
For immersion transducers in flat, cylindrical or spherical pieces in isotropic material, The
Rayleigh modes option predicts:
• Rayleigh waves (appearing at the surface of the material)

• Surface skimming Rayleigh waves (contribution from Rayleigh waves in the fluid)
These two fields are computed together and cannot be decoupled.
The Rayleigh wave option does not appear if either the piece or transducer does not satisfy
the conditions.
3.2.1.3. Conversion and reflection
The user ticks the option(s) he wishes to apply.
• Direct mode
• Mode conversion : the conversion will affect all steps of refraction and reflection
• Specimen’s boundary reflection : number of reflections
Figure 2.157. option for reflections

• Internal reflection : for heterogeneous specimen
• Specifiy modes list : the modes list can be set through a simple text file.
3.2.1.3.1. Direct mode only (no reflection and no mode conversion.)
Only fields of L and/or T modes radiated by refraction at the interface between the coupling
medium and the piece are computed.
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3.2.1.3.2. Internal reflection (Backwall or more) but no mode conversion
Each L (respectively T) incident mode on the backwall generates a L (respectively T) reflected

mode after bouncing on the backwall of the specimen.
There is one reflected mode for one incicdent mode except in a specific case. For anisotropic
materials, an incident qT mode generates both qT1 and qT2 reflected modes since they are
always considered simultaneously.
3.2.1.3.3. Internal reflection (Backwall or more) with Mode conversion (both options are ticked)
Each incident mode on the backwall generates two (for isotropic material) or three (for
anisotropic material) reflected modes, corresponding to all the possible wave propagation
modes.
The computation takes into account the elastic characteristics of the bottom medium
defined in the Inspection settings panel; these characteristics are used directly in
computing backwall reflection coefficients (with or without conversion). The following
example shows the impact of backwall medium characteristics on the amplitude of
a reflected field.
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Figure 2.158. Comparison of direct and reflected L

beams computed with water or air bottom medium
3.2.2. Computation zone

The computation area is defined by selecting all the points at which computation will take place.
To do this, the user must:
• define the "type" of area (point, line, rectangle or volume),

• define the zone dimensions and sampling scheme,
determine spatial location by positioning a specific point (Zone center) via the Positioning
option and the Positioning parameters,
• orient the zone.
The Zone tab includes a sequence of options intended to simplify the above steps, while also
providing a broad range of features. These options are discussed in the following paragraphs.
There is a close link between the transducer positioning options and those used to define the
computation zone (the reader is thus referred to explanations given in Civa UT Setup – Test).
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3.2.2.1. General description
Figure 2.159. Computation zone tab

To define a beam computation zone, the user selects a computation Zone definition (Zone 1),
then specifies the Dimension and sampling (mesh scheme) of the zone (Zone 2) and, finally,
selects Positioning options (Zone 3). The list of available Positioning options depends on the
Zone definition selected by the user. The choice of the Positioning options adjusts the content
of the positioning parameter fields (Zone 4) along with parameters identifying the center coor-
dinates of the computation zone and those used to orient the zone (Zone 5).
Where necessary (i.e. depending on type of piece and the options selected in Zone 1), in Zone
4 of the tab, the user defines the reference frame for entering the zone center coordinates and
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the zone orientation (Zone 5). Zone 4 may contain up to three fields, the particular point is
discussed in detail in the section untitled Positioning options.
3.2.2.2. Type of zone
The different types of zone proposed are:
• Point: the zone is restricted to a single point.

• Line: all points making up the zone are located on a straight line segment.
• Rectangular: All points making up the zone are contained in a portion of flat surface of rec-
tangular shape.
• Volume: all points making up the zone are contained in a parallelepiped-shaped volume.
The type of zone selected also determines which options are proposed to the user for further
definition of the beam computation zone (see § Positioning options). The various parameters
to be defined are shown graphically to help the user to define them easily.
Figure 2.160. Type of zone
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3.2.2.3. Dimensions and sampling

Depending on the type of zone, the user defines its size and sampling scheme, which may
include 0, 1, 2 or 3 straight line segments. In all cases, this entails the following steps:
Let us define L the length of the segment and N > 1 the number of computation points distributed
over this segment. The distance between two consecutive points is called a "step", and Step=L/
(N-1). The user inputs the length L and the number of steps N-1. These two values then serve
to compute the Step value. This value is accessible to the user in read-only mode, as are the
coordinates of the two end points on the segment (which are taken as computation points). This
means that mid-point M on the segment (and, therefore, the center of the computation zone)
is only used as a computation point if the number of steps is an even number. This situation is
illustrated by the following figure (for a step number equal to 3).
Figure 2.161. Computation zone sampling scheme:

distribution of computation points (Pi) along a segment
3.2.2.3.1. Line zone

The user inputs a Right length and a Left length whose sum is the total length L of the profile;
he also enters the number of steps included in the profile.
3.2.2.3.2. Rectangular zone

The user enters the two lengths respectively known as Length and Height (see Positioning
options for their orientations) and the two steps associated with them.
3.2.2.3.3. Volume zone

The user enters the three lengths respectively known as Height, Length and Extension (see
Positioning options for their orientations) and the three associated steps.
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3.2.2.4. Positioning options
Four possible options are proposed for all zone types except for the point: "In the inspection
plane", "Perpendicular to L-wave axis", "Perpendicular to T-wave axis" and "Arbitrary".
3.2.2.4.1. In the inspection plane
When this option is selected and:
• the zone is a line, its profile is a straight line segment contained in the test plane.
• the zone is a rectangle, computation zone points are contained in a rectangle belonging to
the test plane.
• the zone is a volume, the parallelepiped is symmetric with respect to the test plane. More
precisely, the parallelepiped center belongs to the test plane and the direction of Extension
is perpendicular to it.
When this option is selected:
• three other positioning parameters are proposed to the user:

• Along L-wave axis: When this option is selected, for a 1D-type zone, the segment is oriented
parallel to the L-wave axis. For a 2D or 3D type zone, the zone Height (see below) is oriented
parallel to this axis. This option is proposed only if the L-wave axis is defined.
• Along T-wave axis: When this option is selected, if the zone is the Profile-type, the profile
is oriented parallel to the T axis. For a Plane or 3D type zone, the zone Height (see below)
is oriented parallel to this axis. This option is proposed only if the T-wave axis is defined.
• Arbitrary: If this option is selected, the user supplements zone orientation data by entering
a Tilt Angle in degrees. If the latter is 0, for a Profile-type zone, the profile is parallel to the
Zlocal axis of the local reference frame (with the right length pointing toward the inside of the
piece). For a Plane or 3D zone, the latter´s Height is oriented along Zlocal.
• the number of coordinates to be entered by the user to define zone Center is restricted to
one or two depending on the sub-option selected, since the zone belongs to the test plane.
Both coordinates (in the event there are two) are expressed in the local reference frame. In
Zone 5 of the orientation tab, the user orients the reference frame Zlocal axis either normally
inward at L or vertically (or radially for a piece extended by revolution). The choice of this
orientation is only proposed for conical, nozzle, CAD-profile or 3D CAD pieces.
Under the Arbitrary position option, the user also enters either the Cartesian (Xlocal, Zlocal) or
the cylindrical (#local and Rlocal) coordinates associated with the local reference frame.
A single coordinate suffices for the other two sub-options – Along L-wave axis and Along T-
wave axis. The user opts to input either the Depth or the Distance along the axis of interest,
and the unselected field automatically adjusts itself to the value entered in the other field. The
Depth corresponds to the distance to the plane that is tangent to the surface at the point of
impact, if the Zlocal axis of the local reference frame is oriented along the normal axis. If the
Zlocal axis is oriented along the vertical (or the radial) axis, this Depth is the distance to the
horizontal plane (or the plane normal to the radial axis).
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Note: If the local normal axis does not belong to the inspection plane, replace "normal axis" in
the previous paragraph with "normal axis as projected into the inspection test plane".
3.2.2.4.2. Perpendicular to L-wave axis
This option is accessible only when the L-wave axis is defined (i.e. when the material is isotropic
and the "nominal" transducer incidence angle is smaller than the critical angle for longitudinal
wave generation).
If this option is selected, for a 1D-type zone, the zone is a straight line segment contained in
the plane perpendicular to the L-wave axis and passing through the center of the zone.
For a 2D-type zone, points are contained in a rectangle centered on the L-wave axis and be-
longing to the plane perpendicular to that axis.
Selection of this option limits the number of coordinates that the user must enter to define the
position of the zone center. Whether the zone is the 1D or 2D type, its Center in this option is
positioned on the L-wave axis. This coordinate is either the Depth or the Distance along the
L-wave axis.
No sub-options are proposed. However, the orientation of a Profile-type zone in the plane
perpendicular to the L-wave axis must be supplemented by definition of an angle in degrees
that the user enters in the Rotation around the axis field. If this angle is 0, the profile belongs
to the test plane, and its right length points toward the right in the section view.
3.2.2.4.3. Perpendicular to T-wave axis
Identical to the previous option, except that "L-wave" is replaced by "T-wave".
3.2.2.4.4. Arbitrary
With this option, the user can position and orient the zone as he wishes:
Positioning:
Zone positioning is achieved by entering three coordinates for the Zone center. These three
coordinates may be chosen in Zone 4 either in the local coordinate system or in the specimen
coordinate system as defined for each type of piece in Inspection settings. When the local
frame is selected to express these coordinates, a distinction is required between local normal
and vertical (or radial for a piece extended by revolution) in order to select the orientation of
the frame Zlocal axis (depth axis). The user also opts to enter Cartesian coordinates (Xlocal,
Ylocal, Zlocal) or cylindrical coordinates (Ylocal, #local, Rlocal) for this frame.
Orientation:
The following default orientations are available:
1D-type: Along the X (or Xlocal) axis, for a Piece reference frame (or Local reference frame)
respectively.
2D-type: with Height along Z (or Zlocal) and Length along Y (or Ylocal), for a Piece reference
frame (or Local reference frame) respectively.
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3D-type: with Height along Z (or Zlocal), Length along X (or Xlocal) and Extension along Y (or
Ylocal) for a Piece reference frame (or Local reference frame) respectively.
The user can modify zone orientation by rotating it several times successively around the axes
of the selected (Piece or Local) coordinate system. To do this, the user assigns non null values
to the angles (in degrees) that correspond to the three fields in Zone 5 of the tab:
For a 1D-type zone, there are two rotations: Rotation around the X (or Xlocal) axis and Rotation
around the Z (or Zlocal) axis. The program rotates the zone first around X (or Xlocal), then
around Z (or Zlocal ).
For a 2D or 3D-type zone, there are three rotations: Rotation around the X (or Xlocal) axis,
Rotation around the Y (or Ylocal) axis and Rotation around the Z (or Zlocal) axis. The program
rotates the zone first around X (or Xlocal), then around Y (or Ylocal ) and finally around Z (or
Zlocal).
3.2.2.5. Location of computation zone center

Computation zone location is identified by the position of the point defining the zone center.
The options for defining this point are as follows:
• in a local Cartesian reference frame (coordinates in the piece framework are given in read-
only mode);
• in a local cylindrical reference frame (coordinates in the piece framework are given in read-
only mode);
• in a piece reference frame (if the arbitrary positioning option is selected).
• The Center of a Point-type zone is the computation point itself.
• The Center of a Profile-type zone is the point from which are measured the right and left
lengths of the profile.
• The Center of a Plane or 3D-type zone is that center itself.
3.2.3. Storage options

Under this tab, the storage options define the saved quantities. This influences the size of the
result files and the post-processing capabilities.
Figure 2.162. Storage options
By default, if no option is selected, the saved results are the displacement field at each point
of the computation area, but also the impulse responses in order to enable post-processing
operations. Note that, for isotropic material, impulse responses of the scalar and vectorial po-
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tentials are also stored. For phased-array transducers, these impulse responses are saved for
each element. (see post-processing section).
Propagation direction: If this option is selected, the list of results contains data allowing an
evaluation of the main propagation direction. Details to visualize this quantity are given in Beam
Computation Imaging part.
Max beam only: The aim of this option is to minimize the size of the result file. If this option is
selected, the impulse responses are not stored. The obtained results are no longer an A-scan
of a displacement but only the maximum of the displacement modulus and its corresponding
time of flight for each point of the calculation zone. With max beam only, it is not possible to
post-process the results with a different frequency or a new set of delay laws.
3.3. UT Beam Computation sequencing

3.3.1. Initiation and sequence
The following figure shows the UT beam computation principle, which can be summarized by
the following stages: definition of settings, pre-computation, computation of results and (where
necessary) post-processing (according to the previously selected storage options).
Figure 2.163. Principle for defining/performing computations

and post-processing results in the Beam computation module
Once the computation settings are defined, the user clicks "Run" to initiate computation.
It is possible to stop a computation at any time by clicking the STOP button located to the right
of the computation status bar.
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The first phase of a computation is known as "Pre-computation". There are as many pre-com-
putations as there are types of waves to be predicted. The duration of this phase is displayed
as a percentage, by type of wave mode, in the pre-computation status bar.
Figure 2.164. Pre-computation status display
Pre-computation is intended to optimize the computation phase. Its duration varies consider-
ably from one configuration to another. For configurations with optimized algorithms, it is very
short (nearly instantaneous for an isotropic test piece with a canonical geometry). In other cas-
es, pre-computation may last longer than the second computation phase.
Computation begins on completion of whatever the number of required pre-computations. The

progress of computation is done for each propagation mode and displayed as a percentage
in the dedicated status bar.
Figure 2.165. Computation phase status
Figure 2.166. Building results status
The computation process is completed by a final post-processing phase. The dedicated time for
post-processing depends on the complexity of the inspection configuration and on the storage
options defined. When the Max beam only option is selected for a phased-array transducer,
the post-processing might be time-expensive if the number of computed laws is large.
Figure 2.167. Post-processing phase status
3.3.2. Processing of first results
3.3.2.1. Elastodynamic quantities computed by default
In this version, the first visualized ultrasonic field corresponds to the modulus of the displace-
ment whatever the configuration is.
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3.3.2.2. Computation mode

It is possible to perform computations in the transmission or reception mode or the transmission
and reception mode (that latter amounts to convoluting the transmitted and received fields). For
post-processing by default, the computation mode is selected in accordance with the inspection
system or the type of transducer:
If this is a dual T/R transducer or if the inspection contains more than one transducer (TOFD
or Tandem inspection system), the displacement modulus is computed for both transmission
and transmission/reception modes. Only T/R mode results are displayed.
In all other cases, the field is post-processed in Transmission.
Note: A reception mode computation is not in itself meaningful. Whether the transducer is
in transmission or reception mode, the transmitted field is always computed. However, the
characteristics used are those of the transducer operating mode – transmission or reception. A
conventional means for estimating the zone of interest of a dual T/R transducer, for example,
is to represent the convoluted field as the transmitted/received field. The zone of coverage
(e.g. zone of convergence) for two transducers operating in Tandem (see Civa UT Settings
– Inspection system) would therefore be displayed to estimate the most efficient inspection
area of the Dual element probe. Finally, it is possible to display the field of a phased-array
transducer, to which different laws are applied in Transmission or Reception mode.
3.3.2.3. Result images by type of computation zone

The different types of images are described in UT beam computation imaging. All of these
types are listed in the Scan explorer frame. Concerning beam imaging, the list of displayable
results depends on the type of computation zone.
The Scan explorer frame: list of displayable computation results for a 3D computation zone
As for previous version, the "3D view" frame allows one to visualize UT beam field in the in-
spection scene.
3.4. UT Beam Computation Imaging

This chapter describes the imaging system used to display beam computation results and the
analysis tools available in CIVA to analyse UT fields.
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3.4.1. Generalities
The beam computation results are displayed using a dedicated imaging system that will be
described in following paragraphs of this chapter.
After any computation the analysis frame of the default result is automatically displayed and
a related coloured square icon appears in a "tree" representation of the Civa Manager frame
as illustrated on the screenshot hereafter.
When post-processing operations are applied to the initial computation, a new analysis frame is
created and automatically added as a new post-processing model in the "tree" representation
of the Civa manager frame as shown on the above screenshot. More details are given in the
next part 2.3.5 about Post-processing.
3.4.2. Various types of images and beam representations

This section describes possible beam images depending on the type of computation zone de-
fined in the beam computation configuration, and also several types of representation of the
ultrasonic data.
3.4.2.1. Classical representation of beam computation results

The default image that is displayed after a beam computation depends on the computation zone
that is defined in the beam computation configuration. Following sections therefore describes
the default image obtained for a given computation zone. The amplitude of the field could be
given in an arbitrary unit (points) or according to the reference signal in dB or %.
3.4.2.1.1. Point computation zone

When the computation zone is a “point”, the default image is a 1D image displaying amplitude
vs. time and corresponding to the waveform obtained at the given point. The time is given in
microsecond (µs). The displayed image looks like the following image:
Figure 2.168. Frame for a Ascan representation on a single point computation zone
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In the title bar of this frame, the title includes the type of the image (here A-scan) and the
associated configuration which is displayed in the Civa manager frame (ex: Scalar potential
(A2) on the previous screenshot). Finally, the image is named “Ascan” by an abusive extension
of what is called an A-scan image in Ultrasonic testing. Details about tools associated with this
type of image will be given in section 4.1.4.3.
3.4.2.1.2. Linear computation zone
For a linear computation zone, the computation points are set along a line and the default image
that is displayed after a beam computation is a 1D image that looks like the picture below:
Figure 2.169. Frame for a 1D Image Field – Xzone

representation on a linear computation zone
As for the Ascan frame, the title bar contains information about the type of the image (here 1D
Image Field - Xzone) and the associated configuration which is displayed in the Civa manager
frame. This image represents the maximum amplitude of the beam with respect to the spatial
local coordinate on the computation zone, given in mm. Details (cursors, menus...) will be given
in further section.
3.4.2.1.3. Rectangular computation zone
For a rectangular computation zone, the default image that is displayed is a 2D image corre-
sponding to the maximum amplitude of the beam for each point of the computation zone:
Figure 2.170. Frame for a 2D Image Field – Xzone/

Zzone representation on a rectangular computation zone
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As for the other images, the title bar contains information about the type of the image (here
2D Image Field Xzone/Zzone) and the associated configuration which is displayed in the Civa
manager frame.
The amplitude is represented using a color code. Horizontal (Xzone) and vertical (Zzone) axes
correspond to the dimensions of the computation zone in mm.
Details about this type of image (cursors, menus...) will be given in further section.
3.4.2.1.4. Volumic computation zone
For a volumic computation zone, the default image is displayed in the 3D view frame containing
the three median cross section planes of the computation zone. The following image is then
displayed:
Figure 2.171. 3D view frame for a beam visualisation on a volumic computation zone
The amplitude is represented using a colour code. As for other images, the title bar contains
information about the type of the image (here 3D View) and the associated configuration which
is displayed in the Civa manager frame. Details about this type of image (cursors, menus...)
will be given in further section.
3.4.2.2. Chaining views available with respect to the computation zone
Under the Civa Manager frame, a new frame, entitled Scan Explorer, contains the list of all
displayable results depending on the type of computation zone. The different available images
are described in the following sections. In the most general case, corresponding to a 3D com-
putation zone, the scan explorer displays all of the representation types of computation results:
3D imaging, for data in a parallelepiped box (3D view)
2D imaging, for data in a rectangular plane (space/space) or on a line with time-dependent

results (space/time)
1D imaging, for data on a line (space), for a time-dependent signal on a point (time) or for a
signal spectrum on a point (frequency)
Hence, for a result on a 3D computation zone, the Scan explorer frame is illustrated on the
screenshot hereafter.
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3.4.2.2.1. Data representation for a point
There are only 2 data representations for a single point:
The A-scan represents for a given quantity the time-dependent signal compute for a current
point.
The F-scan representation can also be related to this signal. It corresponds to the spectrum
of the current signal for the same point.
3.4.2.2.2. Data representation along an axis
In order to represent data along axis, two ways are available. The classical one corresponds
to the 1D Image Field – Xzone (resp. Yzone or Zzone) representing the maximum amplitude
of the beam with respect to the spatial local coordinate along the X axis (resp. Y or Z) of the
computation zone. The other way is a 2D image, named 2D Image Amplitude – Time/Xzone
(resp. Yzone or Zzone), representing the time-dependent signal along the X axis (resp. Y or
Z) of the computation zone.
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Figure 2.172. Frame for a 2D Image Amplitude – Time/Xzone representation
3.4.2.2.3. Data representation in a plane (2D spatial dependency)
In order to represent data in a plane (defined by a couple of zone axis), the only way is to
select 2D Image Field – Xzone/Yzone (resp. Xzone/Zzone or Yzone/Zzone). Otherwise, there
are different types of representations: Maximum amplitude representation, Time representation
or Amplitude representation. This subject is developed in the next section, entitled Type of
representations.
3.4.2.2.4. Synthesis of beam images that can be derived from default images
The set of images described in the previous sections can be represented following the flow-
chart hereafter. This scheme represents a global overview of the hierarchy used to organize
all possible images.
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3.4.3. Ergonomics and practical use of beam images

Whatever the type of image (1D, 2D, 3D), different areas on the main window allow one to
manipulate images and use imaging functionalities.
The top toolbar allow to access the main functionalities and is described in the UT Beam analy-
sis section. Options can then be selected in the bottom toolboxes as well as generic tools al-
ready described in the common toolboxes section.
These different items can have slight differences depending on the nature of the beam image
(1D, 2D or 3D). Otherwise most of the functionalities used for beam imaging are common with
other analysis. For general using of graphical analysis objects, you can refer to paragraph
1.4.6 Analysis about Display Panel.
The following sections therefore described the specific functionalities for each kind of image.
3.4.3.1. Toolboxes panel of beam images

Any beam image is associated with a "Toolboxes" panel located on the bottom of the analysis
page. If this panel is hidden, you can open it by clicking on the first icon of the analysis page,
as illustrated below.
Depending on the nature of the image (1D, 2D or 3D), different options will be provided in the
panel. Some are common and already described here, others are specific and described her.
3.4.3.1.1. 1D images
1D images can be either Ascan, Fscan or "1D Image Field - Xzone" (resp. Yzone or Zzone).
• "Focal Spot" option in tools tab provides automatic measurement of the focal spot and some
options can be accessed from the toolbox. This option is fully detailed in paragraph
Focal spot measurement.
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• "Propagation directions" also needs to select options. This option is fully detailed in para-
graph Propagation directions.
3.4.3.1.2. 2D images
2D images can be either "2D Image Field Xzone/Zzone (resp. Xzone/Yzone or Yzone/Zzone" or
"2D Image Amplitude Time/Xzone (resp. Yzone or Zzone)". Options provided in the "Toolboxes"
panel are therefore listed below:
• "Focal Spot" option in tools tab provides automatic measurement of the focal spot and some
options can be accessed from the toolbox. These options are fully detailed in paragraph
Focal spot measurement.
• "Propagation directions" allows the user to display local orientation of the beam at each
calculation point of the computation zone. It also needs to select options. These options are
fully detailed in paragraph Propagation directions.
• Color map: the "Color map" tab allows the user to change the color bar of the image. Refer
to section below for details.
3.4.3.1.3. 3D images
Available options in the right-hand information panel of 3D beam images are described in this
section:
• Planes: this menu contains the options described on screenshot hereafter:
The "Display planes" option displays or hide the three cross section planes of the 3D beam
image (see next screenshot). The user can hide these planes to show distinctly the iso-surface
display (if this option is activated)
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The "Transparency below min threshold" option allows hiding (make transparent) all amplitude
values that are lower than the minimum threshold. This minimum threshold is adjusted using
the bottom cursor of the color bar display in the tool tab of the toolboxes panel.
The "Smoothing" option is equivalent to the one described in previous section for 2D images
and is illustrated on picture below.
The "Display wire box" option allows displaying or hiding the red lines corresponding to the
contour of the 3D computation zone.
3.4.3.2. Cursors
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From an ergonomic point of view, measurements corresponding to each cursor of any image
are displayed by default and attached to the cursor position. If needed, it is possible to deacti-
vate these labels by right clicking on a cursor and select the "Cursor with measurement" menu
as illustrated below. Repeat the same operation for re-activating automatic measurements.
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3.4.3.3. Zooms
It is possible to zoom-in or zoom-out in any part of beam images by applying the following
procedures.
Press the Ctrl button, while also holding the left mouse button in any image, and then use the
mouse to define a rectangular zoom area. Once the rectangle is drawn, release the left mouse
button. The zoom area then occupies all the space available in the view.
To move the zoom area during the zoom-in operation, press the shift button and then release
the Ctrl button while still holding the left mouse button.
This zoom-in operation is limited to the opened window.
For zoom-out operation and restore the image to its initial state, double click in the window. If
several zoom-in operations were applied, each double click restore the display in the state it
was before previous zoom-in.
3.4.3.4. Color map gain
The color map gain allows the user to change the color map used for color coding of displayed
quantities in the image. Available color maps are listed below:
• Color gradation
• Gray gradation
• Non symmetric gray gradation
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• Civa colormap
• Non symmetric colormap
• Other colormaps can be manually defined and loaded.
From the color map menu, it is possible to concentrate the color map dynamic over a reduced
amplitude range. This can be done using two methods:
Moving the mouse on the color scale cursors located on the right-hand side of the image:
To raise the color scale minimum value, position the mouse at the bottom of the scale until its
icon changes to a double arrow, then left click, hold and drag the scale up.
To lower the color scale maximum value, position the mouse at the top of the scale until its
icon changes to a double arrow, then left click, hold, and drag the scale down.
Keying-in the upper and lower limits of the color scale in the (min., max.) fields of the color
map menu.
Regardless of the method used, the cursor position on the scale and the value given in the
relevant field are automatically adjusted for consistency.
It is also possible to increase (or decrease) the overall dynamic of the image. By keying in a
value (in dB only) in the color map menu option named "Dynamic", it is possible to move the
scale by any value (the value can be negative).
For example, if a value of 6 dB is keyed in, the maximum color scale value is -6 dB (blue
saturation). This action results only in visual effect and does not in any way modify the amplitude
values associated with the signals.
If the lowest value on the color scale is a finite one (e.g. -12 dB), it is corrected by whatever
the dynamic value.
Note that the dynamic can be modified by simply clicking the buttons located to the right of the
dynamic field. Each click increases or decreases the dynamic by 3 dB.
Finally, it is also possible to select the unit for expressing amplitude (points, % or dB) on all
images.
3.4.3.5. Image superimpositions
It is possible to superimpose specific 1D beam images only (time and spatial dependency),
that is to say "Ascan" images and "1D Image Field - Xzone" (resp. Yzone or Zzone) images. To
do that, you have to click with the left button of the mouse on the curve displayed in an image
and drag and drop it into another image. When done, a new menu named "Superimposition"
appears in the right-hand information panel of the window containing more than one curve as
illustrated on the screenshot below:
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From the superimposition menu, the following options are available:
• Data: list of superimposed curves

• Amp. Offset: possibility to apply amplitude offset to the superimposed curve. The user can
either click on the up and down buttons or keying in any value.
• Time Offset: possibility to apply amplitude offset to the superimposed curve. The user can
either click on the up and down buttons or keying in any value.
• Treatment type: this option concerns the linestyle of the superimposed curve. For example
you can select dash line display instead of solid line.
• Color: allows modifying the color of the superimposed curve.
• Normalize button: possibility to normalize automatically the amplitude of the superimposed
curve compared to amplitude of the nominal curve (the one of the initial image). The ampli-
tude offset is then automatically reported in the "Amp. Offset" field.
• Remove button: click on this button to remove the selected curve from the current window.
3.4.4. Tools tab of toolboxes panel for beam analysis

In this section, we will describe analysis tools that are integrated in the Beam imaging system
and allow ease beam characterization.
3.4.4.1. Iso-surfaces
"Iso-surfaces" feature is available only in 3D Beam images. The idea of this tool is to represent
in the 3D image one or several 3D envelopes of the beam at given level of amplitudes.
An example of beam computation in a 3D computation zone is given on the screenshot below

as well as an illustration of iso-surfaces representation:
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The main parameters of the iso-surfaces toolbox are listed below:
Number of surfaces: selection of the number of surfaces to be displayed between the minimum
and maximum level of amplitude defined in the following.
Min amplitude: minimum amplitude in dB.
Max amplitude: maximum amplitude in dB.
Opacity min (resp. max): minimum (resp. maximum) value of surface opacity (0 means invisible
- 1 means opaque).
3.4.4.2. Beam comparisons
The nature of beam images (1D, 2D or 3D) depends on the type of computation zone and the
physical quantity that is computed (scalar potential, displacement field modulus, etc.) depends
on the type and number of modes (Longitudinal, Transverse, converted modes) that has been
computed. After any beam computation, the software therefore displays a default image de-
pending on the user choices. This default image contains a maximum amplitude value that is
taken as a reference for the default display, what means that amplitudes at each point of the
computation zone are normalized according to this reference value.
The comparison of different beam computation results in terms of amplitude is therefore not
straightforward but can be done very easily following the procedure described hereafter.
The first point is to apply relevant post-processing of the default results so as to be sure that
the displayed physical quantities of any image you want to compare are equivalent. Indeed, it
is for example completely true to compare displacement field modulus calculated for various
probes in a given computation zone, but it would be wrong to compare the displacement field
modulus on one hand, and the scalar potential on another hand.
When all the results you want to compare corresponds to the same physical quantity, then the
direct comparison is very easy. In the Civa manager frame, you can specify which result will be
taken as a reference by right clicking on the desired image and select "New reference" menu.
Then you can compare other results to this reference by right clicking on other images and
select the menu "Ref to". The picture below illustrates this procedure:
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3.5. UT - Beam analysis

A global Toolbar provides a simple access to the functionalities.
3.5.1. Analysis ToolBar

The Analysis ToolBar is the entry point of the main features available for analysis of UT Beam
computation result.
Figure 2.173. UT Beam Analysis toolbar
Actions are sorted by level of impact.
• Green actions impact the entire file
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• Blue actions impact the current dataset and these dependences

• Orange actions impact the selected area
• Red actions are based on simulation and 3D reconstruction tools
• Gray actions impact the current view
Icon Quick Description Availability Link
Home (global descrip-

Open new file Always
tion)
CIVA preferences Always Global preferences
General and detailed Informations Any result image (all Information about the
about the file except 3D view) data
Switch the current view in HF/Re-

dressed/Envelope representation. This A-scan Signal display mode
will not affect the data
Display of beam data: maximum ampli-
Any result image (all
tude, Amplitude at a given time or time Beam Data
except 3D view)
of flight of the maximum amplitude
Any image with scales Distance measure-

Measurement of distance
in mm ment
Focal spot measurement Any 2D image Focal spot
Any 2D image with

Display of local orientations Local Orientations
available data
Any result image if

"Max beam only" was
Post-processing Post-processing
not selected before
computation
Any post-processed
Laws tree result with multiple de- Laws tree
lay laws
Add the color map at the side of the im-

Any image Colormap
age
Use 0, 1 or 2 cursors Any 2D image Cursors
Orientable curve Any 2D image 1DCurve
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Toggle between orthonormal and full
Any image with same
view for a compatible image (same unit Orthonormal mode
unit for both axes
for axis)
Mirrors and rotation of the selected im-
age (Flip Vertically, Flip Horizontally, Di- Any image Mirror tools
rect rotation)
Smooth the image Any 2D image Smoothing
Export an image (as image or as text

Any image Data Export
values)
Copy the selected image in the clip

Any image Copy image
board
Export the true image profile into DXF

format (the user has the choice to export Any true image Export DXF
Specimen and/or Flaws profile)
Any 2D image if "Max
beam only" was not
Generation of a video sequence Video
selected before com-
putation
New analysis page Always Analysis Page
3.5.2. Information about the data

The “Information” tool displays general information about the data under analysis (correspond-
ing to the selected view). The main information are the filename, the reference and maximum
amplitudes. When dealing with acquisition file, some other information are added as the gains
and the voltage used, the application of a DAC. Moreover, a shortcut allows accessing to a
report containing all the information linked to the model.
To display information about the data, simply click the button “Info” in the toolbar.
3.5.3. Signal display mode
The default displayed signal is the HF mode (positive and negative half-cycles displayed
from the A-scan). A first click on the icon displays the A-scan as its envelope , a second
click as a rectified signal (absolute value of the A-scan). For any view including time as
one of the coordinate axis (B-scan, D-scan, S-scan…), one click on the icon displays the given
image using the envelope of all A-scans (Rectified mode is only used for A-scans).
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3.5.4. Beam Data
This option allows to display different kind of results.
The 3 options are Max amplitude, amplitude at a given time and time of flight of each pixel max.
The "Max amplitude" representation is the default mode that is used to display beam images.
It consists in representing the maximum amplitude of the beam at each calculation point of the
computation zone. An example of such representation is shown below in a 2D image.
Figure 2.174. Maximum amplitude representation of a 2D image field
The "Time of flight" representation consists in representing the value of the time of flight of
the wavefront in each point of the computation zone. This kind of representation illustrates the
shape of the wavefront in the computation zone. An example of such representation is given
hereafter.
Figure 2.175. Time of flight representation of a 2D image field
The "Amplitude" representation consists in representing the amplitude of the beam in each
point of the computation zone at a given time of flight. This kind of representation illustrates the
wavefront location in the computation zone at a given time.
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Figure 2.176. Amplitude representation of a 2D image field
The user can then use the time cursor properties to display this wavefront for all time values
and therefore visualize the wave propagation inside the computation zone. A video building
tool is associated with this kind of representation.
3.5.5. Measure
Distance measurement is only available in mm/mm views (2D images). First, select the view,
and then click on the Distance Measurement icon . Left-click on each extremity of the
distance to measure.
If the icon is disabled, check that the selected view is compatible.
3.5.6. Focal spot measurement

The focal spot measurement allows automatic measurement of the focal spot by clicking on
this icon .
This tool is suited to the type of selected image, what means that in 2D images it displays
a rectangular box whereas in 1D curves it shows the dimension of the focal spot along the
corresponding axe.
The focal spot measurement tool relies on the definition of several parameters listed below:
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• Show focal spot: select this option to activate the measurement of the focal spot and display
the automatic measurement in current image.
• Compared to local max: this option is available in images derived from a 3D beam image
only ; the computation zone must be defined as "volume" ("Simulation settings" panel) before
launching the computation. It allows measuring the focal spot at given level amplitude (the
one define in the same toolbox in focal spot threshold, see below) regarding the maximum
amplitude of the current image. If this option is not selected, then the focal spot measurement
is done regarding the maximum amplitude of the whole file. An example of use is given
hereafter:
• Focal spot threshold: this parameter defines the amplitude level according to maximum value
of reference for measurement of the focal spot.
• Focal spot orientation: this gives the orientation of the focal spot according to the vertical
direction of the current image. This value is automatically adjusted by default, but can be
modified by the user.
Finally, screenshots below illustrate focal spot measurement in various images.
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3.5.7. Local orientations
If they are computed, the direction of the beam at each point can be displayed
This option allows displaying the local orientations of the beam at each calculation point of the
computation zone. These local orientations are represented by small arrows and are displayed
between a minimum and a maximum threshold defined by the user; a click on any arrow of the
current image indicates the exact value of beam orientation at the corresponding point. The
following example illustrates this option:
Parameters to be defined when using the local orientations tool are listed and described below.
They are located in the "Options" tab of the toolboxes.
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• Display local orientations: select this option to activate local orientations display in the current
image;
• Iso display: this option allows switching between two display modes. The default mode,
named "Amplitude", represents the local orientation of the beam at points defined by an am-
plitudes range. The second mode is called "Time" ; it corresponds to the local orientations
of the beam at a given propagation time.
• Min threshold: the min threshold is an amplitude value in dB corresponding to the expected
lower boundary for local orientation display.
• Max threshold: the max threshold is an amplitude value in dB corresponding to the expected
higher boundary for local orientation display.
• Wave front: the "Wave front" value is the time value in µs at which the user wants to display
local orientations.
• Density: this parameter is related to the quantity of arrows to be displayed between the min-
imum and maximum thresholds. It is included in range [0; 100] and value 100 means that
local orientations will be displayed at each calculation point.
Notes:
1) The local orientation feature is only available if the beam computation has been performed
using the "Propagation direction" storage option ("Computation parameters" panel, "Storage
options" tab). Therefore if you cannot find the local orientation toolbox in beam image, check
that relevant storage option was selected in your beam computation configuration.
2) When the computed beam includes more than one ultrasonic path (direct longitudinal, re-
flected Longitudinal, direct transverse, etc.), the local orientation display option is not provided
in the right-hand information panel of beam images. Thus, if you made a beam computation
including more than one UT path, you have to open the "Modes" tab of the Post-processing
panel, select a single mode (unselect all modes except one) and perform the beam post-pro-
cessing (of course, relevant storage options must be selected). Then the local orientation tool-
box will be available in the post-processed beam image.
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3.5.8. Post-processing
The Beam computation module enables "post-processing" of computation results. Post-pro-

cessing capability is afforded by an impulse response-based calculation kernel. At the end of
computation, a temporary file is created to contain the impulse responses of all independent
quantities (i.e. those not obtainable by post-processing a result), for each point in the defined
computation zone.
Impulse responses are time functions independent of the electro-acoustical excitation of the
transducer.They link transducer surface vibration to the wave shape at computation point for
the quantities of interest, assuming application of an impulse excitation (Dirac).
In a phased-array transducer, impulse responses link the vibration of each transducer element
to each computation point for each quantity. This means temporarily saving all necessary data
to enable application of different delay and/or amplitude laws to the computed results, without
reinitializing the computation. A simple convolution computation allowing for various delays (set
by the delay laws), followed by a simple multiplication (using factors entered as amplitude law
data) then suffice.
3.5.8.2. Description of the Post-processing panel
To open the "Post-processing" panel, the user have to lick on the "New post-processing" button
of the toolbar.
Then, a new post-processing page is created, as illustrated in following screenshot.
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Figure 2.177. The post-processing page

By default, the "PostProcessing" page contains three frames:
• the “Parameters” frame in which post-processing characteristics are displayed,

• the computation data view selected by the user before clicking New post-processing" button
or the right mouse clicking on the data selected
• the 3D view of the computation zone
We focus here on the post-processing capabilities and present the different options of the
“Parameters” frame containing three main tabs about Reference signal, Options and Array
settings, the last one being available only for phased array probes.
Figure 2.178. Parameters tabs for post-processing
3.5.8.2.1. Reference signal tab

This tab enables the user to change the time-dependent signal corresponding to the particle
velocity at the surface of the active transducer element. By default, the current signal corre-
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sponds to the one defined in the Transducer panel. In order to edit properties of this signal, the
user has to refer to section about signal tab of the UT Probe Panel.
Figure 2.179. Reference signal" tab of the post-processing "Parameters"
3.5.8.2.2. Options tab
The "Options" tab gathers all the options concerning:
• the type of signal used for computed beam post-processing

• the consideration of attenuation in post-processing
• the way to perform computations in the transmission or reception mode or the transmis-
sion/reception mode
• the list of modes available in the computed result
• the list of computed quantities with different spatial references (specimen or local)
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Figure 2.180. Options" tab of the post-processing "Parameters"
3.5.8.2.2.1. Type of signal

The user can choose one of the following options:
• Current signal: the computed impulse responses are convoluted by the current transmission
signal defined in the Transducer panel. This waveform is used to represent particle velocity
at the surface of the active transducer element.
• Impulse response: gives direct access to the impulse response computed by the model.
3.5.8.2.2.2. Attenuation post-processing

If the computation is done considering attenuation, the attenuation post-processing option ap-
pears in the panel. By default, the attenuation box is checked meaning that post-processing
also credits attenuation.
If "Attenuation" box is unchecked, the computation result does not credit attenuation.
If the computation took place without attenuation, the "Attenuation" box is not enabled.
3.5.8.2.2.3. List of Modes

Various modes may have been computed (depending on the options selected by the user).
The proposed mode list includes the modes computed for all points in the computation zone.
Abbreviations used for these modes are given in the following figure:
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Abbreviations used for the computed modes
The abbreviations shown above are defined as follows:
P designates the compression wave in the coupling medium.Notes: Whether the transducer
is the immersion type or the contact type with a wedge, the field in the coupling medium cor-
responds to the value computed in a fluid with the velocity characteristics of L-waves in the
coupling medium or the wedge. In the wedge, only longitudinal waves (denoted P-wave in or-
der to distinguish with waves in the sample) are considered and transmitted as longitudinal
or transversal waves in the specimen (see chapter entitled UT Modeling Theory). This mode
appears in the list only if the computation zone was partially (or fully) defined in the coupling
medium and the transducer used is the immersion type
L means longitudinal (or quasi-longitudinal for anisotropic medium), T transverse (or qua-
si-transversal for anisotropic medium)
The terms tr and rf appearing in combination with the above mentioned abbreviations mean
"transmission" (tr) to an interface and "reflection" (rf) of the backwall respectively.
The expression "PtrTrbL" therefore corresponds to a wave propagated as a longitudinal wave

in the coupling medium (P), after being transmitted (tr) in the piece as a transverse wave (T),
then reflected off the piece backwall (rb) by conversion to a longitudinal wave (L).
Direct contact transducer:
In Civa, it is also possible to define a direct contact transducer (or "flexible" transducer). In this
case, the source is in direct contact with the piece and there is thus no "P" wave. L and T terms
then designate the Longitudinal and Transverse waves directly generated by the transducer
in the material.
Other modes: Rayleigh waves
For Rayleigh waves, the system proposes the following mode R, which designates a Rayleigh
wave with two components:
• Rayleigh wave per se, which radiates in the material

• Leaky Rayleigh wave, which radiates in the fluid
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3.5.8.2.2.4. Transmission/reception
It is possible to perform computations in the transmission or reception mode or the transmis-

sion/reception mode.
These computation modes can be defined as follows:
• Transmission mode: for each computation point, the field represented is the one transmitted
by the transducer transmitting element.
• Reception mode: for each computation point, the field represented is the one transmitted by
the transducer receiving element.
• Transmission/reception mode: for each computation point, the impulse responses of the
transmission field and the reception field are each computed for their respective propagation
modes and quantities. The transmission/reception field them corresponds to the convolution
of these two fields. This first convolution is always followed by a second convolution with
the wave form.
For a transmission/reception computation of a vectorial quantity (displacement or

velocity) modulus, the procedure differs from the one described above because of
the order in which post-processing operations take place. Whereas the combined
T/R computation is based on impulse responses, the modulus is determined using
convoluted signals. The latter cannot, therefore, be computed from already exist-
ing T/R quantities. The procedure thus consists of computing the T/R field for the
three components of the vectorial quantity. These fields are then convoluted with the
waveform, and the final step consists of computing the modulus. In this case and
this case only, the desired quantity (i.e. the modulus) is computed after combining
the T/R components.
3.5.8.2.2.5. Computed quantities
Impulse responses are determined automatically at the time of computation, using separate
propagation modes (mode by mode) with respect to a list of various elastodynamic quantities:
• scalar potential (valid for L-waves only)

• vector potential components
• displacement components
• velocity components
All vectorial quantities can be represented in the piece reference frame and in two local refer-
ence frames associated with the test plane. They are precisely defined in the paragraphs con-
cerning computation zone positioning. The z axis of the first local reference frame is oriented
along the vertical/radial axis at the point of impact; and the z axis of the second is oriented
along the axis normal to the impact point. Other quantities can be deduced by post-processing.
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They are the displacement modulus, the x, y and z components (piece reference frame and
local reference frames) and the particle velocity modulus.
One or more quantities are selected by clicking the corresponding button(s) to the left of each
elastodynamic quantity.
Note: If a chosen quantity is incompatible with one of the selected modes, post-processing
cannot generate a result (e.g. scalar potential quantity with a mode ending in T).
Note about previously performed computations:
All results available for new computations are managed by the computation tool. As an exam-
ple, if displacement components x and z have already been computed and the user requests a
displacement modulus computation, only displacement component y undergoes convolution.
This is then followed by vector modulus computations.
3.5.8.2.3. Array settings
The "Array settings" is only available for configurations containing a phased array probe. This
tab allows the user to post-process the radiated beam previously computed for one particular
sequence or shot but it also offers the possibility to post-process the radiated beam for any
new laws whose properties may be computed with this "array settings" tab. In fact, this tab
displays the same interface and gathers the same features of the Array settings panel of the
UT model configuration.
Figure 2.181. "Array settings" tab of of the post-processing "Parameters"
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3.5.8.3. Features of Post-processing page: execution and analysis page edition

At the bottom of the "Post-processing" page, different buttons are displayed.
On the left, depending on probe type, one (single element) or two buttons (phase array) for
post-processing execution;
On the right, four buttons concerning the post-processed configuration edition.
Figure 2.182. Buttons of the post-processing

page for single element or phased array probes.
3.5.8.3.1. Post-processing executions

In the most general case, two post-processing results may be obtained: a single result corre-
sponding to the current parameters and a second, only available for phased-array configura-
tion, allowing cumulated and dynamic views for all laws defined in the "array settings" tab.
3.5.8.3.1.1. Post-processing for the current shot or for a single element probe
If the user clicks on the button "Apply" (for single element probe) or "Apply to current shot",
a single post-processed result is performed. In the case of a phased array probe, the current
shot used for post-processing corresponds to the one selected in the "array settings" tab.
Figure 2.183. Screenshot example of a post-processing applied to the current shot
3.5.8.3.1.2. Post-processing applied to all shots

When all sequences and/or all shots option is selected, the beam post-processing is performed
automatically for all shots. The default displayed image is a cumulated image showing the
maximum of amplitude of the beam received for all sequences/shots in each point of the com-
putation zone. This cumulated beam image is illustrated hereafter:
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Figure 2.184. Screenshot example of a post-processing applied to all shots
The amplitudes displayed on this cumulated image are normalized according to the maximum
amplitude obtained for all shots.
From this cumulated beam image, it is possible to connect the "2D dynamic" images repre-
senting the radiated beam for any particular sequence or shot. The user can either manually
select the index of the sequence/shot he wants to visualize (see following screenshot) to obtain
immediately the corresponding radiated beam, or he can create a video file representing the
radiated beam for all sequences and/or shots successively (using the image tools icon).
3.5.8.3.2. Post-processed configuration edition
In order to edit and eventually analyze the new post-processed results, four buttons concerning
the post-processed configuration edition are displayed on the bottom right of the window:
The first button (with an edit box) concerns the edition of the new configuration name associ-
ated with the post-processed results. If this field is empty, the default configuration name is
"Configuration n°#", where # is the number of post-processing already performed.
The "New" button is only active if the post-processing procedure is correct. If the user clicks
on this button, he closes the current post-processing page and creates a new analysis page.
This new analysis page is associated to a new configuration representing as a new item in the
CIVA Manager tree.
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The "Replace" button is only active if the post-processing procedure is correct and results from
an existing post-processed configuration. If the user clicks on this button, he closes the current
post-processing page and replaces the associated analysis page.
The "Cancel" button is always active. It allows to close the current post-processing page without
post-processing or displaying any results.
3.5.9. Laws tree
This feature gives information about the laws.
This button becomes available after the post-processing of a phased array simulation using "all
shots". It allows to define which shots we want to represent on the post-processed B-scan.
The activation of this feature opens a delay law table with all shots listed, as represented on
the left side of the figure below. By default, all shots are selected. Choose the shots you are
interested in then click on the "Update" button of this delay law table and the post-processed
B-scan is automatically modified according to the shots selected.
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Figure 2.185. On the top: all shots are selected; on

the bottom: only the five last shots are selected.
3.5.10. Colormap display
The activation of the color map display feature brings up a color palette at the right hand
side of a 2D representation (2D images field, B-scans, C-scans ...).
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Figure 2.186. Color palette

This color bar is linked to the "Palette' option in the toolbox bar. With the mouse it is possible
to modify the beginning or the end of the color gradient.
Figure 2.187.
3.5.11. Cursors
This option allows to display the cursor.
Images of the imaging system contains horizontal and vertical cursors that are suited to the
type of view involved. The user can move these cursors by clicking with the left button of the
mouse on the selected cursor and move it to the expected point of the image. It is possible to
move the two cursors at the same time by clicking on their crossing point.
For a given analysis, all cursors are, by default, linked to each other. This means that, when
a cursor is moved along the axis of a given view, its movement is automatically reproduced in
all the views affected by the displacement.
Measurements associated with cursors of any images are reported in the cursor tab of the tool-
boxes panel. Of course, this panel is suited to the type of view involved, what means that slight
differences will be observed depending on the image nature (1D, 2D or 3D) and depending on
the type of representation
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Whatever the image; the cursor menu is divided into at least 2 parts: information concerns
measurement of cursor coordinates in the specimen frame (specimen position) and in the com-
putation zone (computation area position). Except for 3D beam images, an other part gives
amplitude measurement at cursor position and time or frequency information.
By default, measured values are given in mm for coordinates, µs for time information and in dB
for what concerns amplitudes. It is however possible to modify these default units by selecting
the desired unity in the appropriate list.
By default, one horizontal and one vertical cursor are represented on the analysis views. Click-
ing once on the cursor icon lets appear a second horizontal and a second vertical cursor on
the analysis views. Clicking a second time on the cursor icon removes all cursors.
3.5.12. 1D Orientation cursor
The 1D directional functionality is only active for 2D images. With this tool, the user can
extract data of the image on a cross-section axe defined by a red line on the selected image.
In order to change the position of the axis, click with the left button of the mouse on the squared
point and move while keeping ctrl key pressed. In order to change the orientation of the axe,
click on the line itself and move while keeping ctrl key pressed. Information about orientation
is also available in Toolboxes panel if the 1D directional functionality is displayed.
3.5.13. Orthonormal view
This icon allows adjusting the selected 2D Image in order to consider an orthonormal view.
If not enabled, the image is stretched in order to fit to the display area.
3.5.14. Mirrors and rotation
The following icons are located in the "Transformation" toolbox : (flip horizontally),
(flip vertically) and (direct rotation). The user can switch options by clicking on the pointer of
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drop-down menu. The first and the second options allow doing a mirror symmetry, respectively
horizontally and vertically, of the selected image. The third option applies a rotation of 90° to
the selected view.
3.5.15. Smoothing
This option concerns the beam smoothing, only active in the image tools bar for 2D images.
When the resolution of the image is too low due to a lake of computation points, it is possible
to obtain an interpolate image of the computed beam, as shown in following pictures.
This functionality is useful for large 3D computation zone. However, for the 3D view frame the
smoothing is activated through the toolboxes panel.
Figure 2.188. Smoothing in the toolbox panel for 3D view
3.5.16. Export
This icon allows the export of the selected analysis view in an image that can be saved
at the .png (or .jpg, .gif, .bmp) format.
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Figure 2.189. Export of B-scan view
3.5.17. Copy
This feature allows the user to make a screenshot of the image selected in the analysis
page. This screenshot can be pasted in an image editor or a slide show presentation.
3.5.18. DXF Export
The DXF export feature allows the export of the current specimen profile as a DXF file.
3.5.19. Generate a video
This option allows to build a video.
The building video option allows creating an animation of the wave propagation inside the
computation area. When selecting this option, the following dialog box appears:
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After selecting desired options, click on the "Build" button. A progress bar will appear and finally
the video window will be automatically displayed. It looks like the image above. It is possible to
save this video in "avi" format by clicking on the "Save video as..." button.
3.5.20. Add an Analysis page
This feature allows the user to add a blank analysis page in the "Analysis" window in
which the results will be displayed.
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4. UT - Inspection Simulation
The UT Inspection Simulation module allows computing responses recorded on transducers
resulting from the interaction between the ultrasonic beam (volume waves) and the specimen
including one or more flaws.
The transducer, test specimen and flaws configurations are described in
• "UT - Active Model Setup" for generic items of the UT package

• and "UT - Inspection Simulation / Active Model Setup" for items specific to the Simulation
Inspection module.
Simulation settings options are described in "UT - Inspection Simulation / Simulation settings".
4.1. Active Model Setup

The UT "Inspection Simulation" module allows simulation of an inspection including flaws and
contributions from the specimen.
The active model setup is launched by selecting the "Inspection Simulation" module from the
UT menu:
The active model setup of the "Inspection Simulation" module is also loaded if an "Inspection
Simulation" files is opened from the File menu. In this latter case, the active model setup con-
tains parameters of the simulated file, while the results are displayed on an analysis page.
From the lower part of the active model window, the user accesses the definition of all parame-
ters of the inspection simulation: Specimen, Probe, Inspection, Phased-array settings, Flaws
and Simulation settings.
Click on Run then launches the computation.
4.2. Simulation settings

The simulation settings panel allows the user to
• Initialization and Interactions: select the relevant modes and echoes to be computed,
• Gates: Define simulation gates, like with an acquisition system,
• Options: tune the accuracy of the computation and select specific options,
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• Calibration: set-up a calibration.
Notice:
• Selection of relevant modes and echoes is proposed to be adjusted by the user depending on
what he wants to simulate because it can have a strong influence on the computation time.
• Gates and calibration can be set-up also in post-processing.
4.2.1. Initialization
This panel is the first step in selecting the modes to be computed.
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One mode is basically defined by the succession of skips and transmissions the wave front
undergoes from the transducer emission to the transducer reception.
The total number of modes is then very dependent on:
• the number of skips allowed,

• the involved mode types (L, T, mode conversions and type of conversions),
• the part (homogeneous versus heterogeneous),
• the type of material (isotropic/anisotropic),
• the multiple interactions between a defect and the specimen surfaces.
• Easy setting:
Is made to cover a large majority of NDT cases. If you do not know what specific options to
select in this panel, choose this setting. The computation time may not be optimal but your
configuration will show the echoes you expect in most cases.
• Specific settings:
Typical settings for typical NDT configurations. The number of skips and the surfaces allowed
to skip on are automatically set-up according to the ultrasonic contributions expected with the
specified configuration.
• Direct (Only one reflection on the defect or the geometry)

• Half-skip (Maximum of 3 successive skips on geometry or defect)
• Full-skip (Maximum of 5 successive skips on geometry or defect)
• N skips typical L0°,
• N skips typical T45°,
• Double skip on defect.
Details of the corresponding situation are illustrated in the interface.
Figure 2.190. Available settings
• Advanced definition:
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Direct access to all the computation parameters. This type of setting, very close to the models,
is available for the advanced user who wants to optimize the computation time for specific
configurations.
The user selects the polarizations (L-waves or T-waves) to be taken into account in the com-
putation.
4.2.2. Interactions
This panel is for specification of the entities (specimen surfaces and defects) on which the
propagating waves are expected to interact to give rise to echoes recorded on the transducer.
The user can specify:
• Interactions with specimen surfaces, depending on the configuration,

• Interactions with flaws,
• A sensitivity zone to minimize the computation time in some configurations.
The “Modes” tab presents the result of the choices made in the “Initialization” and “Interactions”
tabs, in terms of modes list. In the “Advanced definition” setting, further optimizations of com-
putation time can be done by direct intervention on the mode list (see dedicated paragraph
below).
Notice: at any time the user can “Switch to Advanced definition” if he does not find exactly what
he wants to do among the specific settings. In this case the settings of the latest configuration
are transferred to the advanced definition as a basis for further configuration.
4.2.2.1. Specimen
In the specimen tab the user defines the surfaces of the specimen to be considered for the
computation.
The type of proposed interactions depends on the configuration chosen in the “Initialization” tab.
• Easy setting: the selected surfaces are considered as active. It means that the wave is
allowed to skip on these surfaces and that echoes coming from these surfaces will be com-
puted.
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• Specific settings (Direct, Half-skips, Full-skips, N skips typical L0°, N skips typical
T45°, Double skip on defect): the selected surfaces will be considered only for the compu-
tation of echoes coming from them. The fact that the wave skips or not (to further interact
with a defect) on these surfaces is fully determined by the specific setting chosen.
See the table of correspondence for details on the underlying model parameters of the specific
settings in terms of skips and echoes options.
• Advanced definition: surfaces to interact with can be selected as well as the model for
specimen echoes computation (Specular or Kirchhoff).
• If the “Specular” model (see UT Modeling – Theory) is selected then the type of interaction
with the selected surfaces is “Skip and echo” since with this option the computation time
does not depend on whether the echoes are computed or not.
• If the “Kirchhoff” model (see UT Modeling – Theory) is selected then the type of interaction
can be “Skip and echo”, “Skip” or “Echo” so that to allow the user to optimize the computation
time (Kirchhoff model for specimen echoes can be very expensive).
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• “Skips”: in the “advanced definition” mode, the user can specify the number of half-skips he
wants to be taken into account in the computation. The total number of skips is linked to the
number of half-skips by the rule:
Total number of skips = 2*Number of half-skips + 1.
The number of skips can be “Max” or “Exact”. If “Max” is selected all modes with a number
of half-skips less or equal to the specified value are computed. If “Exact” is selected, only the
modes with exactly N half-skips are computed. The skips can take place in any order on the
chosen surfaces: Front, Back, Side or Internal surfaces (if the specimen is heterogeneous).
In TOFD configurations the “specimen” tab also gives access the “Lateral wave” computation
option (see UT Modeling – Theory).
• Case of 3D CAD parts:
With 3D CAD parts the surfaces of the specimen considered for the beam interaction compu-
tation are no longer specified by a type (Front, Backwall, Sides or Interfaces), but by positioning
3D zones. The beam interacts with the surfaces of the specimen which are included in the 3D
computation zones.
The number of skips allowed on these surfaces is defined by the choice of setting made in the
“Initialization” tab.
Warning: if no computation zone is defined, no beam-specimen interaction will be computed

(no skips, no echoes).
Notice that the 3D computation zones only concern the interaction with the specimen surfaces
and not with the flaws. In particular it is not mandatory to include the flaws in these zones to
have them taken into account in the computation.
Positioning of the 3D computation zone can be made fixed to the specimen or moving with the
probe by using the “Mechanical link” option.
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4.2.2.2. Flaws
In the flaws tab the user can:
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• Activate or inactivate the flaws defined in the configuration. If a flaw is not activated it will not
be taken into account in the computation.
• Specify the interaction model associated to each flaw. CIVA provides, by default, the inter-
action model which is usually the most appropriate for the type of selected defect, but in
some cases the user can explicitly choose another model (see UT Modeling – Theory).
4.2.2.3. Sensitivity zone
The user can define a “sensitivity zone” to optimize the computation time.
The sensitivity zone is a 3D box outside of which no interaction with a flaw will be performed. The
sensitivity zone moves with the probe. Hence when a displacement of the probe is specified,
the flaw interaction will be computed only for positions for which the flaw is inside the sensitivity
zone.
When choosing this option, the user assumes that the contributions coming from the beam-
flaw interaction is negligible outside this zone.
Warning: If the specimen interaction model is “Kirchhoff” (only possible in “advanced definition”
for non-3D CAD parts), then the sensitivity zone also applies on the specimen echoes com-
putation (not on the skips). In this case, echoes from the specimen will only be calculated for
surfaces of the specimen which are included in sensitivity zone.
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4.2.2.4. Modes
The tab “Modes” lists the modes that will be computed as a result of the settings made in the
“Initialization" and “Interactions” tabs.
Warning: a high number of modes can strongly affect the computation time.
Each mode is represented by a string of characters containing the ultrasonic beam path asso-
ciated to the mode, according to the following nomenclature:
• d: interaction with the defect,

• rs: skip on surface,
• rb: skip on backwall,
• ri: skip on internal surface,
• rc: skip on side,
• rd: skip on defect (only used for "multiple flaw-specimen skips"),
• tr: transmission with conversion.
Example: LrbLdLtrT corresponds to the mode: L incident / skip on backwall (rb) / L propagation /
skip on defect (d) / L propagation / transmission with conversion on inner interface (tr) / T
propagation
Notice: Modes listed in this tab are all corresponding to beam paths involving an interaction with
a flaw (all the mode strings contain the character ‘d’). In particular, modes involving interactions
with the specimen only (no flaw interaction) are not listed in the modes table.
Exception: when the specimen interaction model is “Kirchhoff” (only possible in “advanced de-
finition” for non-3D CAD parts), the character ‘d’ can be replaced by ‘rs’, ‘rb’ or ’ri’ and therefore
also represent a specimen only mode.
The modes list is displayed under the form of a tree and can be handled like a “modes man-
ager”.
With the “Advanced definition” setting the list of modes can be explicitly modified by the user by:
• Right-clicking on a mode of the list. The user can decide to "Not calculate this mode" or
to "Not calculate all the modes which ensue from it". By default, not calculated modes are
hidden. The "Show only computed modes" checkbox has to be de-checked to see them. Not
computed modes are then displayed followed by a "NC". The number of modes is updated
following user selection. In order to calculate back a mode that is typed "NC" the user can
right-click on the mode and choose in the drop down menu "Calculate".
• Importing a file containing the list of modes to be computed. The file format can be obtained
by saving any modes list computed by CIVA.
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To reset the list of mode to its original state, the user can press the button with the blue arrow
under the list of modes.
In order to guess which modes are important to be calculated, the user can push on the button
with a magic wand. This launches a fast estimation calculation relying on a simple ray tracing.
At the end of this computation, modes that have not been detected are automatically marked
as "Not Calculated".
4.2.3. Gates
This panel is for specification of simulation gates.
Like with acquisition devices the user can now define simulation gates to:
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• Explicitly specify the time gate in which the signals have to be recorded,
• Synchronize a gate with respect to others,
• Specify the storage type in each gate (summed signals, channels signals or summed+chan-
nels).
Gates bounds
If “Auto” is selected then the full signals are recorded, from the first to the last ultrasonic signals
recorded on the transducer. The user can define only one “Auto” gate (there is no interest in
having several with the same content).
For non-“Auto” gates, the user has to specify the Start and End times for recording (or Start
and Width). The times are defined relative to:
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• The transducer emission time if no synchronization is defined,

• The time of the “Detection synchro” event in the gate used for synchronization.
The threshold is set equal to zero and cannot be modified since at this stage the user has no
access to the relative amplitudes of echoes (see the "Preview mode" paragraph).
Gates synchronization
The user can choose to synchronize the Start and End times of a gate relative to an event
(called Detection synchro.) in another gate.
The gates settings in the “Simulation settings” panel can be made with the help of the preview
display so that to graphically adjust the gates parameters (see the "Preview mode" paragraph).
Notice: In the preview mode the provided “signal” is based on ray tracing only and should then
be seen as a graph of time of arrivals of echoes more than like a real signal. In particular
the “signal” is positive only (number of rays coming back to the transducer) and the displayed
amplitudes are not usable to set up gates thresholds.
Auto: the “Auto” tick-box lets CIVA calculate the time gate which contains the full computed
signal. Only one “auto” gate can be specified.
Detection synchro: In simulation setting the user has access to a limited set of options for the
“Detection synchro”:
• First echo (abs): the maximum of the absolute value of the first echo.
• Last echo (abs): the maximum of the absolute value of the last echo.
• Echo max (abs): the maximum of the absolute value of the full signal in the gate.
The following figure illustrates the proposed “Detection synchro” events.
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Other synchronization options are available in analysis, on computation or acquisition results

(see Analysis gates).
Synchro. start: The user can choose a gate among the already existing ones to synchronize the
start time of the current gate relative to the chosen gate. The start time of the current gate will
therefore be calculated with respect to the “Detection synchro” event of the referenced gate.
If a “Synchro. start” only is defined then the gate bounds are specified by the start time and the
width. The gate is then of constant width.
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Synchro. end: The user can choose a gate among the already existing ones to synchronize the
end time of the current gate relative to the chosen gate. The end time of the current gate will
therefore be calculated with respect to the “Detection synchro” event of the referenced gate.
If a “Synchro. end” only is defined then the gate bounds are specified by the end time (relative
to synchronization) and the start time (absolute). The gate is then of variable width according
to the synchronization event.
Notice that it is possible to synchronize both “Start” and “End” times of a gate. In this case the
gate bounds are specified by the Start and End times, both relative to their synchronization
events. The gate is then of variable width according to the synchronization events.
Storage type:
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The user can define one storage type per gate. The available storage types are:
Preview display (See "Preview mode" paragraph):

A “Preview” tool has been developed to help the user in defining the gates before launching
any computation.
The preview display can be used to:
• Set-up gates,
• Check the “Simulation settings”.
4.2.4. Options
This tab is to set computation options:
Computation type
It is recommended to use the 3D option, but in a first approach and to have a fast computation
the 2D option can be used.
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With the 2D option, the field and the flaw interaction are computed in 2D. It means that the
transducer is approximated as a 2D-extruded transducer and that the beam defect interaction
is computed only on a line at the intersection of the incidence plane and the defect surface.
Note for CIVA 10 users: the hybrid “2D field-3D defect” or “3D field-2D defect” settings are no-
longer possible since CIVA 11 since it was found tricky to use. When you load a CIVA 10 file
which such a setting it will be changed into the 3D option.
Precision
These parameters allow increasing the level of accuracy of the computation.
• Field: Increasing the field precision refines the mesh on which the ultrasonic field is comput-
ed and hence improves results for configurations with rapidly varying field around the inter-
actions areas.
• Defect: Increasing thedefect precision refines the mesh of the flaw on which the beam-defect
interaction is computed. Increasing the defect precision can be relevant for small or irregular
flaws.
Increasing the precision values also increases the computation time which can be-
come prohibitive for too high precision values.
For an accurate quantitative analysis on the computation results it is recommended

that the user “optimizes” the value of the “precision” parameters by iterating over
several precision values until the results converge. For example, if there is no signif-
icant change in results for computations made with “accuracy =1” and “accuracy=2”,
the lowest value is the best choice in terms of minimizing computation time. If the
results are significantly different, the user is advised to repeat this process with larger
values until the results converge.
Other options
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• Account for attenuation: indicates that the attenuation associated to the specimen materials
is taken into account in the computation.
• Creeping waves: allows computing contributions from the creeping waves propagating at the
backwall surface of the specimen (see UT modeling theory). No creeping wave on the flaw
is calculated with this model.
The creeping wave option is available only for simple isotropic homogeneous specimens (flat,
cylindrical with incidence plane perpendicular to the axis of revolution or 2D CAD with planar
extrusion), with a single transducer and at least a half-skip in presence of at least a planar flaw.
The computation type must be 3D.
the “Shadowing” option which was proposed in CIVA 10 is now applied systematically
and is therefore no longer available as an option.
Modes identification
This CIVA feature allows storage of the computation data in a way that makes it possible to
identify the resulting echoes to the corresponding modes.The display of the results is described
in the chapter Modes identification in the analysis section.
The “Number of modes to return” specifies the number of dominant modes that will be stored
for the mode identification. This number applies locally, which means that if the user asks for
3 modes to return he will get at least the 3 dominant modes for a given selection zone; he will
often access to more if the selection zone is large.
This option has usually a small impact on the computation performances but for very large
simulations (amount of data) it can affect the performances and the user can disable the option.
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4.2.5. Calibration
The calibration tab allows the user to compare the simulation results to a reference calibration.
Calibration of a simulation result needs to run two simulations:
• one with the flaw the user wants to predict the response
• and one with the calibration reflector (e.g. side-drilled-hole, flat-bottom-hole, specimen echo).
The result of the simulation to be analyzed can then be expressed relative to the calibration
reflector amplitude and be expressed in dB.
The options are:
• None: is the default option. No calibration is applied to the simulation results and signal
amplitudes are reported in arbitrary units (pts).
• Manual: The response of the calibration reflector (in pts) is the reference value (0 dB) and
must be given in the field “Amplitude”. The calibrated results will be expressed relative to
this reference value, in dB.
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• Simulation: allows the user to specify a calibration computation to be performed automati-

cally with the case of interest. In this case the user has to specify:
• The incident wave type: Longitudinal or Transverse waves. By default, the option is set to
the wave type used for the computation.
• Specimen: The reference block properties (Geometry – flat or cylindrical - and the material).
The option “Current material” applies the material of the current configuration for the calibra-
tion simulation.
• Defect: The reference flaw used for calibration may be a side-drilled-hole or a flat-bot-
tom-hole.
Once the simulation case is set up, the user has to to click on the button “Calibration not calcu-
lated” to run the calibration simulation. Once the calibration simulation is completed, the button
is changed into “Calibration calculated” and the corresponding amplitude value is displayed.
The simulation of the configuration of interest can then be launched and the results will be
calibrated with respect to the computed calibration value.
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4.2.6. Computation options and corresponding modes

The following table gives the correspondence between the type of setting chosen in the "Ini-
tialization" tab and the underlying settings in terms of model parameters.
'Choice' indicates that the particular parameter is left to the choice of the user.
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Note that the total number of allowed skips is parameterized through the parameter “Number
of half skips”. The calculation rule is:
Total number of skips = 2*Number of half-skips + 1.
4.2.7. Preview mode

A “Preview” tool has been developed to help the user in defining the gates before launching
any computation.
The preview display can be used to:
• Set-up gates, on the basis of the time of flights of the displayed echoes. The bounds of the
gates can be directly adjusted on the preview display with the mouse after selection of the
gate to modify in the gate table.
• Check the “Simulation settings” by checking that the expected echoes actually appear
on the preview display. The preview display is coherent with the computation set-up since it
takes into account the full set of computation parameters.
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Echoes from the specimen are displayed in black and echoes from the flaws are displayed
in red.
The preview tool is displayed (resp. hidden) by clicking the “Preview” button either in the “Gates”
tab or in the “Preview/Gates” toolbox.
The preview is an Ascan-like display of the number of rays (normalized) going back to the
surface of the transducer. It is a simplified representation of the echoes liable to appear in the
computation result.
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Any probe displacement updates dynamically the preview display. Changes on parameters
(material velocity, defects…) also update the preview display.
For phased arrays the displayed preview corresponds to the currently selected shot.
Notice that the relative amplitudes of the displayed echoes in preview are not correct (ray
tracing only), but the associated times of flight are correct. Since echoes amplitudes are not
correct, gates thresholds cannot be set at this stage (it will be after the calculation). Simulation
gates thresholds are set to 0.
The preview display is parameterized by:
• Tmin: minimum time for the display window

• Tmax: maximum time for the display window
Additional (optional) parameters can be accessed by clicking the “Parameters” button in the
preview display:
• Precision: indexes the number of rays launched by the transducer. The higher the precision,
the lower the probability to miss an object in the scene which could give rise to an echo. The
refresh time can be penalized by a too high precision.
• With directivity:
• If ticked, the transducer launches rays in a reduced angular sector corresponding to the
directivity of the emission aperture (angle corresponding to the first zero of the directivity
diagram). This option shall be used for normal incidence type inspections to maximize the
density of rays in a reduced angular cone.
• If not ticked, the transducer launches rays in the full half space. This option shall be used
for oblique incidence type inspections if the user wants to see on the preview the specimen
echoes coming from the beam divergence.
The preview display is refreshed automatically when parameters of the configuration are
changed. In case of refresh latency, a “Disable/Enable” button is proposed on the preview dis-
play so that the user can disable the preview refresh when changing parameters of the config-
uration or moving elements in the 3D scene.
4.3. Computation Sequencing

The "Inspection Simulation" module computes the response of each flaw and specific entity
(surface and/or backwall) according to the different options defined in the Computation para-
meter panel (see section 2.4.2): longitudinal and/or transverse modes, with/without mode con-
versions, with/without one or more skips on backwall and/or surface…
The final response of the inspection simulation module is the sum of all signals from all flaws
and all modes, calculated for each position of the probe and each setting (for phased arrays).
Once the computation is launched, the active model is inactive, and a progress bar is displayed
which reports the progress of the computation.
The hierarchy of the computation is depicted below:
• Increment position
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• Scanning position
• Sequence used in Transmission (for phased arrays electronic electronic scanning)
• Shot at Transmission (for instance, several shots of a sectorial scan)
• One or several Beam computation(s) over the flaw n°1 according to the different options
(L,T, direct, halfskip)
• Building results and processing of each computed beam for defect/beam interaction
• Application of the scattering coefficient on each flaw depending on the model used and the
incident and received beam computation.
• One or several Beam computation(s) over the flaw n°2 according to the different options (L,
T, direct, halfskip...),
The progress bar is divided into two parts :
• The first (upper) part of the progress bar shows the progress of the computed modes (the
last loops of the inspection simulation computation process)
• The second (lower) part of the progress bar shows the progress of the computation relatively
to scanning position (the first two loops of the inspection simulation computation process)
The example below shows an inspection with 2D scanning (scanning and increment), and
electronic scanning combined with sectorial scanning.
Figure 2.191. Configuration overview

The progress bar will successively be displayed as follows :
1. Display of “Computation on XXX points – mode X/X” (beam computation over the meshed
flaw), for each mode to be computed and each flaw. NB : these informations may not be dis-
played depending on the computation time.
Figure 2.192. Progress bar - Computation on XXX points
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2. Display of the progress for sequences, shots at transmission (plus shots at reception if sev-
eral laws are used at reception). These loops are indented as previously depicted.
Figure 2.193. Progress bar - Electronic steps
3. Same process for successive scanning and increment steps.
Figure 2.194. Progress bar - Mechanical steps
Once the acquisition is finished, results are displayed on an analysis page.
4.4. Results and Imaging

By default, CIVA displays conventional images (A-scan, B-scan, C-scan, D-scan), reconstruct-
ed data (true views), images in the specimen frame depending on the available data. The dif-
ferent possibilities are presented in the UT-Analysis chapter.
CIVA allows a full set of UT analysis features, and can be used now as such an UT Data
Analysis Software (specific licence is proposed for exclusive Analysis purposes). The features
are detailed in the UT-Analysis chapter.
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5. UT - ANALYSIS
CIVA UT Analysis module aims at analysing UT DATA. Depending on your license, you will
have access to analysis of simulated and/or acquired DATA as described in section hereafter.
The different data sources are presented in the next chapter.
Depending on the selected data, CIVA will offer different images in the scan explorer and dif-
ferent tools in the analysis toolbar. The following chapters are then:
• CIVA UT imaging
• CIVA UT Analysis tools
The Home page of CIVA Analysis module, also called Desk page, looks like the image here-
after.
Figure 2.195. Home page (Desk) of CIVA Analysis module
5.1. Data Sources

This section describes the data sources that you can open in CIVA: simulated and/or experi-
mental data depending on you license:
• If you have a CIVA UT license, which actually includes a CIVA analysis license, then you
can analyse both simulated and experimental data (compatible formats are detailed below).
• If you have a CIVA Analysis license, then two cases may happen:
– You also have the add-on for beam computation and delay law computation, and therefore
you can analyse both simulated and experimental data (compatible formats are detailed
below).
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– You have a simple CIVA analysis license and then you can analyse exclusively experi-
mental data (compatible formats are detailed below).
5.1.1. Inspection simulation

If your license allows it (cf previous paragraph), Inspection simulation data generated in CIVA
can be reviewed and analysed. To open an inspection simulation data file, you have two pos-
sibilities:
1. click on the "Files (all)" button of the Analysis home page (see Figure 2.195, “Home page
(Desk) of CIVA Analysis module”) and use the browser to find and load your simulation file
2.
click "Home.." . A small window offers several options:
Select "Open" to open the CIVA Inspection simulation file (directory with a name ending
with ".civa"). If the file has been previously opened, you can select it in the list given by
"Historic".
5.1.2. Experimental data
5.1.2.1. Experimental data from M2M
M2M data can be opened and analysed in CIVA. To open a M2M file, you have two possibilities:
1. Click on the "M2K Files" or "Gekko Files" button of the Analysis home page (see Fig-
ure 2.195, “Home page (Desk) of CIVA Analysis module”) and use the browser to find and
load your data file
2.
Click "Home.." . A small window offers several options:
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Select "Open" and select the file type ".m2k" or “.gekko” to open the data. If the file has
been previously opened, you can select it in the list given by "Historic".
5.1.2.2. Experimental data from OLYMPUS
Olympus data can be opened and analyzed in CIVA with a specific Olympus license (contact
EXTENDE for more information about this license). To open an Olympus file, you have two
possibilities:
1. Click on the "Olympus Files" button of the Analysis home page (see Figure 2.195, “Home
page (Desk) of CIVA Analysis module”) and use the browser to find and load your data file
2.
Click "Home.." . A small window offers several options:
Select "Open" and select the Olympus file type (*.rdt, *.opd, *.oud). If the file has been
previously opened, you can select it in the list given by "Historic".
The "Olympus data import" window appears. Modify if necessary the folder and the name of
the generated file. This import generates a *.civa file.
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The compatibility is ensured with data files created with:
• TomoView 1.4 and 2.X

• MXU 2.0, 3.X and 4.X (OmniScan MX, MX2 and SX software)
• iXU 2.0 and 2.1 (OmniScan iX software)
5.1.2.3. Other Experimental formats
CIVA is potentially open to import of any other file formats. Because the number of possibilities
is huge and that we do not know all file formats, a plugin development kit can provided to you
so that you can develop your own plugin to be able to import a specific format into CIVA. You
can contact EXTENDE to know more about this feature.
5.1.3. Data Merging

Another set of available data is "merged data" coming from different salvos from the same
acquisition. The merged dataset can be generated using the data merging function. This
merge is made in the specimen views.
Consider the two salvos from two different transducers as shown below:
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To merge data from these two transducers, click on the merge icon .
Select in the following window the data you want to merge and give a name to this new source
of data, as shown below.
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A new dataset is added and a new analysis window is open with specimen and 3D views. All
specimen views are available and all options in the 3D view are possible.
Note that by default, views are proposed with fixed shot activated, if the source contained
SScan for example, you have to uncheck this option.
Data can be represented as plans in the 3D view:
But it can also be represented as iso-surfaces:
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Or as volumes:
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Some operators such as -n dB contour are also available in order to analyse merged data and
fill the indication table.
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5.2. UT Data Imaging

5.2.1. Views
A view represents a set of data as an image or a curve.
5.2.1.1. C-scans, B-scans, D-scans and A-scans

These views are available at the top part of the Scan explorer:
Figure 2.196. Scan explorer

In Civa, the source file is made up of indexed data that, in the most complex scenario, includes
the following elements:
• an increment (line number);

• a scan (burst number);
• a sequence;
• a shot;
• a shot channel number (if the basic channels are saved);
• a time (or sample number).
All views listed at the top of the Scan explorer correspond to 1D curves (A-scan, various echo-
dynamic curves) or 2D images (C-scan, B-scan, D-scan, S-scan…). Except for the C-scan
image, which represents the maximum amplitude for all scanning and increment positions,
all 2D images correspond to “cross-section views” dealing with different axis (scanning, incre-
ment, shot, sequence) and time. Those cross-section views are, thus, representing UT data
for one fixed axis value. For instance, a B-scan image (cross-section along a scanning line)
corresponds to one specific value of the increment of a scanning/increment inspection. Alter-
natively, a D-scan image (cross-section along an increment line) corresponds to one specific
value of the scanning position.
5.2.1.1.1. Views may be "true" or "raw":
• "Raw" views are represented according to indexes or associated encoder coordinates.
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• "True" views represent data in the piece (in specimen coordinates).
Options of the true views are presented in the True views chapter.
5.2.1.1.2. List of views
The list below summarizes the different views that may be available depending on the data:
Figure 2.197. List of different views
5.2.1.1.3. Available views
Once a file has been opened, all available images for the data source are listed in the scan
explorer window. By default all images are not listed in the scan explorer panel, but all can be
found by entering the folders.
The values displayed are usually signal amplitudes. Other values may also be displayed in
certain cases.
A view contains one or more cursors that can be displaced by means of the mouse.
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Images can be selected for display by drag and drop from the scan explorer to the image area.
Already displayed images are marked with a green dot in the scan explorer panel while other
images have a red dot.
Some images are linked. For instance, the “F-scan”, which corresponds to the frequency spec-
trum of an A-scan is linked to the A-scan and to access it one can click on the button “+” on
left side of the A-scan label:
5.2.1.1.4. C-scan options - Thickness C-scan
The C-scan view provides you with either "Amplitude" or "Depth" or "Time of flight" information.
It can be useful in particular to create a thickness C-scan.
5.2.1.1.4.1. Thickness C-scan on regular surface
In order to obtain a Thickness C-scan, when the C-scan is open, in the toolbox, go to the
“Options” tab. In the displayed data, “Depth” is an available option while in the “Depth” option
at the end of the toolbox, you have several possibilities.
In the simple case where the surface is regular and that you just need to see at which depth
is the maximum of the signal, just select the depth option in the displayed data as shown on
the figure below:
Figure 2.198. Thickness CScan in the case of a regular surface
The colorbar can be added to the image as above by clicking on the icon.
The dynamic curve above the C-scan can be obtained by checking the “Active” checkbox in
the “multi-views” option.
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5.2.1.1.4.2. Thickness C-scan on irregular surface
When the surface of your component is not regular, if you have a surface echo allowing syn-
chronization as shown below, the following steps must be followed:
Figure 2.199. Acquisition with Irregular surface

echo, with the 2 new gates to be added
• Add a first gate named “surface_gate” on the surface echo and a second gate named
“bottom_gate” on the bottom echo. Synchronize the “bottom_gate” on the “surface_gate”
with the adapted echo type (first max for example).
• Display the C-scan of the “bottom_gate”. In the toolbox, go to the “options” tab. In the dis-
played data, select “depth” while in the “Depth” option at the end of the toolbox, you have
several possibilities.
• Choose "Gate" type and select the Surface_Gate as the reference.
The new C-scan for “Bottom_Gate” data represents the thickness as shown below.
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Figure 2.200. Thickness C-scan in the case of an irregular surface (upper left image)
You can then adjust your color palette or load an adapted one (it has been limited to 10mm
in this case).
5.2.1.1.4.3. Thresholded C-scan
You can make your choice in the "Displayed Data" toolbox. A threshold on the amplitude can
also be applied in order to remove echoes of low amplitude (noise or amplitude drop on the
edge of the flaws).
In this case flaw are embedded in the specimen as seen in the B-scan. A gate is set to keep
only the flaw data. From this gated data the depth C-scan is displayed, once while taking into
account all amplitudes, while only for amplitude above a threshold.
Figure 2.201. Original B-scan and A-scan (left), depth

C-scan (center) and thresholded depth C-scan (right)
5.2.1.2. True views (B-scans, D-scans)
True views are views reconstructed along the ray in specimen coordinates.
"True" views have the following features:
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• displayed dimensions are not the axes of the view but rather positions of the corresponding
samples in the piece geometry.
• one of these dimensions is depth.
Any 2D view whose vertical axis is the time axis can generate a True view.
5.2.1.2.1. Propagation mode
The parameters of reconstructed views are included in the Toolbox
Figure 2.202. Parameters of True views
The user can choose the type of wave used for the reconstruction with the Propagation Mode
drop-down menu. Possible values are L-wave or T-wave, or if the specimen contains at least
one anisotropic material, it can be: L-wave/qL-wave, T/qT1-wave or T/qT2-wave.
This choice determines the propagation mode of the raypaths that are computed from the
surface of the specimen to its backwall, and that are used for the reconstruction.
In next figure, by choosing either L-wave or T-Wave, the corner and diffraction echoes of pure
L or T waves for an L-45 inspection are placed around the planar defect.
Figure 2.203. Example of reconstructed views for L-wave and T-wave
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5.2.1.2.2. Reflection
By selecting the number of reflections, raypaths can be reflected after reaching the backwall
or the surface. The true view in this case is the sum of a direct and a reflected image. The next
figure shows the a true view reconstruction with L-wave and one reflection.
Figure 2.204. Single skip reconstruction example
In order to have a reconstructed view in the specimen with multiple skips, you must first display
a reconstructed view. In this true view, you have to select the visualisation properties toolbox
as shown below:
You choose the number of skips you want to account for in the image and click on “OK” to
apply. Multiple skips reflection is possible with a large number of reflections.
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The image is then displayed with the selected number of skips inside the specimen. This is
also reported in the 3D view if you drag and drop the reconstructed image in the 3D view.
Figure 2.205. 3D view views double skip reconstruction
5.2.1.2.3. Smoothing
By selecting Smoothing, instead of using a simple ray path for the reconstruction, a complete
beam of rays is computed for each shot, and an average ray is deduced from it. This is useful
when the ray paths used are very different from one shot to another (because of rough surface)
or when some rays are stopped at internal surface in the specimen because their incident
directions are supercritical. The following figure shows the improvement of the true view when
using Smoothing:.
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Figure 2.206. Configuration containing a weld.
Figure 2.207. True view with a L/qL propagation mode: there is a missing
ray path because it reached the interface at a supercritical angle .
Figure 2.208. Smoothed true view with L/qL propagation mode.
For this smoothing method as a beam of rays is computed for each shot instead of
a simple ray, computation time for the true view can be slightly longer.
5.2.1.3. Cumulated views
They are available at the bottom part of the Scan explorer:
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Cumulated views correspond to the superimposition of cross-section views (see 2.6.3.1.1), the
maximum amplitude for all images is kept.
• For a 2D scanning inspection with a single probe, available images are D-scan cumulated
and B-scan cumulated.
• For phased arrays inspections with multiple delay laws (electronic scanning, sectorial scan-
nings etc…) additional views are provided which correspond to cumulated delays settings.
The example below illustrates cumulated images for an inspection of a planar component with
45° T waves radiated by a single probe. 2 Flaws are present in the piece (one side drilled
hole and one planar backwall breaking notch). The scanning trajectory is displayed on the 3D
scene below.
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• On the C-scan image, one observes the strong corner echo from the notch, as well as the
(weaker) specular reflexion of the side drilled hole.
• The B-scan image is displayed for an increment line (for this increment position the axis of
the probe hits the center the notch).
• The D-scan image is displayed for a scanning row corresponding to the maximum amplitude
response of the side drilled hole (for this scanning position the axis of the probe hits the
centre of the side drilled hole)
For a better understanding of these images, True B-scan and True D-scan are also
displayed, which allows to superimpose the cross-section views in specimen coor-
dinates with the specimen and flaws profiles.
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Cumulated D-scan and B-scan views are presented below. On these images, one may there-
fore see both responses of the side drilled hole and the notch. In addition, the previous B-scan
and D-scan images are also reported for comparison, as well as the front and side view of the
model in order to display the defects and probe trajectories along scanning and increments.
The second example below shows another inspection of the same component and same flaws
with a 2D scanning, but using a phased array which, in addition, performs multiple focusing
(from 0° to 55°).
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As two displacement axes are used, plus several shots for each position of the probe, cumu-
lated (respectively) D-scan and B-scan images now correspond to all scanning (respectively
increment) positions and for all shots. In the figure below, cumulated D-scan and cumulated
B-scan therefore shows the backwall echo, as well as echoes from both flaws for the various
positions (along increment or scanning) and various shots.
Concerning the C-scan image, it can be displayed as:
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• Cumulated shots (C-scan inc/scanning)

• C-scan (inc/shots)
• C-scan (scanning/shot)
Similar features are also available for electronic scanning settings.
5.2.1.4. Specimen views
Specimen views are listed in the scan explorer as presented in the following figure:
For inspection analysis, it may be interesting to export views only related to the specimen co-
ordinates. To achieve this, “specimen views” have been added in the UT imaging architecture.
The specimen views are two-dimensional graphical presentation of the recorded data posi-
tioned in the specimen. It is a projection on the top, the side and the front of the box containing
all the ray paths. At a given position on the projected image, the color corresponds to the
maximum amplitude.
As presented in the following figure, three cases are considered: plane, CAD specimens and
cylinder specimens.
The specimen views are completely linked to specimen coordinates, not to inspection axes
coordinates. As a consequence, specimen views are not linked to other images.
In order to analyze only a part of the specimen, section views can be used. Only the recorded
data positioned in the section defined by the position of the cursor and the thickness of the
section are projected.
The figure below shows where to adjust the following parameters in the “View” tabulation:
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• The thickness of the section in the “Section cursor” toolbox.

• A threshold of the amplitudes can be applied and set in the “Displayed Data” toolbox.
• The choice of the displayed data (“Amplitude” or “Depth” or “Time of flight”) in the “Displayed
Data” toolbox.
Thickness of the section: by right clicking on the cursor of a section view, you can activate the
visibility of the thickness of the corresponding section.
The figures below show some examples of Specimen views: the “Top view”, “Side view”, “Front
view” of the 2D scanning inspection of a planar component with 45° T waves over two flaws
(previous application example). As shown on the images exported to the 3D scene, echoes
(corner echoes, tip diffraction echoes and specular reflexion on the side drilled hole) are dis-
played on the exact positions of the flaws, while the position of these different echoes may
directly be read using the cursors displayed on each figure.
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The figures below show some examples (taken from the previous example) of Section views
which correspond to a “slice” of the Specimen views.
In the Figure below the side view shows 3 echoes: the corner echo of the notch and the direct
and indirect echo from the side drilled hole. The side section view is a slice view of the section
view, corresponding to the position Y above the center of the notch, therefore only the corner
echo is displayed in the side section.
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Figure below shows different side sections displayed for various positions Y moved from the
Top view, which successively show echoes from the side drilled hole and corner echo from the
notch (as well as echoes from both flaws).
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For side section view (and other section views), the thickness of the slice section is defined in
the tool box of the CIVA window.
Section views are available for side, top and front views. As mentioned earlier, these views
always contain all cumulated data: if phased array settings involve shots and sequences, all
UT data will be cumulated on those views and related sections.
5.2.1.5. Concatenated views
After sequence concatenation, axes are called "global scanning" and "global increments" and
are dimensioned in mm or in degrees.
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Electronic positions collinear with mechanical scanning: in this case, a scanning line is com-
posed of all electronic positions associated with the mechanical scanning line.
Electronic positions not collinear with mechanical scanning: in this case, there are as many
scan lines as electronic positions associated to one mechanical scanning.
5.2.2. Toolboxes
The bottom part of the CIVA window is used to display the toolboxes related to the different
images available in the analysis page. In order to display the tool box, it is necessary to select it
from the upper part of CIVA window. The contents of the tool box depend on the selected image
(the highlighted view within the CIVA page). The name of the selected image is reported on the
left side of the tool box (vertical text). Several tabs are available from the toolbox, in particular:
• Cursors
• Palette / Gain
• Options
• Gates
• Measures
• Selection
• Measures on selection
• Indications table
• Visualized rays and Display rays
Figure 2.209. Toolboxes for a True Bscan
5.2.2.1. Cursors
This tab displays different information related to the selected image.
• The first part of the tab is the “Acquisition Cursors”, which reports the values of the cursors
of the selected view. For the example displayed above (2D scanning of a single probe), the
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selected image is the C-scan view, therefore the tool box displays, in the cursor tab, the
values of the increment and scanning (in mm, for planar component). The “Extra” button
allows to display the related increment and scanning numbers.
• The second tab – “Time Amplitude” - indicates the amplitude value related to displayed co-
ordinates (scanning, increment, shot …) in points, dB or percentage (selectable by the user)
and the time of flight (in µsec). The Max Button moves the time cursor to the max of the
current signal.
• The third tab – “Testing position” displays the spatial coordinates (with respect to the speci-
men frame coordinates, for instance (X,Y,Z) for a planar component) of the selected sample
as defined by both previous tabs. If the 3D view is selected, “Testing position” refers to the
position of the probe.
• A last tab - "(R, θ) Conversion" - allows the user to calculate the coordinates of cursors in
a secondary cylindrical frame.
Cylindrical coordinates calculator example

An appropriate example is to obtain the coordinates of an echo obtained in a nozzle
in the secondary cylinder frame.
To obtain these coordinates, the user has to use the “(R,#) Conversion tool” situated
in the cursor tab of toolboxes.
When clicking on “reference”, the following window opens:
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The user has to specify:
• The coordinates of the origin of this new frame (Orig.).

• The axis which will be the reference for circular coordinates (rotation axis).
• The origin for the θ value (that can be reversed if the corresponding checkbox is
checked).
In the example of Nozzle, the secondary cylinder is in the “Y” direction (Axis 0,1,0).
The origin is taken in the middle of the secondary cylinder (Orig 0,255,0).
And the origin in θ is taken along the primary cylinder in the flow direction.
The results for the cursors position in this new frame is then the r, θ and Pos given
in the window above.
5.2.2.2. Time and depth cursors
In order to represent millimeters instead of microseconds on A-scans and C-scans (recon-

structed B-scans and D-scans are already in millimetres), an option associated with “Depth”
has been added in the cursor tab:
Figure 2.210. Depth measurement option in the cursor tab
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When clicking on “mm”, three choices are proposed:
• µs: default value, classical A-scans and C-scans in microseconds;

• mm: gives the depth in millimeters (depending on choices in Depth setting defined below);
• mm (sp): gives the distance along the sound path in millimeters.
When asking for the depth representation on these images, some options are proposed in the
“Options” tab of the toolbar:
Figure 2.211. Depth measurement parameters in the Options tab
Four types of options are possible.
• Emergence point: the “0” reference to calculate the depth begins at the first emergence
point of the transducer as defined in the model; no other parameter is needed.
• User Defined: the “0” reference to calculate the depth begins adding a delay (in mm) chosen
by the user to the emergence point reference value;
• Profile: the “0” reference to calculate the depth begins or ends taking into account the profile
of the specimen defined in the model. The user in this case has to choose “entry” or “bottom”
as reference.
• Gate: the “0” reference to calculate the depth is defined by an echo in the selected gates
chosen in “Gates”. This is also useful to make thickness CScan as explained in the dedicated
chapter.
5.2.2.3. Cursor synchronisation in specimen views
When you have classical images with acquisition coordinates or reconstructed views and spec-
imen views, you can have a continuous synchronisation between cursors from acquisition to
specimen or from specimen to acquisition.
You can also choose to synchronize punctually by a manual request.
This choice is available in the tab “cursors” of the tool box, as shown below:
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Figure 2.212. Cursor synchronisation in specimen views
This link allows to see for example sections in the specimen views synchronized on acquisition
cursors when you go through a classical C-scan or other acquisition view.
5.2.2.4. Palette/Gain
This tab displays different information related to the palette and global gains.
• “Gain Palette” – is used to display the color map (used for all images displayed in the CIVA
window). The user may select other palettes, in symmetric or antisymmetric mode:
It is also possible, via this box, to concentrate the color map dynamic over a reduced amplitude
range.
This can be done in two ways:
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• by displacing the mouse on the color scale to the right of the view.
To raise the color scale minimum value, position the mouse at the bottom of the scale until
its icon changes to a double arrow, then left click, hold and drag the scale up.
To lower the color scale maximum value, position the mouse at the top of the scale until its
icon changes to a double arrow, then left click, hold, and drag the scale down.
• or by keying in the upper and lower limits of the color scale in the (min., max.) fields in the
color map box.
Regardless of the method used, the cursor position on the scale and the value given in the
relevant field are automatically adjusted for consistency.
The following figure depicts these actions.
It is also possible to increase the overall echo dynamic of the image.
By typing in a value (in dB only) in the color map box "Dynamic" field, it is possible to move the
scale by whatever that value. The dynamic can also be modified simply by clicking the buttons
located to the right of the dynamic field. Each click increases or decreases the dynamic by 3
dB. For example, if a value of 6 dB is typed in, the maximum color scale value is -6 dB and all
stronger values are saturated (light blue).
By saturating the strongest echoes, it is possible to detect small echoes that would otherwise
have been invisible. This action results only in visual effect and does not in any way modify the
amplitude values associated with the signals.
If the lowest value on the color scale is a finite one (e.g. -12 dB), it is corrected by whatever
the dynamic value. The dynamic value can be negative.
The following figure depicts the addition of a 9 dB dynamic.
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Two kinds of palette can be loaded:
• Palette CIVA
• Palette M2000
A CIVA palette is a “.xml” file saved with the extension “.civapal”. In this file (see example
below) the user has to:
• indicate the palette name

• define the colors with a group of 3 different colors RGBA (Red Green Blue Alpha) associated
to a value between 0 and 1. This value allows to define the color’s order.
• define a saturation color for the values greater than the maximum value of the palette. This
saturation color is optional.
<palette>
<name>Test for CIVA palette</name>
<entries>
<entry red="255" green="255" blue="255" alpha="255" value="0.0"/>
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<entry red="0.0" green="0.0" blue="0.0" alpha="255" value="1.0"/>

</entries>
<overMax red="0.0" green="0.0" blue="0.0" alpha="1.0"/>
</palette>
In the previous example, only the initial and final colors are completed but the user can modify
the number of lines «entry» and specify the values in red.
<entry red="255" green="255" blue="255" alpha="255" value="0.0"/>
In the previous example, the whole palette will be a gray-scale image (see an example of this
palette used to display a Bscan image below):
• “Parameter” – is used to modify the reference amplitude.
In the case of a simulation file:
When “Calibrate” is not selected, the hardware and software gains are 0 dB and the Reference
amplitude (i.e. the amplitude in pts that corresponds to 0 dB) is displayed in the Reference
amplitude box. It is:
• the maximum amplitude of the file in pts

• or the calibration amplitude if the “calibration” option was used for the computation.
When “Calibration” is selected, those Reference amplitude, hardware and software gains can
be modified, and the 0dB is associated to the new Reference amplitude value considering the
new hardware and software gains.
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In the case of an acquisition file:
After loading the file the Reference amplitude (in pts), Hardware and Software gains values
are displayed in their boxes. The 0dB corresponds to the Reference amplitude considering the
hardware and software gains used to obtain it. These 3 values can be modified by selecting
“Calibrate”. Then the 0dB becomes the new Reference amplitude value considering the new
hardware and software gains.
5.2.2.5. Options
This tab provides tools dedicated to different images. The tools are "contextual", then the pro-
posed tools depend on the active image.
Time Offset:
For True views (S-scan, True B-scan, True D-scan…), the user may define a time adjustment
(positive or negative time delay added to the data), which will therefore modify the display of the
true views. This feature is mostly used for experimental files, for which small time shifts may be
needed in order to accurately adjust True images (for instance True B-scan). The application
of time offset will only affect the display of true images, including images dropped in the 3D
view, not the values of the file.
In this box, the interval field defines cursor limits (it may be decreased or increased using up
and bottom cursors). Taking the cursor to its rightmost or leftmost limit adjusts time by the same
value as the interval (except for the sign). It is also possible to directly key in the desired offset
in the offset field.
The figure below shows an example of application of time offset on a true B-scan showing
corner echo and tip diffraction echoes (45° transverse wave inspection). As this picture corre-
sponds to a simulated file, corner and diffraction echoes are correctly located with a zero time
offset, while they are not valid for the time offset applied.
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5.2.2.6. Measures
If two cursors are used on an image, then this tab is accessible and provides the informations
related to both cursors as well the distance between them (with respect to the selected image):
this may be time interval between two cursors of an A-scan, horizontal and vertical distances
between two cursors of a C-scan, distances along X and Z of true B-scan.
If only one cursor is used, the informations related to the cursor are provided with the “Cursor”
tab. If two cursors are used, the informations related to each of them are provided on separate
tabs “Acquisition Cursors 1” and “Acquisition Cursors 2”, and an additional tab called “Diff.” is
dedicated to display the distance between both cursors. In addition, “Specimen coordinates”
now also refers to coordinates of sample from cursor 1 and sample from cursor 2.
5.2.2.7. Visualized modes and Display rays

These two tabs are related to ray tracing features in the 3D view. Full details of these tabs are
given in section Raypath display.
5.2.3. TOFD analysis tools

The calibration tool for TOFD data is available in the "Calibration" panel of the "Toolboxes".
After the calibration, you can also perform advanced analysis using typical TOFD cursors.
5.2.3.1. TOFD calibration:

In the "TOFD calibration" toolbox :
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1. Select the type of calibration from the calibration type drop-down list:
• Lateral wave ref.
• Backwall ref.
• Lateral wave and backwall ref.
The available options depends on the computation parameters (lateral waves,

backwall echoes) or the available data (specimen thickness). In particular for
CAD specimens, the thickness is not directly available and the backwall refer-
ence cannot be selected.
2. Click on the selection tool to select the area in which the maximum will be computed
defining the reference. As soon as the mouse is released, the reference time (the time
corresponding to the lateral wave or the backwall echo) is updated.
3. Click "Calibrate". The TOFD calibration is performed and the time axe is presented in "mm
TOFD".
Figure 2.213. TOFD Calibration
5.2.3.2. TOFD tools :
After the "TOFD calibration", the axe in "mm TOFD” is available as presented on the following
figure. On the "Acquisition cursors", an hyperbolic cursor can be activated in the toolbox. The
hyperbolic cursor helps you defining the position of the indication. The size of the cursor can
be modified.
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Figure 2.214. TOFD hyperbolic cursors and "mm TOFD" unit
5.2.4. Cursors and images links

All images have cursors suited to the type of view involved.
For a given file (simulation and/or acquisition), all cursors are linked to each other. This means
that, when a cursor is moved in a given view, its movement is automatically reproduced in all
the views affected by this movement.
Axis of increment or scanning:
When the cursor position on the increment axis of a C-scan (increment/scanning image) is
changed this automatically updates the corresponding B-scan image (scanning/time image
extracted from the C-scan at a fixed increment value): the B-scan is recomputed to at the new
increment value.
Axis can be:
• Increment axis: definition of a mechanical increment during simulations or acquisitions.
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• Scanning axis: definition of a mechanical scanning operation for simulation or acquisition

purposes.
These axes can be measured in two ways (if the value is available and recognized in the file):
• increment or scanning values (in mm or degrees); these values are given in the image and
in the toolbox
• line or burst index (index starting from 0); the index values are only given in the toolbox (click
on "Extra").
Axis of sequences:
This parameter is only accessible for electronic scanning (defined as the displacement of a
phased array aperture, i.e. several array elements). Sectorial scanning is not included under
this category.
This axis is identified only by the sequence number.
Axis of shots:
This parameter is only accessible for phased array simulations, when the focusing option se-
lected implies several shots at each probe position or sequence (for electronic scanning).
This axis is identified only by the shot number.
This parameter is useful in particular for sectorial scanning (S-scan). Each shot corresponds
to a different beam refraction angle.
Time axis:
This axis can be measured in three ways:
• time value (in µs);

• sample number;
• in TOFD cases (after calibration) or with depth C-scans, the time axis can be displayed in mm.
The axis never constitutes a fixed cursor.
Views are time-adjusted at the time of True view editing (see following paragraphs).
5.2.5. Spatial adjustment

Spatial adjustment is achieved using the model associated with the data.
For an acquisition file, use the "Inspection" tab to modify the initial probe position with respect
to the test piece, then "apply" the modification.
5.2.6. Zooms
To zoom any image, proceed as follows:
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• Press the Ctrl button while holding the left mouse button, and use the mouse to define a
rectangular zoom area. Once the rectangle is drawn, release the left mouse button. The
zoom area then occupies all the space available in the view (this zoom mode also applies
to 2D and 3D views in the test scene).
• To cancel the zoom and restore the image to its initial state, double click in the window. If
zooms are chained, each double click causes the display to revert by one zoom to the initial
image.
5.2.7. Limitations
The limitation is an imaging tool allowing to isolate a part of data views. The purpose of limita-
tions is to reduce the volume of data to be processed. Indeed, this feature affords views with
smaller volumes of data (unlike zooming, such reductions also affect "daughter" images) and
therefore ensures shorter processing times.
5.2.7.1. Accessing the limitation
This functionality is available from different views except true views and specimen views.
There are two different manners to realize a limitation:
•
first way, by a click on the toolbar button.
• the second method consists in using a zoom and defining a limitation from this zoom. In
order to zoom, keep pressing on the button "ctrl" of your keyboard and select an area of the
view where you want to zoom with the mouse. After zooming, click on “Convert zoom
to limitation” button. The limits of the data correspond to the boundaries from the zoom.
In these two cases, new sources appear in the current configuration tree of CIVA manager.
Thus it is possible to display the limitation result in a new analysis page. You can also edit/mod-
ify limitation parameters or remove the limitation.
5.2.7.2. Filter on range
The following example illustrates how to define the limitation of a Bscan image.
Select the Bscan image and click on the to call the limitation tool. Then:
1. At the bottom of the manager, a box for input of the limitation parameters appears:
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2. The source “Data limitation” appears in the CIVA manager tree:
3. The corresponding image of this limitation is created on the right side of the selected image:
There is no "default" parameter. The limitation parameters can be specified in two ways:
• by keying in the desired values in the Min and Max columns of the limitation box for
whatever the relevant parameters.
• or by modifying the limits of "activated" parameter(s), on the appropriate axis of the im-
age, using the mouse. This entails pressing the Ctrl button and displacing the red lines
corresponding to the desired parameter.
For example, once the "active" option is checked for scanning, cursors appear on the sides
of all the open views for which scanning is one of the two (vertical or horizontal) axes of repre-
sentation (at the edges of existing boundaries) (see figure below).
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When the positions of these cursors are changed by pressing the mouse and Ctrl buttons,
the boundaries of the view being limited also change (see the limited Bscan below) and these
changes are automatically applied to the associated parameter box and shown as rectangles
on all scans with the same axes (see the red cursors on the Cscan below):
It is possible to save the applied limitation parameters (if, for example, the action is repeated
for several files) and to give that limitation a name.
5.2.7.3. Filter on increments
Since CIVA 2016, it is possible to filter the increments of a C-Scan.
If you have an acquisition file in which forward and backward scanning are different due to
mechanical or coupling problem, you may want to analyse only one increment out of two.
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Figure 2.215. Acquisition image with mechanical problems on increments
To extract from the data one increment out of two, create a limitation by clicking on .
In the parameters window created as follows, select “Increments filter”:
Figure 2.216. Increments filter parameter window
By clicking in “All”, you can choose between “All”, “Odd” or “Even” increments.
This action will create a new Dataset containing only the chosen increments.
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Figure 2.217. Acquisition image with filtered increments
5.3. UT Analysis tools

5.3.1. Analysis ToolBar
The feature “Analysis UT” allows reading and analyzing acquisition and simulation files. This
module has been greatly improved in CIVA 11.1 to meet requirements of analysis, identification
of indications, and NDT reporting.
In addition to standard analysis tools, CIVA offers advanced functionalities such as automatic
segmentation, 3D reconstruction, a powerful 2D and 3D imaging system, and the ability to use
simulation for characterizing indications and propagation modes.
A global Toolbar provides a simple access to the greater part of the functionalities.
The Analysis ToolBar is the entry point of the main features available for UT NDT Analysis.
Figure 2.218. UT Analysis toolbar


• Blue actions impact the current dataset and its dependences

tion)
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Description of the associated control pa- Acquisition trajecto-

Any image
rameters ries
Data Merging Multi salvo File Sources of data
Save or Apply a Template for the current

Any file Templates
file
General and detailed Informations Any result image (all Information about the
about the file and the current gate except3D view) data
Correction of mechanical hysteresis Any result image Hysteresis correction
Create a limitation defined by cursors Any result image Limitations
Create a limitation defined by the cur-

Any result image Limitations
rent zoom
Display the gate table (only current gate

Any result image Gates
and depended gates will appear)
Open the eraser tool to create a new

data set or to edit the parameters of a Any 2D/3D image Eraser
processed data set
dressed/Envelope representation. This Any result image Signal display mode
Open the signal processing tool to cre-
ate a new data set or to edit the para- Any result image Signal processing
meters of a processed data set
Add a new selection area (region of in-
terest) – different type of selection are Always Area of selection
available
Push the current selection in the indica-

If a ROI is selected Indication table
tions’ table
Simple Segmentation in the selected

If a ROI is selected Segmentation
area
Visualization option for segmentation After segmentation Segmentation
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Display the contour at -n dB and com-

If a ROI is selected -n dB contour
pute the associated surface
2D images with scales Distance measure-

in mm ment
Push the measurement in the indica- If one or several indi-

Indication table
tions’ table cations are selected
Open the histogram If a ROI is selected Histogram
Push a copy of the current image or the

Always Indication table
current screen in the indications’ table
Table Any result image Indication table
Report Always Report
If a ROI is selected on
Simulation Simulation
a 2D image
If "Modes identifica-
Modes identification tion" was selected be- Modes Identification
fore computation
3D Export Always 3D Export
Profile reconstruction Any result image Profile Reconstruction
TFM Reconstruction Any result image TFM Reconstruction
Add the color map at the side of the im-

Any image Colormap
age
Change the cursor display (one cursor,

Any 2D image Cursor mode
two, none)
Connect or disconnect an image from

Any image Cursor connection
cursors affecting the image

Any image with same
unit for both axes
for axis)
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age (Flip Vertically, Flip Horizontally, Di- Any image Mirror tools
rect rotation)
Synchronise or not zooms between

Any image Synchronization
view with at least one common axis

Any image Data export
values)

Any image Image export
board

True images and
format (the user has the choice to export DXF export
specimen views
Open a new and empty tab for analysis Always New analysis page
5.3.2. Preferences
Clicking on the icon opens a new page where the CIVA preferences can be adjusted.
5.3.3. Description of the acquisition trajectories and settings
This feature allows the user to check and set all the parameters regarding the transducer
positioning and the trajectories on the specimen tested. These parameters have a direct impact
on the “true” images, soundpath computation, and all reconstruction results.
There are two ways to define the model of the acquisition:
• A full description of the model including the transducers, the phased array laws, the speci-
men geometry. Although this information is automatically set with M2M acquisition files, it is
necessary to check the main values.
• A simple description of the model with two types of geometry (plane and cylinder) and the
angles of the beam of each shot.
The UT Acquisition trajectories and settings feature is organized to support several transducers
and salvos.
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5.3.3.1. Mechanical direction
Main directions of scanning given in the CIVA system of axis
5.3.3.2. Global Offsets.
New Specimen Origin: these offsets are given in the CIVA coordinates system, and allow the
user to set a new specimen origin. This will define the new CIVA Specimen coordinates system.
Testing Offset: these offsets are given in the new CIVA Specimen coordinates system and
allow the user to set a new origin for the transducers positioning. This will define the CIVA
Testing coordinates system.
Positions of probes: for each source, the offsets are given in the testing coordinates system.
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Each source can be connected to another source. For multi connections, the user can connect
several sources at the same source, or spread the link source by source.
When sources are linked, the cursor connection is automatically made.
5.3.3.3. Offset and Template Option

The offsets and the cursors links, specimen and scanning parameters values are applied to
all sources only if the corresponding checkbox is true. The checkbox state is also taking into
account when applying a template. (see chapter Template)
• Apply the offsets and cursors connections :

– True : the offsets are synchronized with the model of each source
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– False : the offsets are ignored, only the parameters of the models are taking into account.
• Apply the Specimen for all salvos
– True : any change of the specimen is applied to all models of the file
– False : changes are not synchronized. When a template concerns several configurations
with different specimen’s geometry, set to false before saving the template.
5.3.3.4. Simple model option
When the simple model option is selected, a new interface appears which allows to set the
parameters used for the reconstruction data.
Case of a plane specimen:
In the case of a plane specimen, the setting parameters are as following:
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• Specimen geometry: length, width and thickness of the specimen.

• Position X/Y of the Specimen in the CIVA coordinate’s system
• Speed: speed of sound in the material.
• T0 on the surface: Time of flight of the ultrasonic waves when they penetrate on the com-
ponent.
Then, for each shot located by its number of shot and sequence, the following parameters can
be modified:
• Angle and Skew: Refraction angles in the specimen.

• Offset inc and scan: offset applied to the scanning position. It can be positive or negative.
• Offset time: time offset applied to T0 for each shot. It can be positive or negative.
These parameters can be different from one shot to another, and are applied to the computation
of the ultrasonic raypath for the considered shot.
5.3.3.5. Concatenation
The concatenation is a phased-array imaging tool combining electronic and mechanical dimen-
sions. When an electronic scanning (sequences or channel per channel) is realised with a me-
chanical displacement, the objective is to visualize the data coming from these two displace-
ments on the same view.
Concatenated views appear with the following cases:
• Inspection with an electronic sequencing

• Multi-channels inspection like Full Matrix Capture (FMC) or planar wave front full array. In this
case, electronic positions correspond to the position of each channels of the phased-array.
This option is available for each salvos
5.3.3.6. Mechanical offsets
Mechanical offsets tool allows to correct the initial position of the probe defined on the CIVA
model associated to an acquisition file regarding its exact position during the acquisition.
The Mechanical offsets tool is available from the "tool" tab of the toolboxes when you click on
the 3D view of CIVA where you drag and drop the UT data.
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To adjust the mechanical offsets, two possibilities are available as described below.
5.3.3.6.1. Modification of the mechanical offsets from the tool tab
Mechanical offsets are only visible with the 3D view toolboxes. Two parameters are available:
Delta X, Delta Y in case of a Cartesian cartography or Delta Y, Delta Theta in case of cartog-
raphy with a circular axis.
Figure 2.219. Mechanical offsets parameters in case of a plane

geometry component (a) or a cylindrical geometry component (b).
The change of one of these parameters is directly visible in the 3D view.
Then, when the parameters are correct, a button called "change model" is then used to apply
the parameters to the full model. The initial position of the probe defined in the "inspection"
panel is then modified according to the mechanical offsets applied.
5.3.3.6.2. Modification of the mechanical offsets with the manipulator
Mechanical offsets can also be adjusted with the manipulator available in the 3D view by double
clicking in the purple line defining the acquisition trajectory. Then the adjustments can easily
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be done by clicking on the correct axis and by moving with the mouse. Offsets are then directly
updated in the Mechanical offsets tool tab.
The application of the offset modifications can then be done either as previously described or by
right clicking in the manipulator and then select “change model” as shown in the figure below.
5.3.3.6.3. Example
The example below show an acquisition result on a tube including a side drilled hole. The
positioning error of the probe is 3° around the tube.
5.3.4. Templates
The first steps of the analysis which consists of checking and setting the positioning values for
reconstruction, selecting subsets of data (limitation), defining layouts and views, applying signal
processings, adjusting colormaps, all these actions can be recorded using the “Template” tool.
Applying a template will automatically re-apply these actions on similar files.
The tools “add template” and “apply template” are available in the toolbar, click the “Tem-
plate” icon.
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Figure 2.220. Analysis Templates Manager
• Apply: apply the selected template on the current file without any verification of the consis-
tency of the selected Template with regards to the current data file; this allows faster appli-
cation of the template when working in a "production mode" (means working on many similar
files with a predefined validated Template).
• Apply with verification: check the consistency of the selected Template with regards to the
current data file, and apply the selected template if no problem is detected; this application
is longer then the previous one.
• Add: add the current file state as a new template
• Import: add a template in the list by selecting a Template File
• Delete: delete the selected Template
• Export: save the selected template in a file
• Exit: close the Analysis Templates Manager
Video: a specific video shows how templates workhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=uRmu9fIiD5o

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5.3.6. Correction of mechanical hysteresis
Use the readjustment tool to correct a mechanical hysteresis.
Two sets of cursors are available to help in determining the correct offset value. Use them to
define the correction that has to be applied.
In the example below, the hysteresis is located on the scanning axis. The vertical cursors are
adjusted in order to be on each maximum. The offset between both vertical cursors is reported
automatically on the offset field above the images.
Then press on apply button (bottom left corner). The image on the right side shows the result.
When you are satisfied with the result then press “Validate” on the bottom right corner. The
images include now the misalignment correction.
5.3.7. Gates
During analysis, gates can be added.
The "Gates" panel located in the toolbox area can be selected by clicking on its label or clicking
on the gates icon .
To add a gate from the toolbox, click on the "+" button and to remove a gate, click on the "-"
button. In the table, you can adjust the parameters of the added gate by double-clicking in the
corresponding area.
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Figure 2.221. Gates toolbox
The following parameters can be adjusted directly on the A-Scan with the mouse: "Start",
"Width", "End", "Threshold".
Gates parameters description:
• ID: color identifying the gate.

• Name: identifier of the gate.
• Show: checkbox allowing to show or hide a gate on the A-Scan.
• Start: beginning time of the gate with respect to the pulse time, if the gate is not synchronized,
with respect to the synchronization event defined, if the start of the gate is synchronized
(Synchro start defined).
• Width: width of the gate.
• End: ending time of the gate with respect to the pulse time, if the gate is not synchronized,
with respect to the synchronization event defined, if the end of the gate is synchronized
(Synchro end defined).
• Threshold: lower value of the amplitude taken into account to determine the synchronization
event.
• Detection synchro: selection of the algorithm defining the synchronization event of the gate.
The following options are available:
– Echo max (+)
– Echo max (-)
– Echo max (abs)
– First echo (+)
– First echo (-)
– First echo (abs)
– Last echo (+)
– Last echo (-)
– Last echo (abs)
– Last max (+)
– Last max (-)
– Last max (abs)
– First zero
– Positive crossing
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– Negative crossing
– Absolute crossing
• Synchro start: gate defining the event on which the start of the selected gate is synchronized.
• Synchro end: gate defining the event on which the end of the selected gate is synchronized.
• Storage: data stored. It can be the entire signal or the peak of the signal.
Figure 2.222. Example of a "Synchro start"
5.3.9. Signal processing
This paragraph describes the available signal processing tools, together with the procedures
for their use.
All processing operations are applied to A-scan type representations of the imaging system.
By extension, they can be applied to representations obtained from A-scans, and thus also
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to B-scan and C-scan type representations. This means that all data of any given file can be
processed.
Depending on the context, the objectives of the various processing operations include improv-
ing the signal-to-noise ratio and time resolution, reshaping the signal using a reference echo,
or extracting a specific echo from the signal.
5.3.9.2. Access to signal processing tools
As a signal processing editing panel needs an A-scan representation, the signal processing’s
list will be accessed either from an A-scan representation, or from any scan able to define an
A-scan with the cursors displayed on its representation.
One can access to the signal processing list by selecting the “Signal processing” button.
Then, a new "post-processing" windows appears allowing the user to define the signal process-
ing options that will be applied on the reference signal. From this signal processing window,
processing can be performed on the initial scan by clicking the “Apply” button, at the bottom
left. (§ 5 Command buttons).
You can name your processing and describe what processing type has been applied to your
data. Once the signal has been computed, the “new” button, at the bottom right of the “Sig-
nal Processing” (SP) panel becomes active. This allows you to validate the options and the
applied processing. Once validated, a new data is created and automatically appears in the
Civa Manager under the first raw data set. You can edit and rename this data afterward by
a right click on it.
5.3.9.3. Operating principle for signal processing
Processing an A-scan signal generates a new, so-called "filtered" A-scan identified by a "A-
scan - 'filter name'" label. Similarly, processing B-scan and C-scan images produces signals of
the same type designated "B-scan - 'filter name'" and "C-scan - 'filter name'".
The different available filters are listed below:
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• Band-pass
• Low-pass
• Rejector
• DAC
• Subtraction
• Wiener deconvolution
• DBG deconvolution
• Parametric deconvolution
• Split spectrum processing
• Wavelets
• Rectified
• Envelope
• Derivative
• Logarithm
The four last filters don't need parameters, so their configuration interface is reduced to the
input signal graph and the filtered signal graph (Output signal).
Figure 2.223. Example of signal processing editing panel without parameters
Regarding to the others, a particular interface for each of them will be described in the para-
graph "Description of Filters and Filter parameters".
5.3.9.4. Edition panel for Signal Processing
5.3.9.4.1. Description of the Signal Processing panel
The selection of a filter will display a specific edition panel which contains on the one hand
the processing parameters and on the other hand, the original scan (from which the filter has
been selected) and its processing result. The resulting scan will be refreshed on every "Apply"
clicking. The "Apply" button becomes validated as once as one of the parameters of the filter
changes.
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Figure 2.224. The Signal Processing panel, display of toolboxes
Notice that the same toolboxes as in the analysis page appears at the bottom of this page. You
can invalid the display of these toolboxes by the clicking on the button "Toolboxes" at the top
of the signal processing page.
5.3.9.4.2. Input signal
Signal processing is dynamically performed on the displayed A-scan. This A-scan represen-
tation (Input signal) is the current A-scan of the view from which the menu option has been
selected.
5.3.9.4.3. Reference signal
In case the filter needs a reference signal, the initial A-scan is first displayed as reference
signal. But, contrary to the input signal which dynamically follows the current A-scan of the
original view, the reference signal remains the same. However, the reference signal can be
refreshed by clicking on the command buttons "Input Copy" or "File Load". A click on the button
"Input Copy" will replace the current reference signal by the A-scan selected in the processing
calling scan (the same as the current input signal). The "File Load" allows to get a reference
file from a saved file of txt type. To create such a reference file, you can save using the option
menu "Export to txt file" available in buttons menu "Image tools" of any scan displayed in Civa.
Beware that the saved scan will be displayed as the reference signal in the same time window
as those of the input signal.
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Figure 2.225. Example of signal processing editing panel with a reference signal
5.3.9.4.4. Signal graphs
Three or four graphs appear in this editing panel, the first one is always the input signal and the
last one the filtered signal, actualized at each parameter change. The other graphs are useful to
define with cursors the necessary parameters. In addition, text fields allow adjusting parameters
with numeric values. Both parameters panel and graphs panel will further be described for each
particular filter (cf Description of filters and filter parameters)
5.3.9.4.5. Signal processing list panel
A tabbed panel on the upper left of the window shows the list of available signal processing to
change or link different filters. You can also rename the defined linked processing, save it in
a file or load a previous one from a file.
5.3.9.4.6. The original scan
Under this editing panel, the original scan is twice displayed accompanied by the processed
scan. On "Apply" clicking, the processed scan will be refreshed.
Figure 2.226. Original scan and its processed scan
5.3.9.4.7. Command buttons
The command buttons appear at the very bottom of the Signal Processing page. The "Apply"
button, applies the linked processing to its calling scan representation without closing the win-
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dow. As soon as this button is selected, it becomes unavailable as far as any parameter has
not been changed.
Once the 'Apply' button has been selected, the system validates the buttons which allow to
name this filter and make it available in all scan representations of the same source of data.
The first button is a text field to name the SP configuration and the second to give details of
this configuration. On clicking "New" button, this configuration will appear in Civa Manager.
Edit a defined Signal Processing
Then, at every time you want, you can edit the parameters of any already defined configuration
by clicking right "Param" in Civa Manager tree.
If parameters have changed, on clicking "replace", the current configuration will take the new
values of the parameters, otherwise, the configuration will remain the same.
During the processing, the title of the scan becomes red and blinking until the scan is refreshed.
The 'Cancel' button closes the window without applying the linked processing.
At each opening of the editing window for a new filter, the system will increment of one point
the name of the processing to define. The user may choice another name before applying or
saving his linked processing.
5.3.9.5. Description of filters and filter parameters
5.3.9.5.1. Band-pass
Description and use
This filter is defined and applied in the frequency domain after a Fourier transform of the cur-
rent signal. The computation consists of multiplying signal frequency spectrum components
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by a weighting function that can be parameterized. The filtered signal is the inverse Fourier
transform modulus of this product.
This filter makes possible limiting and weighting the frequency pass band of the current signal.
In doing so, the effect of noise at frequencies outside the transducer pass band can be reduced,
thus improving the signal-to-noise ratio. This filter also allows selecting only a small section
of the pass band to favor certain signal contributions. However, such processing results in
a degraded time signal due to pass band reduction. Another aspect is filtering after signal
rectifying. In this case, the filter is used in the low-pass mode and the choice of the cut-off
frequency (maximum filter frequency) is a parameter of the resulting envelope.
Parameters
On selecting this filter, the "Signal processing" page is displayed with “Band-pass” option in the
filters list. In this page, the left central panel enables setting of the weighting function parame-
ters. Three signal representations are associated with this editing panel:
• A view entitled “Input signal” (see figure below) containing the input signal. Part of the signal
in this representation can be selected with the two blue cursors: samples outside this region
are considered to be zero. The cursors positions are set with the mouse and their values
will appear in µs on the cursor if the context option (right click on the cursor) “cursors with
measure” is selected.
• A view entitled "Input signal spectrum" (see figure below) containing the Fourier transform
modulus of the edited signal selected in the preceding view. The defined filter is represented
in red in the same view. The minimum and maximum filter frequencies can be specified
using the two green cursors. The corresponding values appear on the cursors as soon as
“Cursors with measurement” context menu has been selected; the values appear as well in
the parameters panel on the left of the window, in the editing box named “Min frequency" and
"Max frequency". These frequencies are set either by entering their values in the editing box
or, directly, by displacing the cursors with the mouse. In this frequency representation, high
frequency noise contributions are clearly separated from the pass band of the useful signal.
• The third view entitled "Output signal" (see figure below) containing the filtered A-scan as
a function of the displayed parameters. The complete current signal is processed, without
taking into account the time limits applied to the current A-scan. Here, filtering low frequencies
clearly improves the signal-to-noise ratio.
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Figure 2.227. Band-pass editing panel
The parameters panel (left top of the window) provides access to the parameters required to
construct the band pass filter.
“Min frequency”: filter minimum cut-off frequency. This value is set either by entering it nu-
merically or, directly on the screen, by displacing the corresponding cursor with the mouse.
“Max frequency”: filter maximum cut-off frequency. This value is set either by entering it nu-
“Window type”: Weighting function determining filter shape. Functions available:
• Hanning
• Hamming
• Triangular
• Rectangular
“Gain”: Filter amplitude. Filter maximum amplitude is normalized with respect to signal spec-
trum maximum amplitude. The default value is 1, but amplitude may vary from 0.1 to 10. In
addition to filtering, this parameter also allows application of gain to a filtered signal.
“Flat Top”: the weighting function is used in "flat top" mode and is separated into two edges
connected by a straight line segment. This parameter is related to the segment length and
consequently to the slopes of rising and falling edges, at fixed cut-off frequencies. The value
of this parameter varies from 0, for a zero-length segment, to 100 for a rectangular function.
A rectangular-shaped weighting function seems ideal, since it strictly excludes outside contri-
butions without affecting the others. However, a sharp break in the band pass results in a de-
graded signal. It is thus useful to "attenuate" the gradients of function rising and falling edges.
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In the example, the useful echo is perturbed by a low frequency electronic noise, band pass
filter enables to see the structure echo which was hidden by this noise. On B-scan processing,
with a click on the ‘Apply’ button, you can obtain the following treated B-scan.
Figure 2.228. Use of Band pass to suppress electronic noise
You can then proceed the same way with all scans of the same source, and you can for instance
apply this filter on the C-scan. Therefore, you have to select the analysis page tab and click
the filter in the context menu of the C-scan. The processed C-scan is shown below:
Figure 2.229. BandPass filter Processed C-scan
5.3.9.5.2. Low-pass
Description and use
This filter is defined in the same way as the band pass filter (in frequency after a Fourier trans-
form).
With this filter, the band pass frequency of the current signal can be limited and weighted for low
frequencies. It is then possible to reduce the influence of high frequency noise and to improve
the signal-to-noise ratio.
Parameters
Selecting this filter opens the "Signal processing” page with “Low-pass” option in the filters
list. In this window, the left top panel allows setting of the weighting function parameters. Any
modification of one of the parameters immediately updates the filter and the various associated
signal views. Three signal representations are associated with this editing panel:
• An A-scan view (see figure below) containing the “Input signal”. Part of this signal can be
selected by two blue cursors: outside samples are considered to be zero. The cursor posi-
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tions are set with the mouse and their values will appear in µs on the cursor if the context
option “cursors with measure” is selected (right click on the cursor).
• A view entitled “Input signal spectrum" (see figure below) containing the Fourier transform
in red in this view. The maximum filter frequency can be specified by a green cursor in the
same view. The corresponding value in MHz is displayed to the right of the cursor when
“Cursors with measurement” context option is selected. The values are also displayed in the
parameters panel at the left center of the window, after the label "Max frequency". This value
is set either by entering it into the editing box or by moving the green cursor with the mouse,
directly on the screen.
• An A-scan editing view “Output signal” (see figure below) containing the A-scan, filtered as
accounting for the time limits applied to the current A-scan.
Figure 2.230. Low-Pass editing panel
The parameters panel (left top of the window) gives access to the parameters required to con-
struct the low pass filter.
“Max frequency”: filter maximum cut-off frequency. This value is set either by entering it nu-
“Window type”: Weighting function determining filter shape. Functions available:
• Hanning
• Hamming
• Triangular
• Rectangular
“Gain”: Filter amplitude. Filter maximum amplitude is normalized with respect to signal spec-
trum maximum amplitude. The default value is 1, but amplitude may vary from 0.1 to 10. In
addition to filtering, this parameter also allows application of gain to a filtered signal.
“Flat Top”: the weighting function is used in "flat top" mode and can start with a right hand
segment. This parameter is linked to the length of the segment and thus to the slopes of rising
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and falling edges, at a fixed cut-off frequency. The value of this parameter varies from 0, for a
zero-length segment, to 100 for a rectangular function.
Figure 2.231. The previous example (cf Low-Pass

editing ) shows how to get rid of high frequency noise.
5.3.9.5.3. Rejector
Description and use
This filter is defined and applied in the frequency domain after a Fourier transform of the cur-
rent signal. The computation consists of multiplying signal frequency spectrum components
by a weighting function that can be parameterized. The filtered signal is the inverse Fourier
transform modulus of this product.
With this filter, it is possible to suppress components located within the transducer pass band,
thus favoring certain signal contributions.
Parameters
Selecting this filter opens a page called "Signal processing" with "Rejector" option in the filters
list. In this window, the left top panel allows setting of the weighting function parameters. Any
modification of one of the parameters immediately updates the filter and the various associated
signal views. Three signal representations are associated with this editing panel:
• An A-scan view (see figure below) containing the "Input signal". Part of this signal can be
selected by two blue cursors: outside samples are considered to be zero. The cursor posi-
tions are set with the mouse and their values will appear in µs on the cursor if the context
option "cursors with measurement" is selected (right click on the cursor).
• A view entitled "Input signal spectrum" (see figure below) containing the Fourier transform
in red in the same view. The minimum and maximum filter frequencies can be specified
using the two green cursors. The corresponding values appear on the cursors as soon as
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"Cursor with measurement" context menu has been selected; the values appear as well in
the parameters panel on the left of the window, in the editing box named "Min frequency"
and "Max frequency". These frequencies are set either by entering their values in the editing
box or, directly, by displacing the cursors with the mouse.
• An A-scan editing view "Output signal" (see figure below) containing the A-scan, filtered as
accounting for the time limits applied to the current A-scan.
Figure 2.232. Rejector editing panel
The parameters panel (left top of the panel) provides access to the parameters required to
construct the rejector filter.
"Min frequency": filter minimum cut-off frequency. This value is set either by entering it nu-
"Max frequency": filter maximum cut-off frequency. This value is set either by entering it nu-
"Window type": Weighting function determining filter shape. Functions available:
• Hanning
• Hamming
• Triangular
• Rectangular
"Amplitude multiplication factor": Filter amplitude. Filter maximum amplitude is normalized

with respect to signal spectrum maximum amplitude. The default value is 1, but amplitude may
vary from 0.1 to 10. In addition to filtering, this parameter also allows application of gain to a
filtered signal.
"Flat top": the weighting function is used in "flat top" mode and is separated into two edges
connected by a straight line segment. This parameter is related to the segment length and
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consequently to the slopes of rising and falling edges, at fixed cut-off frequencies. The value
of this parameter varies from 0, for a zero-length segment, to 100 for a rectangular function.
A rectangular-shaped weighting function seems ideal, since it strictly excludes outside contri-
butions without affecting the others. However, a sharp break in rejector results in a degraded
signal. It is thus useful to "attenuate" the gradients of function rising and falling edges.
Thanks to the "Rejector", high frequency noise can be filtered. The next views show the effect
of the Upper frequency value.
Figure 2.233. Use of Rejector to filter high frequency noise
5.3.9.5.4. DAC (Distance Amplitude Correction)
Description and use
This filter enables you to subsequently correct signal amplitude as a function of time. The
allowable number of time/amplitude corrections is unlimited.
Parameters
Selecting this filter opens a window called "Signal processing” with “DAC” option in the filters
list. In this window, the left central panel allows setting of the list of time/amplitude correction
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values. Any modification of one of the parameters immediately updates the filter and the various
associated signal views. Two signal representations are associated with this editing panel:
• An A-scan view (see figure below) containing the “Input signal”: current signal from the orig-
inal scan.
• The last view displays the A-scan corrected for distance amplitude. Time/amplitude correc-
tion values appear as yellow dots (the red dot is the one being edited). Dot can be added/
modified using the mouse. A click on the curve adds a dot, which time and/or amplitude is
modified by dragging it to the desired position. To delete a dot, use the "delete"(X) button on
the vertical toolbar in the left parameters panel.
Figure 2.234. DAC editing panel
The parameters panel (left top of the page) lists the dots required to construct the DAC filter.
For each dot, the time value is displayed in µs and enables to set the dot on the horizontal
axe; the amplitude correction value is a gain in dB which allows processing dot position on the
corrected A-scan.
On the right of the list, a toolbar allows defining the dots for the DAC. Thanks to it, adding,
suppression or changing order of the dots is allowed.
Figure 2.235. Setting DAC dots toolbar
A click on the ‘+’ button of the toolbar adds a new dot with its time and amplitude correction
value. Time value is the one of its position on the horizontal axe, the default correction value is
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null. A click on the ‘->’ button inserts a new dot after the selected line. A click on the ‘x’ button
allows suppression of the selected dot. The two arrows buttons allows moving up or down the
selection in the list.
At the very bottom of the list two buttons ‘Signal-centered display’ and ‘DAC-centered display’
are provided to adjust the display to show the full signal or the part of it that is corrected for
distance amplitude (thus enabling finer changes/adjustments).
Using DAC filter enables to show particular zones of the graph. Next example, on a scan-
ning-time processed, scan enables to particularize two specific echoes.
Figure 2.236. Example of DAC to show two specific echoes
5.3.9.5.5. Subtraction
Description and use
This type of processing consists of subtracting a reference signal from the current signal. The
filtered signal is obtained by subtracting reference signal sample amplitudes from those of
current signal samples.
This filter can be used to suppress a permanent echo or to detect any echo masked by a
permanent echo.
Parameters
Selecting this filter opens a window called "Signal processing" with "Subtraction" option in the
filters list. This window enables you to set a reference signal from the parameters editing panel.
Any modification of one of the reference signal parameters (‘min time’ or ‘max time’) immedi-
ately updates the filter and the various associated signal views. Three signal representations
are associated with this editing panel:
• An A-scan view (see figure below) containing the "Input signal": current signal from the orig-
inal scan.
• A view entitled "Reference signal" (see figure below) containing the reference signal (cf Ref-
erence signal). Part of the signal in this representation can be selected with the two green
cursors: samples outside this region are considered to be zero. Cursor positions are set with
the mouse. The corresponding values appear on the cursors as soon as "Cursors with mea-
surement" context menu has been selected; the values appear as well in the parameters
panel on the left of the window, in the editing box named "min Time" and "max time". These
values are set either by entering their values in the editing box or, directly, by displacing the
cursors with the mouse.
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• An A-scan view "Output signal" containing the A-scan, filtered as a function of the reference
signal parameters.
Figure 2.237. Subtraction editing panel
The parameters panel gives access to the "Min. time" and "Max time" parameters required to
construct the reference signal. It also provides command button to choose a new reference
signal (cf Reference signal).
5.3.9.5.6. Wiener Deconvolution
Description and use
The deconvolution method used here is a spectrum division technique: an "ideal" synthetic
spectrum is divided by the spectrum of a reference signal. The objective is to reshape an
experimental echo using a known synthetic waveform. This procedure thus requires selecting
an experimental reference echo for use in constructing an ideal mathematical signal. Division
of the spectra (deconvolution) yields a transfer function that can then be applied to the current
signal and to all of the file signals.
The "deconvolution" filter favors specific signal contributions defined by a reference echo and
is thus an adaptive filter. Shaping a signal facilitates its interpretation, in particular for the phase
changes between different types of echoes. Another application is improving time resolution:
broadening the pass band frequency range results in a decrease in echo durations.
Parameters
Selecting this filter opens a window called "Signal processing" with "Wiener deconvolution"
option in the filters list. This window enables you to set parameters linked to the reference
signal and to the supposedly "ideal" synthetic spectrum from the parameters editing panel.
Any modification of one of these parameters immediately updates the filter and the various
associated signal views. Four signal representations are associated with this editing panel:
inal scan.
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• A view entitled "Reference signal" (see figure below) containing the reference signal (cf
5.1.4.3 Reference signal). Part of the signal in this representation can be selected with the
two green cursors: samples outside this region are considered to be zero. Cursor positions
are set with the mouse. The corresponding values appear on the cursors as soon as "Cur-
sors with measurement" context menu has been selected; the values appear as well in the
parameters panel on the left of the window, in the editing box named "Min time" and "Max
time ". These values are set either by entering their values in the editing box or, directly, by
displacing the cursors with the mouse.
• A view entitled "Reference signal spectrum" (see figure below) containing the Fourier trans-
form modulus of the edited signal selected in the preceding view. The defined filter is repre-
sented in red in the same view. The minimum and maximum filter frequencies can be spec-
ified using the two green cursors. The corresponding values appear on the cursors as soon
as "Cursors with measurement" context menu has been selected; the values appear as well
in the parameters panel on the left of the window, in the editing box named "Lower frequen-
cy" and "Upper frequency". These frequencies are set either by entering their values in the
editing box or, directly, by displacing the cursors with the mouse.
• An A-scan view "Output signal" (see figure below) containing the filtered input signal. In this
example, the selected echo is satisfactorily reshaped and geometry echoes are attenuated.
Figure 2.238. Wiener deconvolution editing panel
The parameters panel (left top part of previous panel) provides access to the parameters defin-
ing the reference echo and the ideal spectrum shape and is thus divided into sections desig-
nated "Reference signal" (cf 5.1.4.3 Reference signal) and "Weighting Function".
Reference signal:
Reference signal selection buttons: The default reference signal is identical to the current sig-
nal, but the latter can be modified by clicking the "Input Copy" button. On each clicking, the
current A-scan will become the reference scan. The "File Load" button allows the user to load
a previously saved *.txt file containing an A-scan signal which will become then the reference
signal.
Min time value: defines a minimum time limit for the reference signal. This value is set by
entering it in the box or by displacing the corresponding cursor directly on the reference A-
scan with the mouse.
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Max time value: defines a maximum time limit for the reference signal. This value is set by
Weighting function:
Lower frequency: defines the lower frequency limit of the weighting function. This value is set
by entering it in the box or by displacing the corresponding cursor directly on the reference
signal spectrum with the mouse.
Upper frequency: defines the upper frequency limit of the weighting function. This value is
set by entering it in the box or by displacing the corresponding cursor directly on the reference
signal spectrum with the mouse.
Window type: defines the weighting function shape. Clicking this button accesses a list of
mathematical functions: triangular, rectangular, Gaussian, Hanning and Hamming (cf Weight-
ing functions). Hanning is the default function.
Gain: Gain to apply to modify the ratio of the maximum reference spectrum amplitude to that
of the weighting function. The default value is 1, but gain may vary from 0.1 to 10.
Computing the initial B-scan with this filter (cf Wiener deconvolution editing panel) gives the
following B-scan.
Figure 2.239. Using the filter of Wiener to improve echoes visualization
5.3.9.5.7. DBG Deconvolution

Description and use
The double Bernoulli-Gaussian deconvolution method is based on a physical representation of
the ultrasonic signal: the reflected signal is the convolution of a wavelet (shape of the incident
wave) with medium impulse response (reflectivity) as the unknown. The reflectivity has a pulsed
character. Each pulse represents the echo amplitude and phase with respect to the reference
wavelet.
To solve the deconvolution problem, a priori information is introduced into the desired solution.
The reflectivity can be modeled by series of pulses with an a-priori Gaussian amplitude whose
likelihood of occurrence is governed by a Bernoulli law. The deconvolution is equivalent to
evaluating random variables making up this model by maximizing a statistical criterion from
knowledge of the characteristics of these random variables.
The double Bernoulli-Gaussian deconvolution makes it possible, among others, to improve the
time resolution of the ultrasonic data and to characterize a number of defects in the inspected
materials.
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The example below concerns a tube with different evaluative diameters.
The D-scan contains scans with separated characteristic echoes and scans in other parts of
the controlled tube where the echoes are too close to one another to be able to count the
wanted echoes.
Figure 2.240. Example of a tube with an irregular thickness : well separated echoes
Figure 2.241. Example of a tube with an irregular

thickness :scan with non separated echoes
Click right on the first A-scan above to select the DBG filter.
Parameters
Selecting this filter opens a page called "Signal processing" with "DBG deconvolution" option in
the filters list. This page and its parameters editing panel enable you to set a reference signal
and the wavelet for the convolution, as well as the processing parameters. Any modification
of one of these parameters immediately updates the filter and the various associated signal
views. Four signal representations are associated with this editing panel:
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inal scan. In our example, you first chose, as input signal, an A-scan where you can easily
get the characteristic echo you want to detect (see first figure : Example of a tube with an
irregular thickness : well separated echoes).
• A view entitled "Reference signal" (see figure below) containing the reference signal (cf Fig-
ure example of signal processing editing panel with a reference signal). A specific echo to
be used as reference wavelet for the deconvolution computation can be selected via two
green cursors. Cursor positions are set with the mouse. The corresponding values appear
on the cursors as soon as "Cursors with measurement" context menu has been selected;
the values appear as well in the parameters panel on the left of the window, in the editing
box named "Min time " and "Max time ". These values are set either by entering their values
in the editing box or, directly, by displacing the cursors with the mouse.
Figure 2.242. Parameters of the DBG filter to select the wanted echo
form modulus of the wavelet selected in previous view.
• An A-scan view "Output signal" (see figure below) containing the filtered input signal. Its
contents depend on the type of output selected in the parameter panel (see par below :
Parameters ).
Once, you’ve adjusted the reference signal and its cursors, you can select the A-scan to filter.
For that just select it on the analysis page, it will appear as the Input Signal and as the scan
to filter under the parameters panel. Its processed scan, named "A-scan: Data processing" will
be displayed on its right and refreshed on "Apply" clicking. You’re then able to count every
distinct echo.
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Figure 2.243. DBG deconvolution : result of the filter
The parameters panel (left central part of previous window) provides access to the parameters
defining the reference echo and to those of the deconvolution processing; it is thus divided into
sections designated "Reference signal" (cf § Reference signal) and "Parameters" which gives
characteristic values to get for DBG processing :
Reference signal:
Reference signal selection buttons: The default reference signal is identical to the current
signal, but the latter can be modified by clicking the "Input Copy" button. "File Load" button will
be later implemented.
Min time: defines a minimum time limit for the reference signal. This value is set by entering
it in the box or by displacing the corresponding cursor directly on the reference A-scan with
the mouse.
Max time: defines a maximum time limit for the reference signal. This value is set by entering
it in the box or by displacing the corresponding cursor directly on the reference A-scan with
the mouse.
Parameters:
Noise level: defines the noise level below which the echoes are no longer analyzed.
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Signal variance: defines deconvoluted signal variance. This corresponds to the sum of the
square of the ratios of signal echo and wavelet amplitudes. If the selected wavelet corresponds
to the highest amplitude echo, the signal variance will be close to 1.
Echoes number: defines the number of estimated echoes in the input signal.
Output type:
Magnitude: Amplitude is represented as a series of pulses which also represent the positions of
the various echoes observed, with respect to the reference wavelet. Amplitude representation
of the A-scan output has the same scale as the A-scan input.
Reflectivity: Reflectivity is represented as a signal, which, when convoluted with the wavelet,
gives the input signal.
Phase: Phase is represented as a series of pulses which also represent the positions of the
various echoes observed, with respect to the wavelet. Phase representation of the A-scan
output (see following figure) is in degrees. (The 0° phase echoes do not appear in this reference
frame).
Optimization: Selection of the result optimization option. Maximizing the statistical criterion
used for evaluating the random values of the Bernoulli-Gaussian model does not always afford
optimum results. Use of the optimization option makes it possible to obtain more accurate
results, especially with respect to echo phases. On the other hand, since this option leads to
very long computation times, it has to be reserved for "expertise" type use.
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Figure 2.244. The "New" button to make filter

available for every scan of the data source
To apply the filter on each scan of the source, you’ll just have to click the "New" button at the
bottom of the analysis page (see figure above), the filter will then be available in the context
menu of each concerned scan.
Previous example applied on the scan scanning-time will give the scan below where the par-
ticularized echo is detected.
Figure 2.245. DBG deconvolution use to improve temporal resolution
5.3.9.5.8. Parametric Deconvolution

Description and use
Parametric deconvolution processing provides a deconvolution of an A-scan signal, called "in-
put signal", by another reference signal A-scan.
Since this convolution is not reversible, processing requires use of the following limiting hypoth-
esis: the input signal is a weighted sum, shifted from and out of phase with the reference signal
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[as each term is an echo of the reference signal, this will involve a series of virtual reflectors
(svr) for the system for which it is the impulse response].
The A-scan output from deconvolution, is thus completely characterized by the number of
echoes, together with the weighting (via amplitude), phase difference (via phase) and shift cor-
responding to each of these echoes.
Parameters
Selecting this filter opens a window called "Signal processing" with "Parametric deconvolution"
option in the filters list. This window enables you to set a reference signal as well as deconvo-
lution parameters from the parameters editing panel. Any modification of one of these imme-
diately updates the filter and the various associated signal views. Four signal representations
are associated with this editing panel:
inal scan.
• A view entitled "Reference signal" (see figure below) containing the reference signal (cf §
Reference signal). This view enables display of the reference signal and selection of its
regions of interest, using the two green cursors. Cursor positions are set with the mouse.
The corresponding values appear on the cursors as soon as "Cursor with measure" context
menu has been selected; the values appear as well in the parameters panel on the left of
the window, in the editing box named "Min time value" and "Max time value". These values
are set either by entering their values in the editing box or, directly, by displacing the cursors
with the mouse.
form modulus of the edited signal selected in the preceding view.
• An A-scanJfig view "Output signal" (see figure below) containing the filtered input signal.
Its contents depend on the type of output selected in the parameter panel (see par below :
Parameters ).
Figure 2.246. Parametric deconvolution editing panel
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The parameters panel (left part of previous figure) provides access to the parameters defining
the reference echo and the ideal spectrum shape and is thus divided into sections designated
"Reference signal" (cf 5.1.4.3 Reference signal) and "Parameters".
Reference signal:
Reference signal selection buttons: The default reference signal is identical to the current
signal, but the latter can be modified by clicking the "New" button. "Load" button will be later
implemented.
Min time value: defines a minimum time limit for the reference signal. This value is set by
Max time value: defines a maximum time limit for the reference signal. This value is set by
Parameters:
Noise level: defines the noise level below which the echoes are no longer analyzed.
Min value between echoes: the algorithm looks for echoes until the maximum number of
echoes (next parameter) is reached or the determined echo has amplitude below the noise
level. The search can be interrupted on determination of two echoes with arrival times shifted
by less than the value set by the "Min shift between echoes" parameter (e.g. where a value of
0.5 indicates that a shift greater than half of reference signal duration is authorized)
Max signal Nb: this parameter sets the maximum number of echoes.
Output type:
Impulse response: the signal as convoluted with the reference signal is the same as the input
signal.
Magnitude: for each arrival time of an echo, this is represented by a Dirac amplitude echo
weighting.
Phase: for each arrival time of an echo, this is represented by a Dirac amplitude echo phase.
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Optimization: this button enables optimization of results. Since optimization extends compu-
tation time considerably, it should not be used unless a high degree of accuracy is desired.
While this operation has little effect on the determined shifts and weighting, it severely impacts
phase changing.
5.3.9.5.9. Split spectrum processing
Description and use
"Split Spectrum Processing" is equivalent to filtering the signal by sectioning the spectrum. This
is because the signal spectrum is multiplied by a weighting window whose width is narrower
than the signal pass band. This leads to a first sub signal. By reiterating the operation and
shifting the weighting window central frequency, a series of sub signals is obtained. The final
result is produced by comparison at any time of these sub signals.
The aim of such processing is to improve the signal-to-noise ratio and it is usually used in cases
where the noise is due to the grain structure of the inspected material. This procedure assumes
that the useful signals are coherent and the noise is not. This type of processing was designed
for use with highly degraded signals with signal-to-noise ratios of the order of 1. Detection is
then no longer based on an amplitude criterion but instead on frequency coherence.
Parameters
Selecting this filter opens a window called "Signal processing" with "Split spectrum processing"
option in the filters list. This window enables you to set spectrum sectioning parameters. Any
modification of one of these parameters immediately updates the filter and the various associ-
ated signal views. Four signal representations are associated with this editing panel:
inal scan.
form modulus of the selected signal and the weighting windows (plotted in red) for sectioning.
Sectioning zone limits can be defined by the two green cursors. The corresponding values
appear on the cursors as soon as "Cursor with measure" context menu has been selected;
the values appear as well in the parameters panel on the left of the window, in the editing box
named "Lower frequency" and "Upper frequency". These values are set by entering them
numerically or, directly on the screen, by displacing the cursors using the mouse.
• A view entitled "Wavelets" (see figure below) containing the set of sub-signals generated by
spectrum sectioning.
• A view entitled "Output signal" (see figure below) containing the A-scan filtered as a function
of the displayed parameters.
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The example shows an improvement in the signal-to-noise ratio. However, as the filter is not
linear, the filtered signal is no longer a continuous function and cannot be subjected to further
filtering.
Figure 2.247. Split spectrum processing editing panel
With the parameters panel (left central zone of the window figure Split spectrum processing
editing window), it is possible to adjust two sets of parameters: the first set is related to sec-
tioning the spectrum represented in the "Reference signal spectrum" view and the second con-
cerns the type of processing used to determine consistency between the wavelets.
Parameters:
Min frequency: defines the lower frequency limit of sectioning zone. This value is set by en-
tering it in the box or by displacing the corresponding cursor directly on the reference signal
spectrum with the mouse.
Max frequency: defines the upper frequency limit of sectioning zone. This value is set by
entering it in the box or by displacing the corresponding cursor directly on the reference signal
spectrum with the mouse.
Window type: defines the weighting function shape. At present, only Hanning´s function is
proposed.
Bandwidth: sets the function width. This value can be changed by entering it numerically or
incremented by constant steps (0.1 MHz), using the adjacent buttons. Function width cannot
exceed that of the sectioning zone.
Shift (frequency): sets the interval between each function. This value can be set by entering
it numerically or incremented by constant steps (0.1 MHz), using the adjacent buttons.
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Processing type:
Evaluation of coherence: selection of processing for evaluation of sub-signal sample consis-
tency at any time. Three processing options are proposed:
• "Initial value" gives the sample initial value.

• "Minimum" gives the sample minimum value.
• "Mean value" computes the sample average value.
• "mean square" computes the average of the squares of sample values. This option cannot
be associated with the "Squares of shots" option.
Nature of the wavelets: determines the type of under-signal to be processed. Two processing
options are proposed:
• "A-scan" designates raw sub-signals.

• "Squared A-scan" designates squared sub-signals. This option cannot be associated with
the "Average of squares" option.
Criterion of polarity: validates selection of a polarity criterion. There are three possible choic-
es:
• "Raw A-scan" signifies that the polarity criterion is not applied. All the samples are processed.
• "Polarity + level..." signifies that the processing is applied only if all the samples at any given
time have the same sign. In the opposite case, the resulting value is zero. This application
is coupled with a gage designated by "Threshold (%)", which appears if the polarity criterion
is selected.
• "Consecutive Polarity Coincidence (CPC)": At any given time, the polarities of the split sig-
nals originating from subsequent frequency bands constitute a binary sequence. Processing
takes place only if the maximum length of the subsequent, consecutive polarity coincidence,
when compared to the total number of frequencies, is greater than the "Threshold (%)" (9)
appearing if the CPC criterion is selected. In the opposite case, the resulting value is zero.
Threshold: introduces a tolerance threshold for the proportion of samples which have the
same sign at any given time. Its default value is 100% and it can be decreased to 60%. If
the criterion is respected, the processing option is applied only to sub-signals with the same
sign. This threshold criterion appears when one of the options ‘Polarity+threshold’ or ‘CPC’ of
‘criterion of Polarity’ (cf. previous parameter) is selected.
Normalization:
Auto: validates the automatic gain computation mode
Magnitude of the filtered signal: adjusting the amplitude of the filtered signal. The displayed
gain value can be adjusted by entering it numerically or by using the adjacent buttons. This
amplitude is automatically normalized by default to follow that of the initial signal. This default
operating mode is validated if button ‘Auto’ is pressed.
Applying split spectrum processing to the initial scanning-time scan permits to particularize the
interesting ecJfighoes.
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Figure 2.248. Scanning-time scan on which split spectrum processing is applied
Figure 2.249. Scan filtered by split spectrum processing
5.3.9.5.10. Wavelets
Description and use
Transformation into wavelets is a time-frequency analysis method based on decomposition of

the signal into a sequence of wavelets generated by expansion and translation of the analyzing
wavelet. Efficient analyses can be made with this transformation thanks to accurate localization
of the signals in terms of both time and frequency. Transformation into continuous wavelets
is achieved by subdividing each octave of the dyadic decomposition into several channels.
This makes possible a proportionately finer analysis in the time-frequency plane. Moreover,
decomposition into wavelets is reversible. It thus also enables definition of processing options
in the time-frequency plane and reconstruction of the signal from this same plane.
The first application of "Wavelet" processing is simultaneous time and frequency analysis of the
signal. This three-dimensional representation (signal energy or phase as a function of time and
frequency) allows efficient detection of the instantaneous pass bands linked to different echoes
of the same signal. This analysis facilitates the selection of possible signal filtering. Two types of
filtering are performed using this transformation: the first corresponds to a pass band limitation
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using the frequency decomposition interval (equivalent to a band pass filter), while the second,
more specific, is equivalent to applying an energy threshold to the coefficients constituting the
wavelets. Reconstructing the signal from the remaining coefficients makes possible improving
the signal-to- noise ratio or attenuating the large-amplitude perturbing echoes. The figure below
shows an example of an improvement of the signal-to-noise ratio in a default control.
Figure 2.250. Example of a default control with a signal-to-noise ratio to improve
Parameters
Selecting this filter opens a window called "Signal processing” with “Wavelets” option in the
filters list. This window enables you to set signal decomposition parameters and then signal
reconstruction parameters. Any modification of one of these parameters immediately updates
the filter and the various associated signal views. Four signal representations are associated
with this editing panel:
An A-scan view (see figure below) containing the “Input signal”: current signal from the original
scan.
A view entitled "Reference signal spectrum" (see figure below) containing the Fourier transform
modulus of the selected. The decomposition interval can be defined with the two green cursors.
The corresponding values appear on the cursors as soon as “Cursor with measure” context
menu has been selected; the values appear as well in the parameters panel on the left of the
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window, in the editing box named “Lower frequency" and "Upper frequency". These values are
set by entering them numerically or by directly displacing the cursors using the mouse. In actual
fact, only the maximum frequency can be precisely set by the operator: minimum frequency is
computed so as to obtain an integral number of octaves between these two limits.
A view entitled “BmScan” (see figure below) containing the moduli or the phases of the wavelets
generated by the decomposition. The horizontal axis of this representation is the time (identical
to the A-scan representations) and the vertical axis the frequency, with low frequencies shown
at the bottom of the image. The amplitude is given by a color code adapted to the representation
mode. In this example, the echo is easily identified by its time position and its high coefficient
values. In addition, this representation clearly shows that echo coefficient frequencies are lower
than those linked to noise.
A view entitled “Output signal” (see figure below) containing the A-scan filtered signal. The
example in figure below shows the signal reconstructed from coefficients above a predefined
threshold. The signal-to-noise ratio is improved and there is no change in echo form.
Figure 2.251. Wavelets filter editing panel

Two groups of parameters can be adjusted with the left central parameters panel (previous
figure). The first is linked to signal decomposition and the second concerns type of represen-
tation in the time-frequency plane and signal reconstruction.
Parameters:
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Min frequency: defines the lower frequency limit of wavelet decomposition interval. This limit is
set either by entering it numerically or by directly using the mouse.
Max frequency: defines the upper frequency limit of wavelet decomposition interval. This limit is
set either by entering it numerically or by directly using the mouse. In actual fact, only maximum
frequency can be precisely set by the operator: minimum frequency is computed so as to obtain
an integral number of octaves between these two limits.
Channels per octave: Improving the definition of the representation in the time-frequency plane
and increasing the number of channels per octave. The default value is 8, but it can vary from
2 to 32. Note that, for accurate signal reconstruction, this value should be ( 4; above this value
the data contained in the different channels is redundant.
BMI Nozzle Choice of the analyzing wavelet. Only Morlet´s wavelet ("Morlet") is accessible in
the present version.
Threshold: defining an energy threshold in the time-frequency plane representing the energy
density. The default value is -40 dB, the maximum value 0 dB.
Reconstructed A-scan: as the analyzed wavelet has complex values, two representations are
made accessible:
"Modulus" designates the modulus of the coefficients of each wavelet, i.e., the energy density.
To favour the lowest amplitude variations, the logarithm of the modulus is represented. The
value of each point is represented by a color code varying from 0 to -40 dB (0 dB corresponds to
the representation maximum). Following figure shows the frequency/time representation of the
filtered signal on a zone delimited by the frequency cursors of the reference signal spectrum.
"Phase" designates the phase of the coefficients for each wavelet. The value of each point is
represented by a color code.
Difference: Two construction modes are accessible from the "Difference" check box:
if this choice is not selected, the filtered signal is reconstructed from the wavelet coefficients
whose moduli are above the energy threshold.
if it is selected, the filtered signal is the difference between the current signal and the signal
reconstructed from wavelets coefficients whose moduli are above the threshold.
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After applying the filter on the first selected scan, the “New” command button at the bottom of
the SP page allows access to this filter from each scan of the data source.
So this filter named “Wavelets 1” in the previous figure : Wavelets filter editing panel, applied
on the scan scanning/time shows how the decomposition in wavelets enables to improve the
signal to noise ratio.
Figure 2.252. Scanning/time scan from which processing has been defined
Figure 2.253. Scanning/time scan filtered by a wavelets processing
5.3.9.5.11. Rectified
Description and use
This type of processing gives the absolute value of the current signal amplitude, which is equiv-
alent to rectifying the negative half waves of a sinusoidal-type signal. No parameter is needed
in this case.
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The rectified signal is of interest only if it is associated with another processing operation such
as segmentation of B-scan images. In signal processing, this filter can be combined with a
band pass filter (constructed using the "Band pass" filter). The user thus obtains an envelope
computation that can be parameterized.
Figure 2.254. Rectified A-scan signal
5.3.9.5.12. Envelope
Description and use
This processing option computes the current signal envelope. Such computation is equivalent
to taking the modulus of the analytical signal associated with the real current signal. Since the
analytical signal is composed of complex values in phase quadrature, the modulus of these
values reproduces the real signal envelope. The resulting signal then represents energy density
as a function of time. No parameter is used in this computation.
Computing the envelope simplifies interpretation of the raw (sinusoidal) signals. For example,
with this signal representation, the maximum energy of a specific echo can be easily localized,
whereas the initial echo is perturbed by its phase. In addition, this computation acts as a band
pass filter by attenuating high-frequency noise.
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Figure 2.255. Envelope of A-scan signal
5.3.9.5.13. Derivative
Description and use
This type of processing consists of computing the time derivative of the current signal by using
the properties linked to the signal Fourier transform. No parameter is needed for this compu-
tation.
The derivative of the current signal is required for analysis and characterization. In combination
with the "Superposition" function, these operations can be used to show relationships between
derived signals.
Figure 2.256. Derivative of A-scan signal
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5.3.9.5.14. Logarithm
Description and use
The filter shape is:
• 20 * log (signal + 1) if the signal is positive.

• 20 * log (1 - signal) if the signal is negative.
No parameter is applicable to this computation.
Figure 2.257. Logarithm of A-scan signal
5.3.10. Eraser
The “Eraser” tool allows the user to select or to remove areas in the initial set of data.
Open the “Eraser” operator by clicking the icon in the toolbar. The operator window
contains three parts: the left part to define the parameters, the right part to display a view of
the initial set of data and a view of the resulting set of data, the bottom part to allow saving,
replacing and canceling the results.
It is possible to define several cut areas, and/or one selection area.
Video: a specific video shows how the eraser works: https://www.youtube.com/

watch?v=uNTBZxgreE8
5.3.11. Select a region of interest

The first step in the analysis of an indication is to select a region of interest.
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Figure 2.258. Selection tool for a region of interest
This can be done with the “selection tool”, which gives you three shapes of selection zones:
• Rectangle: you can draw a rectangle zone in two clicks

• Polygon: you can define a polygon zone by successive clicks at different points and double
click to close the region of interest
• Ellipse: you can draw en elliptical zone in two clicks
After the definition of the region of interest, you can resize or rotate it by using the
proper manipulation points of the zone.
The selection tool is split into two zones: the icon showing the current selection shape (Rec-
tangle, Polygon or Ellipse) and the selection arrow which allows you to switch from one shape
to another. Once you have made your choice between Rectangle, Polygon or Ellipse, your
choice remains selected and a simple click on the icon is enough to activate the selection area
withe the expected shape.
After selecting the type of contour you can draw the region of interest on any 2D images by
using the mouse.
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A region of interest is defined by its 2D bounds and a 3D extension. All these parameters can
be readjusted by mouse or through the “Selection” Panel of the CIVA ToolBox.
5.3.12. Amplitude measurement in a selected area

For any selection, an automatic measurement is done, displayed in the “Measure On Selection”
Panel :
To set the cursors on the position of the maximum, click on

The list of information displayed is defined in the “Tools / Preferences / Measuring tools “; panel
(see below):
Figure 2.259. Preferences for the maximum measurement of a ROI

• Max amplitude: maximum amplitude for the zone in dB, points or %
• Mean amplitude: mean value of the max amplitude of all the points of the zone
• Position X, Position Y and position Z: position in the specimen frame of the point of maximum
amplitude.
• Increment: current increment position or, if cumulated sequences image, increment position
for which the point of maximum amplitude is obtained.
• Scanning: current scanning position or, if cumulated scanning image, scanning position for
which the point of maximum amplitude is obtained.
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• Sequence: current sequence number or, if cumulated sequences image, sequence number
for which the point of maximum amplitude is obtained.
• Shot: current shot number or, if cumulated shots image, shot number for which the point of
maximum amplitude
5.3.13. Segmentation
5.3.13.1. Objective
The goal of the segmentation algorithm is to group signals that come from the same defect or
part of a defect. This grouping is based on an algorithm that ensures a more efficient association
than a geometrical one (only based on geometrical proximity).
Segmentation is a process that uses experimental or simulated data to compute segments that
represent the various echoes. Segmentation can be 2D (applied to a single scan line) or 3D
(applied to several consecutive scan lines).
5.3.13.2. One click segmentation

The “one-click” segmentation is a simplified access to the segmentation tool. For more infor-
mation about segmentation principles see next chapters 2.6.14.3 and 4
Select the data to be segmented and click on the “Segmentation” icon .In the “Segmen-
tation” toolbox you can adjust the criteria: the “threshold” on the amplitude, the spatial and
temporal resolution defining the grouping parameters. The results of the segmentation are au-
tomatically displayed on the views (2D and 3D).
Click on the icon to select information to be displayed:
• Resulting segments.
• Position of the maximum of each segment.
• Resulting groups.
• Position of the maximum of each group.
Clicking on the sub-icon enables/disables the display.
Figure 2.260. Sub-icons of the segmentation display

Criteria
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The detection criteria are available in the toolbox “Segmentation” as presented in the next
figure.
Threshold: Amplitude level above which the signal will be taken into account during analyse.
The default value is set to the maximum amplitude of the selected data minus 6dB.
Spatial resolution: number of successive shots considered to group information. The default
value is 2 (index unit).
Temporal resolution: Temporal distance of gathering. Practically: increase this value if you
want to include segments in the same groups that have different values in depth.
Tempo: Time window in which the processing will keep only one maximum.In the case of an
Envelope processing, Tempo is automatically set.
Envelope: By checking this box, the signal considered for segmentation is the envelope of the
original signal.
Auto/Manual: If Auto is selected (by default), segmentation algorithm is automatically launched
with default parameters. When at least one parameter is changed, “manual” is then selected.
This allows to go back to default parameter by selecting “Auto” again.
The icon can be used to save or load segmentation parameters.
Results
The results can be added to the indication table .
Each group will be integrated as one indication.

In the case of an Envelope processing, the maximum value is the maximum of the processed
signal and may be different from the original amplitude got on the RF signal.
5.3.13.3. Advanced segmentation

In some specific cases, it is necessary to use the advanced segmentation to get a better result.
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The only difference with the one click segmentation is that you have access to more parameters
to adjust the algorithm.
This advanced mode can be used by checking the “expert” check box of one click segmentation
and click on “advanced”.
A new window allowing to modify segmentation parameters will open:
Figure 2.261. Advanced segmentation parameters

This window contains four tabs and allows to save and restore a complete set of parameters
in the upper part.
5.3.13.3.1. Thresholding
The Thresholding tab is shown below:
Figure 2.262. Thresholding tab
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The objective of these parameters is to select points in the signal for segmentation.
Signal type: the user can choose between “Rectified” (by default), “positive alternations” and
“envelope”.
If the signal is the high frequency type, it can be pre-processed. The user then opts for any
of the following:
• Positive alternations only: there is no preprocessing

• Rectified: negative alternations are rectified.
• Signal envelope: the signal undergoes a Hilbert transform
The most common case is rectified, but in some cases, positive alternations or envelope can
help, mainly when the user has some difficulties to separate two indications linked by the same
segment.
Processing type:
• Time smoothing: for each shot, the only maxima taken into account are those between
which the signal crosses the processing threshold.
• All maximum time smoothing: for each shot, all the maxima are taken into account, re-
gardless of whether or not the processing threshold is crossed in the interval between them.
• Wavefront: for each shot, all the points for which the signal leading edge crosses the am-
plitude threshold are taken into account.
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Threshold:
The processing threshold is an amplitude criterion. This criterion can be entered manually in
the relevant field or adjusted using the current A-scan cursor (displayed in the lower zone of
the panel).
This parameter deletes any points whose amplitude is not considered representative for the
desired type of processing.
For a given shot, all the points below the threshold are therefore eliminated.
This value is the same than the one in the main panel of one click segmentation and
both values are changing at the same time.
Time merging window:
The "Time merging window" is a time criterion, expressed in µs.
The points remaining after application of the previous criteria ("Processing threshold" and "Type
of processing") are subjected to further analysis by the Time merging window criterion.
For a given shot, two consecutive points are kept only if their time interval is greater than the
value of the Time merging window; if this is not the case, only the highest amplitude point (or,
for "wavefront" processing, the first point) is maintained.
A zero time merging window means that no point is eliminated. That is because there is at least
one sampling point between any two consecutive points.
This value can be adjusted by moving the vertical cursors.
This value is the same than the one in the main panel of one click segmentation and
both values are changing at the same time.
5.3.13.3.2. 2D Gathering
In this tab, two parameters can be adjusted in order to create segments:
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Figure 2.263. 2D gathering segmentation parameters

Projection criteria Dx:
This is the maximum number of shots taken into consideration for segmentation purposes.
By default, this value is set to 2. You may increase this value if you want to link points separated
by several shots, this can happen if the mechanical system of your acquisition is shaking for
example or if the surface of the component inspected is not smooth at all.
Projection criteria Dt:
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The direction of segmentation is given by the model (direction of the path to the point of interest).
For any point selected on a given shot (using the parameters described above), a theoretical
point is projected on the next shot in the segmentation direction perpendicularly to the direction
of that shot (which is computed in accordance with the model and the appropriate laws of
refraction).
If one of the points on the next shot meets the above mentioned parameters and is located
within a +/-Dt time interval this point is joined to the previous one by a segment.
The following figure depicts this computation:
The default value set for this parameter is one period of the probe frequency (if known).
This value is the same than the one in the main panel of one click segmentation and both
values are changing at the same time.
5.3.13.3.3. Filters on 2D segmentation
In this tab, filters can be activated to select segments before applying 3D grouping.
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Figure 2.264. Filters on 2D segmentation
Filters can be activated on the number of points by segments or on the amplitude (max) of
the segments.
Comparison operators can be selected among the list shown on the above figure and the value
can be entered manually.
This filter can be very useful when the threshold is situated near the noise amplitude to avoid
thousands of groups.
5.3.13.3.4. 3D Gathering
Principle
Each segment on line "k" is compared to each segment on line "k-1", to form a group, as
a function of the two grouping parameters. In each processed line, the segments from new
groups are added to groups already formed.
A group is thus made up of segments contained in one or more consecutive scan lines. A group
consists of at least one line, with at least one segment having a minimum of two points.
Parameters
Three parameters are presented in this tab.
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Figure 2.265. 3D Gathering segmentation parameters
Temporal distance of gathering:
Practically: increase this value if you want to include segments in the same groups that have
different values in depth.
Define the maximum distance between the extremities of segments projected along the seg-
mentation direction to group segments.
This is illustrated by “Temporal” on the above scheme called 3D parameters.
Dy:
Define the number of steps authorised to find a segment corresponding to other parameters.
Scanning Threshold:
Practically: increase this value if you want to include segments in the same groups that have
different values of scanning.
Along the dimension selected in thresholding tab (Segmentation type), define the maximum
distance in millimetres between the extremities of segments projected along the segmentation
direction to group segments.
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This value can be negative.
5.3.13.3.5. Segmented 2D Scans
The display of segments can be enabled/disabled by this icon and its sub-icons:
Figure 2.266. Segmentation display options
The available information on 2D images are:
• Segments
• Maximum amplitude point of the segment (green points)
• Drawing of group outline (projection in the selected plan of the 3D group)
• Maximum amplitude point of the group (if some points have the same value, the "first" one
is selected). The number of the group is displayed near this point.
Segments display is useful when the user wants to separate two indications grouped in one
group. This will help understanding if the problem comes from segments (one segment between
two indications – mostly Dt problem) or from 3D grouping (no common segment but different
segments in the same group – mostly temporal distance or scanning threshold).
5.3.13.3.6. 3D Display
The groups may be exported in the 3D scene by drag and drop from a segmented view.
All the groups are then represented in the active scene, as shown below:
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Figure 2.267. 3D Display segmentation example
Some options are available n the 3D display. They are called though a RIGHT CLICK on the
envelope of each group.
These options are:
• Visible : makes the group selected visible or not in the 3D View,

• Opacity : allows to reduce opacity of selected group,
• Color :allows to change group color
• Center:center the view on the selected group
• Show envelopes / segments / envelopes and segments: by default, “envelopes” is se-
lected. This allows to also display segments.
• Show labels: display the group numbers.
• Show segment’s max amplitude points: display in green the maximum of each segment.
• Show the max amplitude points: display in red the maximum of each group.
• Mask others: makes other groups invisible.
• Show all: show all the groups.
It is also possible to reach a general menu on segmentation representation by selecting after

right click:
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Figure 2.268. Access to 3D segmentation display options
5.3.14. -ndB contour in area of selection
This feature computes the contour and the distances under a maximum of 3 thresholds.
By default, the thresholds are those of the preferences of the table of indications (see chapter
Preferences - Indications table), but can be changed.
The computation is based on a classical 2D "region-growing" image segmentation algorithm.

For the 3D ROI, the computation is done in 2D independently for each projection (Top/Side/
Front)
By default the contour is compute and displayed on the original view of the selection (view
where the selection has been created)
The graphical representation of the contour, which is based on the current image,
might differ from the computation of the contour used for the –ndB distances. The
distances' computations are based on undisplayed images which are equivalent of
cumulated Scan / B Scan and Scan.
For a 2D cut of a 3D ROI, only a graphical representation of the contour in the 2D

local image is compute (example: B Scan). This representation is not a cut of a 3D
contour, but a local computation of the algorithm, so the results are not relevant for
distance measurement.
Distances are calculated in a Cartesian Coordinates System.
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Figure 2.269. -ndB contour in area of selection
since CIVA 2016, using this operator allows to calculate automatically the surface of
the indication at each threshold and get the information in the indication table.
5.3.15. Distance Measurement

Distance measurement is only available in mm/mm views (Cscan, True Scans, Specimen
Scans). First, select the view, and then click on the Distance Measurement icon . If the icon
is disabled, check that the selected view is compatible.
If one or both extremities of the segment are inside the edge of an indication, the indication will
be automatically selected, and the add icon will become available.
Add a measure to an indication will add the current value of the measure in the “Distance” row
of the table.
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5.3.16. Histogram
Click the “Histogram” icon to apply the function on the selected data.
The maximum, minimum, average and sigma values are presented in the “Histogram” toolbox.
Click on to display the histogram in an independent and larger window.
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On the histogram itself, an amplitude threshold can be defined using the amplitude cursor. The
selected value is displayed and can be affected to the min value of the color map by clicking
on the button “Min. threshold”.
5.3.17. Table of Indications

The indication table allows the user to list found indications with selected information.
The indication table is available in the toolbox area. An independent window can be opened
by clicking on the following icon.
5.3.17.1. Table
The indication table is presented as follow:
It contains the list of identified indications with the following properties:
• Id: automatically or manually defined identification number of the indication.

• Gate: identification of the gate on which the indication has been defined.
• Visibility: tool allowing the user to manage the visibility of the indications on the views.
• Locked indication: when the indication is unlocked, the user is able to modify the indication.
• Comment: area to add comments on the indication. It will be displayed with the Id on the
views.
• Type: allow the user to characterize the indication.
And by default:
• Amplitude max: maximum amplitude value on the indication area.

• Time: time of the “Amplitude max”
• DX, DY, DZ: size of the box containing the indication.
The access to the following functions is available in the table:
• Add indication
• Next indication type
• Merge selected indications / dissociate selected indications
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• Delete selected indications

• Apply filter(s) to the indication table
• Preferences for the current indications table
• Images bag : list of images associated to the table
• Open in external window
5.3.17.2. Displayed and available data
5.3.17.2.1. Preferences
This button allows to add fields in the indication table without having to click on the main icon
for preferences although the result will be the same. For more explanations on preferences,
look at “Preferences – Indication Statements” chapter.
5.3.17.2.2. Add measures
A measure done in the area of an indication can be added to the information related to the
indication using the tool “Add measure to the indication table” . This measure appears in
the indications table in the column “Distance”.
The distance between two indications (between the maximum amplitude

of each indication) can be obtained by selecting the two indications in the table. The distance is
displayed in the tools area of the indications table and can be added in the column “Distance”
using the button.
5.3.17.2.3. Surface of indications
In order to have the value of the surface of your indication in the indication table, the following
conditions must be satisfied:
•
The indication has been selected with the tool “Contour at –XdB”
•
The indication has then been added to the indication table
• The surface at –XdB has been added to the columns of the indication table
• The amplitude of the indication is sufficient to draw the contour(s) at –XdB.
The result obtained is shown below:
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The value of the threshold –XdB can be adjusted in the “preferences” menu or in the tool bar.
5.3.17.2.4. Add pictures

A picture can be added to the information related to the indication using the tool "Add picture
to report" , the indication being selected.The following window will be opened. Select the
expected image and click on the button “Add to the current indications”. This image appears
in the indications table in the column “Images”.
In the same way, an image can be associated with the indications table. Just select in the
following window the function “Add to the indications table”.
5.3.17.3. Operations on indications
5.3.17.3.1. Add indications
Click on this icon to add indications in the table.
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To add indications start by selecting regions of interest beforehand, manually with the selection
tool or automatically with the segmentation tool. Display the -n dB contour if necessary and
finally click on this icon.
The indication table can then be visualized in the bottom toolboxes.
5.3.17.3.2. Merge indications
Several selected indications in the table can be merged using the tool “Merge selected
indications”. A new indication is then created, grouping the selected indications.
The merged indications can then be dissociated if needed using the tool “dissociate selected
indications”.
5.3.17.4. Filters in indication table
The filters in the indication table allow to make formulas and test values of indications parame-
ters to validate or not indications in the table.
5.3.17.4.1. Generalities
These filters can be defined for a specific file or in the preferences for all files, for example if
they correspond to a specific procedure.
The filter is made of rules. When several rules are defined in a filter, a “and” will link the rules.
This means that all rules must be satisfied for the indication to be valid.
When an indication satisfies the filter, the “visible” field is ON (the indication is visible on images)
and the “valid” field is also ON.
You can apply a filter and then modify the value of the valid or visible fields manually. If you
apply the filter after manual modifications, the fields will be reseted to the filters values.
5.3.17.4.2. Create a rule – a filter
It is necessary to create a filter (give a name) in which the rule will be created.
This can be imported in preferences (in order to apply the filters and rules to other files) but it
must be written in the indication table.
In , you can add a filter by pressing , you can change the name of the filter by pressing
and you can delete the filter by pressing .
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In , you can add a rule in the selected filter by pressing , you can change the name of
the rule by pressing and you can delete the rule by pressing .
In , you can select among the fields available in the indication table to build your rule. Once
a field is selected, its name is copied in the part . Then, you can make classical formulas
and also use logical operators like “OR” or “AND”. Note that a formula can contain fields either
on the right or on the left part of the operator, or both as shown below:
Once the rules are written, press “Apply” at the bottom of the filters window and the indications
corresponding to the rules will be considered as “valid” and visible on images, as shown below:
You can delete the indications not selected by the filter by using the button “Delete invalid
indications” located at the bottom of the indication table as shown bellow:
This will delete all indications identified as “not valid” by the filed called “valid” in the indication
table. No "Undo" is possible once indications are deleted.
5.3.17.4.3. Import a filter in preferences for other files
Once your filters (including rules) are defined in the indication table, you can go in the prefer-
ences to import this filter in the global library.
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You will see your filter for the current file and a button in the top-right corner called “Add to
Library”. If you push this button, the filter is now in the library and if you select the “profiles
library” (top left), you will see this filter and can create a specific “profile” for this filter. See the
“preferences” chapter for more help.
5.3.17.5. Report
To generate the report from the indication table, click on the tool “Generate report” . The
report will be generated and an Html page will be automatically opened, presenting the items:
“General information”, “Images” and “Indications”.
In the part “General information”, you find the Filename, the date of the analysis, the version
of CIVA, and an access to the configuration of each salvo of the file.
In the part “Images”, all the images associated to the indications table are displayed.
In the part “Indications”, for each indication of the table, the parameters selected in the table
are presented and the image related to the indication is displayed.
Two options are available: html and csv reports.
5.3.18. Simulation on acquisition files

Simulation on acquisition is a tool for defect characterization and modes information. It allows
an easy comparison of an acquisition Bscan and the corresponding simulated Bscan around
a Region Of Interest (ROI).
The user:
• selects a ROI on a acquisition image

•
calls the Simulation on acquisition tool to open the panel allowing the simulation para-
meters setting, the computation and the comparison with the acquisition results
• defines the presumed flaw(s) (geometry and position) and some simplified computation op-
tions. The other configuration parameters are identical to those of the model associated with
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the acquisition (specimen, probe, inspection, array settings), including also the scanning pa-
rameters during the acquisition (encoder position) and the digitizing depth and minimum time
parameters automatically adjusted with the values of the calling acquisition image.
• and runs the simulation.
The simulation is only performed on the selected part of the calling acquisition image and not
for the other data coming from the acquisition.
At the end of the computation both experimental and simulated results are easily comparable
allowing the user to check by the simulation the diagnosis done in the analysis regarding pre-
sumed defects and also to analyse complex image with the Modes identification tool available
from the simulated image.
The use of the Simulation on acquisition tool is described with an example in the following
paragraph. The acquisition file used for the following example is that of an inspection of a pla-
nar component containing 2 vertical planar flaws, one surface breaking flaw and one backwall
breaking flaw. The inspection was performed with a mono element probe following an incre-
ment/scanning displacement over the specimen surface.
5.3.18.1. Access to the functionality Simulation on acquisition
• The functionality is called from acquisition images (mechanical or electronic scanning, sec-
torial scanning, etc…) in which “all occurs” in the inspection plane (see example below).
• It is not possible to call the Simulation on acquisition tool from a C-scan image.
• To call the Simulation on acquisition tool the user has to draw a ROI in a true or a not true
image (if the image is not a true one, the corresponding ROI in the associated true image is
automatically computed and will appear in the simulation on acquisition processing panel):
Figure 2.270. A ROI drawn in a not true Bscan is displayed in the true Bscan
• If a non rectangular (2D et 3D) ROI is drawn, the bounding rectangular ROI is used for the
Simulation On Acquisition tool:
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Figure 2.271. A non rectangular ROI is transformed in a rectangular one

• The Simulation on acquisition tool can be called from a true Bscan obtained with the “reflec-
tion” option of reconstruction:
Figure 2.272. Simulation on acquisition tool called from a true

Bscan obtained with the “reflection” option of reconstruction
For our example, we choose to access the functionality through a true Bscan. To do so, the
user has to define a ROI in the true Bscan:
Figure 2.273. True image and true image + ROI
5.3.18.2. The Simulation on acquisition processing panel

From the True Bscan + ROI, the user calls the Simulation On Acquisition tool by clicking on
SIM icon in the Analysis ToolBar: . This will open the Simulation on acquisition processing
panel with:
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• the setting parameters tabs (Flaw, Options and Calibration),

• the calling acquisition image and its associated A-scan signal and echodynamic curve
• an area where the Simulation on acquisition results will be displayed after the computation
• and the 3D view of the configuration.
Figure 2.274. Simulation on acquisition processing

panel before having launched the computation
5.3.18.3. The simulation configuration
In the Flaws tab, the user chooses the presumed flaw(s) (a rectangular flaw in this example)
by clicking on “RECTANGULAR_PLANAR” and draws the section of the rectangular flaw in
the calling image.
The flaw “Geometry” and “Positioning” parameters deduced from this drawing appear in the
Flaws panel and can be modified by re-drawing the flaw or changing the parameters in the
“Geometry” and “Positioning” tabs:
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In the Options tab, a simplified tab based on the UT-simulation settings-Options Tab, the user
chooses the computational options:
• Computed modes: L waves, T waves, mode conversions and geometrical echoes

• The number of reflections (direct, half skip or full skip echoes)
• the 2D or 3D computation
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The direct mode corresponds to a single reflection on the defect or the geometry, the half skip
mode corresponds to a maximum of 3 successive skips on the defect or the geometry and
the full skip mode to a maximum of 5 successive skips on the defect or the geometry. This
corresponds to a typical case illustrated in the UT simulation settings.
Figure 2.275. Illustration of the typical cases for

the reflection modes: direct, half-skip and full skip
5.3.18.4. Results
The user runs the computation by clicking on the “run computation” button. When the compu-
tation is achieved the Simulation on acquisition processing panel contains:
• The calling image (the true Bscan in our example)

• An image of the same kind as that of the calling image in which the results appear as a part
of this image, the other part being completed with the acquisition results.
• The 3D view of the configuration with this last image
• An image where the measured ans simulated A-scans are superimposed.
• An image where the measured ans simulated echodynamic curves are superimposed
The reference for the amplitude used for the superimposition is defined in the « calibration »
tab, see below).
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Figure 2.276. Simulation on acquisition processing

panel after having launched the computation
5.3.18.5. Saving the Simulation on acquisition results and configuration
If the simulated results are satisfactory, the user can use the regular possibilities “new”, “re-
place” or “cancel” and associate a name and a description to them:
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Figure 2.277. Saving the Simulation on acquisition results
The saved results (result 1 in the image below) are available in the manager under the calling
acquisition results. They can be renamed or removed and the associated Simulation on acqui-
sition settings parameters are editable:
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Figure 2.278. Saved results in the manager
Otherwise, if the simulated results are not satisfactory, the flaw can be modified (through its
drawing or through its parameters in the Flaw Tab), another flaw can be add or can replace the
previous one, the options can be also modified and/or the ROI.
After the configuration has been changed (for example the flaw length has been modified in
the image below)
• the previous results image is automatically erased

• BUT THE RESULTS ARE SAVED and available by clicking on “Previous” at the bottom of
the Parameters tab
• and the “run computation” button appears again in place of the previous results image.
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Figure 2.279. Second Simulation on acquisition

computation called from a given calling image
The user can change many times the flaw parameters or computation options and relaunch the
computation until obtaining a satisfactory simulation result. All the successive results obtained
are available by clicking on “Previous” or “Next” at the bottom of the Parameters tab. It is also
possible to delete all the results “Delete all” or one of them “Delete”.
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Figure 2.280. Access to all the Simulation on acquisition

results through the Previous and Next buttons
5.3.18.6. Calibration (Normalisation)
Two possibilities of calibration of the simulated result are available:

By default, with the automatic calibration, the maximum amplitude of the ROI and the max-
imum amplitude of the simulation are the same in dB allowing their direct comparison. This
amplitude A-dB is in dB:
A-dB=20*log(Amax-Ref-ROI-pts /Amax-Acqui-pts),
where Amax-Acqui-pts is the maximum amplitude of the whole acquisition results in points and
Amax-Ref-ROI-pts is the reference amplitude is the max amplitude of the acquisition results
in the ROI:
Otherwise, a manual calibration is also available. If the Reference amplitude defined by the
user is Amax-Ref-EXT-pts, then this Reference amplitude and the maximum amplitude of the
simulation are the same in dB. This amplitude A-dB is in dB:
A-dB = 20*log(Amax-Ref-EXT-pts/ Amax-Ref-ROI-pts) + 20*log(Amax-Ref-ROI-pts/Amax-Ac-
qui-pts)
In both calibrations, automatic or manual, it is possible to apply a gain. If a gain of “G” dB is
applied then the simulated maximum amplitude becomes A-dB-G:
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A-dB-G = A-dB + G
5.3.18.7. Using the Mode identification tool

It is available from the simulated image and work as described in the "Modes Identification”
paragraph.
5.3.19. Modes identification
The "Modes identification" tool is available by clicking on the "Modes identification" tool
When the user defines a selection on the Scan with the mouse, this icon gets enabled. The
strongest contributions in this area are displayed associated with their percentage.
In "Modes" toolbox of the "Measures on Selection" panel, the user sets the maximum number
of contributions to be displayed.
Figure 2.281. Display of the two strongest mode

and their percentage in the selected area.
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Please find below the list of all mode identification labels in CIVA.
• P = Pressure waves in the coupling medium/wedge

• L = Longitudinal wave
• T = Transverse wave
• d: interaction with defect
• tr: transmitted through an interface
• rb: reflected on backwall
• rs: reflected on surface
• ri: reflected on interface
• rc: reflected on side
• rd: reflected on defect (if double skip on defect activated)
• cf: creeping on backwall (if creeping waves activated)
• ce: creeping on entry surface (for lateral waves in TOFD only: PceP)
5.3.20. Export 3D
The 3D export icon allows a direct display of the obtained echoes in the 3D view. The iso-
surfaces used for the representation can be adjusted from the Options toolbox at the bottom.
Figure 2.282. Export to 3D view
5.3.21. Profile reconstruction
5.3.21.1. Profile reconstruction : classic method

The functionality is accessible from the following acquisition or simulation images:
• B-scan (scanning/time)
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• Not True E-scan (scanning elec/time)
Profile reconstruction tool is accessible after selection of the image and then clicking on the
"Defaut Profile reconstruction" button
In the case of an access to the profile reconstruction from a B-scan (scanning/time), the algo-
rithm uses the mechanical positions, the sequences after a limitation and also the channels
(if they are stored). Then the data processing is done for the current increment position of the
probe and the current shot.
In the case of an access from a Not True E-scan (scanning elec/time), the algorithm uses
sequences after limitation and the channels (if they are stored). Then the data processing is
done for the current position of the probe and the current shot.
The selection of the "Profile reconstruction" functionality from an image opens a new page
described in the following part.
5.3.21.1.1. Profile reconstruction panel
The following figure presents the profile reconstruction panel :
Figure 2.283. "Profile reconstruction" panel
The setting parameters part includes two tabs (Limitation and Option) and a box "Elementary
channel":
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• The Elementary channel box: its selection allows the algorithm to use channel-per-channel
signals for reconstruction (case of the Full Matrix Capture acquisition treatment). Otherwise,
the algorithm uses summed signals. This box is disabled by default and is inaccessible if
the channels are not stored in reception. If the channels box is active, B-scan channels view
automatically appears in the panel with the envelope of the elementary signal.
• The Limitation tab allows limiting the data in time, sequence or mechanical scanning in
order to specify the surface echo to extract from the calling view. The Increment filter allows
to display and use all the increments, only the odd ones or the even ones.
• The Option tab allows user to specify the following parameters:
The "Threshold" parameter is intended to overcome the signal noise. The reconstruction algo-
rithm only deals with the envelope of the received signal and calculates its maximum. If the
maximum is strictly less than a threshold, the signal is eliminated. The default threshold is -6dB.
The smoothing parameter box allows to adjust the parameters "skips curvature min" and "skips
curvature max" (see the following figure).
"Skips curvature min" parameter (in mm) allows to eliminate the reconstruction noise while
"Skips curvature max" parameter allows to filter aligned points of the surface.
A modification of one of the setting parameters part involves a new calculation of the profile.
Figure 2.284. Setting parameters for the profile reconstruction
5.3.21.1.2. The CAD profile drawing
This reconstructed profile is represented in red color in the result view. The other segments
correspond to the component dimensions defined in the specimen panel of the model.
When the reconstruction is correct, it is possible to save the profile in a CAD file format which
can be load in the specimen panel of the model.
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Figure 2.285. The CAD profile drawing
5.3.21.1.3. Profile reconstruction possibilities and limitations
To ensure that reconstruction is correct, we have to know exactly the parameters of the phased-
array probe (element width, gap between elements…), the full description of the mechanical
scanning for a given increment, the array settings, the inspection plan and the specimen.
The allowed configurations are described below:
• Probes: single element probes with scanning and linear phased-array probes with scanning
and/or electronic scanning.
• Array settings: electronic scanning, Full Matrix Capture without focusing (FMC)
• Specimen and inspection configuration: the algorithm allows to keep dimensions of the
components
• Plane geometry: inspection has to be along X axis or Y axis
• Cylinder geometry: inspection plan only parallel to the cylinder axis
• 2D CAD geometry with a planar extrusion (inspection plan parallel to the profile) or with a
circular extrusion (inspection plan parallel to the revolution axis).
The following figure illustrates the two kinds of profile results we can have in case of a plan
geometry specimen defined in the model or a 2D CAD geometry specimen: the difference is
the way the profile is completed.
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Figure 2.286. Profile reconstruction results with a

plan geometry model or a 2D CAD geometry model
5.3.21.2. Profile reconstruction with TFM
The “TFM Profile Reconstruction” tool allows to extract the profile from the post-processed
acquisition data with TFM algorithm and to save it as CAD file format.
The functionality is accessible from the following acquisition or simulation images:
• Not True-EScan (scanning elec/time)

• B-scan channels (channels/time)
• B-scan (scanning/time)
“TFM Profile reconstruction” tool is accessible by clicking in the image and then clicking on the
"TFM Profile reconstruction" button
5.3.21.2.1. Profile reconstruction using TFM panel
This panel is organized as follow:
• The views used for the data processing.

• The setting parameters panel.
• The 3D view.
• The "TFM Computation" and “Profile reconstruction” buttons allowing running the steps of
the processing.
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• The TFM result view.

• The Profile result view including a draw of the CAD profile and a button allowing to save the
profile to a CAD file format *.dxf.
The following figure presents the “Profile reconstruction using TFM” panel:
The setting parameters part allows to set the following parameters:
• The “channels” checkbox: its selection allows the algorithm to use channel-per-channel sig-
nals for reconstruction (case of the Full Matrix Capture acquisition treatment). Otherwise,
the algorithm uses summed signals. This box is enabled by default and is inaccessible if the
channels are not stored in reception.
• The “Profile type” options: “surface” or “bottom”. Its selection allows to choose the recon-
struction of the surface or bottom profile. With an immersion probe, the surface and the bot-
tom profile reconstruction is available. In the case of a contact probe, only the bottom profile
reconstruction is proposed.
The other parameters are presented under 3 panels :
1. The “Limitation” panel allows to limit the data in time, sequence or mechanical scanning
in order to specify the surface echo to extract from the calling view. You have also the
possibility under the "increment filter' tab to filter increments according to their parity.
2. The “TFM” panel allows to specify the following TFM reconstruction parameters (see Total
Focusing Method chapter for more details) :
Two subpanels are available :
Reconstruction Zone
• Zone dimensions and sampling scheme,
• Zone center coordinates,
• Zone orientation
• Time delta
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Computing the TFM (push "TFM Computation" button), enables to activate the last tab :
"Profile Reconstruction"
Computation Options (see Focusing Method Chapter)

• Scattering Cone Filter
• Envelop Signal
3. The “Profile Reconstruction” panel allows the user to specify the following parameters:
• “Threshold”
• “Spatial limitations”
• “Smoothing parameters”
The "Threshold" parameter is intended to overcome the signal noise. The reconstruction al-
gorithm only deals with the envelope of the received signal and calculates its maximum. If
the maximum is strictly less than a threshold, the signal is eliminated. By default there is no
threshold.
The smoothing parameter box allows to adjust the parameters "skips curvature min" and "skips
curvature max" (see the following figure).
"Skips curvature min" parameter (in mm) allows to eliminate the reconstruction noise while
"Skips curvature max" parameter allows to filter aligned points of the surface.
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Computing the TFM, enables also the "Profile Reconstruction" button.
A modification of one of the setting parameters part involves a new calculation of the profile.
When the computation is done, a new view appears in the layout presenting the generated
profile. The generated profile is in grey allowing you to check the result.
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5.3.21.2.2. The CAD profile drawing

This reconstructed profile is represented in grey color in the result view. The other segments
correspond to the component dimensions defined in the specimen panel of the model.
When the reconstruction is correct, it is possible to save the profile in a CAD file format which
can be load in the specimen panel of the model. After it reopened, the grey segment became
red to be in agreement with color profile definition in CIVA.
5.3.22. Total Focusing Method (TFM)

The TFM is an algorithm used to post-process the full matrix of ultrasonic transmit-receive array
data. The principle of this technique is to focus the array at every point in the inspected region,
for all combinations of elements, so that an image of this region can be produced.
The TFM algorithm is applicable to any set of ultrasonic signals (mechanical or electronic scan-
ning, sectorial scanning, etc...) and is accessible from the icon of the main toolbar.
The TFM algorithm uses only data from the image.

For example, in the case of an access to the TFM algorithm from a B-scan (scanning elec/
time), TFM algorithm uses sequences and possibly the channels (see later) and the treatment
is done for the current increment, the current position of the probe and the current shot.
Another example, in the case of an access to the TFM from a B-scan (scanning/time), algorithm
uses mechanical scanning and possibly the channels and the treatment is done for the current
increment, sequence and shot.
5.3.22.1. TFM panel
The selection of the "TFM" functionality from an image opens a new page called "TFM"
panel which is organised as following:
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• Calling image,
• TFM parameters panel,
• 3D view.
The figure below shows the "TFM" panel.
The TFM parameters panel includes two tabs: Reconstruction zone and Computation options.
5.3.22.2. Reconstruction zone tab
The Reconstruction zone tab allows user to specify the following parameters:
• Type of zone (rectangular or volumic),

• Zone dimensions and sampling scheme,
• Zone spatial location,
• Zone orientation,
• Time delta.
Figure below shows the Reconstruction zone tab.
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To define an inspection zone, the user selects Type of zone (Zone 1), then specifies Dimension
and sampling of the zone (Zone 2) and, finally, selects Zone center coordinates and Zone
orientation (Zone 3).
In Zone 1, the user specifies the type of the inspection zone. There are two types of zone
proposed here:
• Rectangular: all points making up the zone are contained in a portion of flat surface of rec-
tangular shape.
• Volume: all points making up the zone are contained in a parallelepiped-shaped volume.
In Zone 2, the user specifies the dimension and sampling of the zone:
• In the case of Plane-type zone (rectangular), the user chooses the two lengths respectively
known as Xzone and Zzone and the two steps associated with them.
• In the case of Volume type parallelepiped zone the user chooses the three lengths respec-
tively known as Xzone, Zzone and Yzone and the three associated steps.
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In Zone 3, the user specifies the center coordinates and orientation of the inspection zone.
After the definition of the inspection region, in Zone 4 of the Reconstruction zone tab, the user
chooses the temporal offset (time delta) that is applied to the all signals to correct the electronic
offsets (by default time delta is equal to 0 µs).
5.3.22.3. Computation options tab
The Computation options tab allows user to specify the following parameters:
• Elementary channels checkbox :
when the current gate contains both summed and elementary signals, you can select the
type of storage applied for the reconstruction. Usually, the Total Focusing Method required
elementary channels.
• Wave mode combinations for various multi-modes TFM configurations.
Computation options tab
To define a computation options, the user selects Elementary channels (Zone 1), then spec-
ifies a complete ray path between the transmitter, the defect and the receiver (Zone 2).
In Zone 1 :
– The user can select Elementary channels checkbox. Its selection allows one to start the
TFM algorithm by using signals channel-per-channel (for example in the case of the Full
Matrix Capture acquisition treatment). In the other case, the TFM algorithm uses summed
signals. The Elementary channels checkbox is active if the channels were stored in recep-
tion (see "Computation parameters", "Acquisition" tab) and is disabled otherwise.
– The "scattering cone filter" allows to ignore the contributions for whitch the arrival angle of
the path to the element is not included in the angular sector defined by the user.
– The Envelop Signal : when this option is selected, TFM applied on the Envelope of the
data (analytical signal)
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In Zone 2, the user specifies a complete ray path between the transmitter, the defect and
the receiver by selecting one of the checkboxes: Direct modes, Corner echo modes, Indirect
modes.
Only one configuration of multi-mode TFM can be activated. Each configuration corresponds
to two paths:
• The path between the transmitter and the defect ("Forward" or transmitting ray path),
• The path between the defect and the receiver ("Backward" or receiving ray path).
Each path can be specified with or without Backwall reflection and with or without Mode con-
version: the user can selects L- or T-wave modes for each path separately, where L represents
longitudinal waves and T represents transverse waves.
If the Direct modes checkbox is selected, the Forward and Backward paths do not contain a
Backwall reflection.
Figure 2.287. Setting parameters for Direct modes (a) and the schematic
diagram illustrating notation used for the Direct modes TFM (b)
If the Corner echo modes checkbox is selected, either the Forward or Backward path contains
one Backwall reflection (with or without mode conversion). The settings parameters for Corner
echo modes are shown in the figure below.
Figure 2.288. Setting parameters for Corner echo modes (a) and the schematic
diagram illustrating notation used for the Corner echo modes TFM (b)
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If the Indirect modes checkbox is selected, both Forward and Backward paths include one
Backwall reflection (with or without mode conversion). The settings parameters for Indirect
modes are shown in figure below.
Figure 2.289. Setting parameters for Indirect modes (a) and the schematic
diagram illustrating notation used for the Indirect modes TFM (b)
The principle of the “artefact filter” for corner echoes modes is to filter of paths without physical
meaning by applying an angle criterion.
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"Apply" button is used to perform the calculation. The resulting image appears in the "TFM"
panel as shown below:
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Figure 2.290. TFM image obtained using Corner

echo modes (Full Matrix Capture acquisition)
Any setting parameters modification involves a new calculation of TFM image by pressing the
"Apply" button.
"New" button is used to validate the final image produced by TFM algorithm.
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Figure 2.292.
5.3.24. Cursors
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5.3.25. Link between cursors
This feature allows the synchronisation and the desynchronisation of cursors in an analy-
sis page.
By default, when an analysis page appears after a computation, cursors of the different views
are synchronized. Clicking on this icone desynchronises all cursors.
Figure 2.293. Synchronized cursors
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Figure 2.294. Desynchronised cursors
the selected view.
5.3.28. Link and zoom
This icon enables the synchronisation and the desynchronisation of the zoom between
different views in an analysis window.
By default, when the analysis window appears after a computation, the zoom synchronisation
is activated. To desactivate it, click on this icon.
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Figure 2.295. Initial analysis views
Figure 2.296. Synchronised zoom between analysis views
Figure 2.297. Desynchronised zoom between analysis views
5.3.29. Export
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5.3.30. Copy
5.3.31. DXF Export
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6. Athena2D computation
CIVA-ATHENA 2D is an “add-on” module available with CIVA UT . This tool consists in a hybrid
module, using both conventional semi-analytical methods of CIVA and the Finite Elements
code ATHENA (from EDF). The connection with Finite Elements allows taking into account
more complex phenomena that can occur in a UT inspection.

The definition panels of the CIVA-ATHENA2D module are essentially the same as those of the
Inspection Simulation module, except the "Simulation settings" panel.
The other panels (Specimen, Probe, Inspection, Array settings, Flaws) involve few modifica-
tions, in terms of customizing only (some restrictions apply).
Figure 2.299. Overview of a coupled configuration with CIVA ATHENA2D

The following parameters are available for the computation of the coupled code.
Specimen: The following parametric specimens are available :
• Plane
• Cylinder
• Cone
• Sphere
• Elbow
• Nozzle
• 2D CAD
• 3D CAD
Only the "Bore" specimen is unavailable. The materials of the specimen can be isotropic or
anisotropic, with a plane of crystalline symmetry that must be contained in the incidence plane.
Only coarse grain materials defined by Voronoi cells are unavailable.
Probe: all the UT probes are accessible.
We remind that the FE computation is 2D and therefore the computation result will be relevant
only if the field emitted by the probe propagates in the incidence plane (the plane of the FE box).
The FE mesh size is driven by the probe signal sampling frequency. As a general rule the
signal sampling frequency must be more than 25 times the central frequency of the probe. The
sampling is necessary in order to avoid the numerical dispersion of the FE calculation. If this
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criterion is not met, an error message appears when the computation starts. The spatial mesh
step of the FE box equals the shortest wavelength (associated with the slowest wave speed
T in the media defined in the specimen) divided by the ratio between the sampling frequency
and the central frequency of the probe.
Inspection: All the scanning displacements and positioning options are accessible.
Settings: Phased arrays probes can be used with the FE coupled code.
Flaws: Since the coupled computation is limited to 2D configurations, only those defects with
a representative 2D cross-section are accessible, i.e. the following: side-drilled holes, planar,
multi-faceted and branched flaws.
6.2. Simulation settings

The "Simulation settings" panel contains three tabs:
• Incident field options,

• FE computation options
• FE computation area.
In the "Incident field options" tab, users can select the options for computation of the incident
beam. The field is computed with the semi-analytical method used in the Incident field module
of CIVA (see Incident field – Theory).
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In the "FE computation options" tab, users define the finite element computation time automat-
ically or manually and choose whether to activate finite element data storage (this provides
access to the propagation of the field in the FE box, but produces large files).
In the "FE computation area" tab, users define the positions and dimensions of the finite element
computation box.
6.2.1. Incident field options tab

In this tab, users select the propagation parameters of the incident field at the boundaries of
the FE box.
Figure 2.300. Incident field options for CIVA-ATHENA
Only the 2D computation field is permitted in the coupled computation module (see “Field com-
putation” paragraph for the meaning of 2D field computation).
Since the measurement or propagation of the field in the FE box is in 2D, a 3D field computation
would be incoherent with the coupling. In other words, the 3D divergence of a radiated field in
the specimen, outside the FE box, cannot be considered with a field propagated in 2D inside
the FE box, with a 2D divergence.
The incident field must be computed without attenuation (option filtered).
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Since the attenuation is not taken into account in the FE computation, taking this effect into
consideration in the computation of the incident field would result in an artifact (by the coupling
of the field "leaving" the FE box, which is not attenuated, with the attenuated incident field
computed by CIVA).
Users can choose the wave propagation mode to be computed: L and/or T, in direct or (exclu-
sive) mode after reflection, with or without mode conversion. The paths of the rays displayed
are coherent with the incident field mode used for the coupling.
6.2.1.1. Definition of the computed modes:
In L and T computations in direct mode, the computation is made by totaling the signals ob-
tained by the coupling with the L-wave incident field, then the coupling with the T-wave incident
field. In this way, in each probe position, we obtain a computation of the L-wave incident field,
the FE computation in the box with this incident field as the source, then the coupling, followed
by the same steps with the T-wave incident field.
Figure 2.301. Incident field modes in direct computation
In computation with reflection, with L-waves or (exclusive) T-waves, and without mode conver-
sion, only the corresponding incident field is computed (L-wave or T-wave), taking the reflection
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on the back wall of the specimen into consideration. In this same case, if the L-wave and T-
wave modes are selected, without mode conversion, two computations are made, with the L-
wave and T-wave incident fields and after reflection on the back wall.
Figure 2.302. Incident field modes in computations

after reflection, and without mode conversion
In L-wave (or T-wave) computations with reflection and with mode conversion, the incident
field at the boundaries of the FE box is considered to be composed of an L-wave (or T-wave),
with or without mode conversion. In other words, both the incident fields "LL" (or "TT") and
"TL" (or "LT") are computed, i.e., the field "radiated in L-waves and reflected in L-waves (or
"radiated in T-waves and reflected in T-waves) and the field radiated in T-waves (or L-waves),
then converted into L-waves (or T-waves) after reflection on the back wall.
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Figure 2.303. Incident field modes in computations

after reflection, with mode conversion
6.2.2. FE computation options tab

The “FE computation options” tab is used to adjust two computation parameters: “FE calculation
duration” and “FE data storage”.
Figure 2.304. the “FE computation options” tab and its menu
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“FE calculation duration” corresponds to the number of time iterations of the FE computation.
This number of iterations is related to the distance covered by the fastest wave and by the
slowest wave in the FE computation box (see Athena2D FE coupled computation – Theory).
.
Two options can be selected:
• Manual: users set the number of time iterations or the distance covered inside the FE box (the
two parameters are linked), computed for the selected wave (users can choose the fastest
or the slowest wave). By default, the number of time iterations is automatically computed
and displayed, as well as the wave propagation distance inside the FE box. The number of
time iterations corresponds to the duration of the emission signal, plus the propagation time,
along the diagonal (the longest distance) of the FE box, and according to the slowest wave.
• Automatic: By clicking on "Automatic FE computation", users are unaware of the number of
iterations to be used. This number of iterations is computed after the computation of the field
at all the boundaries of the FE box. Since the minimum and maximum times associated with
the field computations at each boundary are known, the number of iterations necessary for
the emitted field is computed, and is added to the number of time iterations required to cover
the diagonal of the FE box, and the duration of the emission signal.
By default, it is advisable to use the "Automatic FE computation" option, which en-

sures that the echo reflected by a defect in the box will be properly "extracted" from
the FE box. However, this duration may be insufficient, especially if the user is inter-
ested in surface wave or creeping wave (slower) phenomena or in cases of multiple
reflections between defects, which produce longer interactions.
“FE data storage” is used to choose whether to store (by clicking on “Active”) the FE compu-
tation data at a snapshot frequency fixed by the user (see figure below). This data can then
be used to view the data computed inside the FE box, according to time or in an animated
video. The frequency of the snapshots corresponds to the number of time iterations between
each set of saved FE data. A value of 1 corresponds to all the data for each time interval, 10
corresponds to the data saved at iterations 0, 10, 20, etc.
It is preferable not to store the data for every time iteration, as this will take up too
much disk space. In view of the fineness of the FE box mesh and the iteration fre-
quency, these files can easily run into several GB. A warning appears when the user
selects the option to save the data.
6.2.3. FE computation area tab

The “FE computation area” tab is used to define the 2D dimensions, the position and the ori-
entation of the finite element computation box.
If the configuration includes a probe scanning, check carefully that both the size and
position of the FE computation area is relevant. In order to obtain correct results,
check that the incident beam is properly included in the FE box.
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One of the surfaces of the box is represented by a red line. The coupling is performed on the
complete contour of the box (see Coupled computation – Theory). It is not necessary to arrange
the box in an arbitrary manner relative to this red line.
Figure 2.305. Definition of the 2D parameters for the FE computation box
The user can define a 2D zone, inside which the finite element computation will be performed.
To specify the dimensions and the position of this zone, the same menu as described in the
“zone” tab of the “computation parameters” panel is available (see CIVA UT Field Computation
– Computation parameters).
There are a number of specific features, compared with the field module:
The FE box must be located in the inspection plane of the probe (positioning relative to the
piece reference frame is filtered) to ensure that the 2D computation is coherent.
The resolution (number of steps, by width and by height) cannot be accessed by the user. It is
automatically set by the spatial resolution imposed by the wavelength of the probe. Therefore,
the dimensions of the box are approximated in relation to the dimensions input by the user by
the multiple value of the spatial resolution.
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The finite element box is linked to the probe position but not to its scanning, i.e., for each
scanning of the probe, the finite element box stays in its initial position.
Figure 2.306. illustration of the FE computation box
6.2.3.1. Recommendations for the definition of the FE box:
6.2.3.1.1. Computation on a defect inside a specimen:

The version of the coupled code can be used to define the smallest possible area, provided that
the defect is completely inside the box (an intersection between the defect and the box would
cause the FE computation to malfunction). The simplest means of positioning consists in using
the "any" option, in Cartesian or cylindrical coordinates, and in defining the X and Y coordinates
(or R and θ) relative to the first position of the probe. The handles can also be used to simply
center the FE computation box on the defect itself. Therefore, the coupled computation uses
a direct mode computation, with a very small box around the defect.
Figure 2.307. Example of the definition of the FE box for a core defect
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6.2.3.1.2. Computation of a defect that breaks the surface or is very close to the back wall of the speci-
men:
In this case, users need to determine the echo response from a corner of the defect beforehand.
This means that the echo is generated by the reflection of the incident field on the defect and
on the back wall of the specimen. Since the incident field at the boundary of the FE box is
computed, either in direct mode, or after reflection, the simplest method consists in selecting an
incident field computed in direct mode and taking account of the reflection of the incident field
in the FE box, therefore in defining an FE box containing both the back wall of the specimen,
the defect and the entire incident beam, in all the positions of the probe. The ray path tool can
be used to check that the incident beam is properly included in the FE box.
Figure 2.308. Example of the definition of the FE computation box for a corner
echo computation on a defect breaking the surface of the specimen back wall.
6.2.3.1.3. Computation of a defect that breaks the surface or is very close to the surface of the specimen
In this case, users need to determine the echo response from a corner of the defect, after
reflection on the back wall of the specimen. Like in the preceding case, it is preferable to define
an FE box containing the surface of the specimen, the defect and the entire incident beam,
which is computed after reflection on the back wall.
Figure 2.309. Example of the definition of the FE computation box for a corner
echo computation on a defect breaking the surface of the specimen surface.
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6.3. Athena2D imaging

6.3.1. Analysis and display tools for the results of the coupled code simulation
The results of the simulation of the coupled code use the same imaging system and the in-
spection simulation module. The figure below shows an example of an analysis page.
Figure 2.310. Example of an analysis page of the FE coupled code result
Since the computation is performed with Finite Elements in a box, one additional feature is
available.
6.3.2. Tools associated with the display of the FE data based on the results of the cou-
pled code simulation
If the user ticked the option to save the FE data in the computation options, it is also possible
to represent the computed FE data in an imaging system coupled to the box and in the 3D
scene with the icon. In this way, the field propagated in the box and the interaction with
the defect(s) in the box can be viewed.
The value represented is the particle velocity modulus.
These views help to understand the interaction phenomena, but they can also be used to check
that the duration is sufficient to properly capture the various echoes. These views also verify
that the coupled computation is functioning properly. By way of example, an artifact due to
artificial diffraction generated by the PML conditions (see "Theory of coupled computation")
can be detected by the dynamic display of the FE data.
Selecting this button opens a new analysis page and the new set of data associated with the
CIVA model for the current scanning position. The associated images are:
• The amplitude map of the fields propagated/diffracted during the FE computation.
This map can be viewed in static mode (the absolute value of the FE field is shown at each
point of the FE box throughout the duration), or in dynamic mode (the value of the FE field
is shown at each point of the FE box for a given propagation time). The switch between the
displayed data is available by successive clicks on the Beam Data icon . This
map can be exported into the 3D scene.
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The static or dynamic representation is selected in the "Tools" menu / of the image
by clicking on / (static view) or / (dynamic view). When the dynamic view is selected,
it is also possible to write a video file by clicking on . The display of the FE data at
a given moment is also updated in the 3D view, if the map was previously exported.
The vertical and horizontal cross-sections associated with the amplitude map in the FE box.
These views show the maximum amplitude measured in the vertical or horizontal axis, at a
value X or Z set by the user with the cursors. These graphs indicate the maximum amplitude
at a given altitude or abscissa, for the complete propagation time. Therefore, they represent
a cross-section of the static map.
• Ascan image
This view corresponds to the time signal at a given point (X,Z) of the FE box. Like all the images,
the value represented corresponds to the particle velocity modulus. Therefore the Ascan signal
is positive. The time cursor on this image can be used to change the moment of propagation
associated with the dynamic view of the field.
The figure below shows an example of an analysis page associated with the representations
of FE data (with a dynamic view).
Figure 2.311. Example of an analysis page of the FE data

associated with the result of a coupled code computation.
References:
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[1] Dupond O., Duwig V., Fouquet T., Influence of stress corrosion crack morphology on ultra-
sonic examination performances, in Review of Progress in QNDE, vol. 28A, p.89-96, 2008.
[2] Bécache E., Joly P., Tsogka C., Application of the fictitious domain method to 2D linear
elastodynamic problems, J Comput Acoust, 2001 9 1175-1202.
[3] Auld B. A., General electromechanical reciprocity relations applied to the calculation of elas-
tic wave scattering coefficients, Wave motion, vol. 1, p. 3-10, 1979.
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7. Composites
The “Composites Perspective” combines all necessary features and options to configure and
compute NDT Simulation with composites’ structure. Beam computation and Inspection Simu-
lation modules works on homogeneized material. Inspection Simulation with FIDEL 2D models
the exact description of composites layers.
To enter the perspective clic on the perspective tile
The CIVA Files generated before CIVA 2016 will be converted to Composites Perspective if
one of the material’s type is “multi-ply composite”.
7.1. Active Model Setup for Composites

Generally, active model setup for the composites perspective follows the CIVA UT principles.
The main differences lie in dedicated specimens, materials and defects.

Four specimens are dedicated to the composites’ structure:
For each case, the external shape is defined through geometrical parameters or CAD descrip-
tion.
• Simple composite laminate
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– Planar : Width, thickness and extension

– Cylindrical : Inner Radius, Angular Sector, thickness and extension.
• Curved composite laminate : a curved composite is similar to an elbow (in 2D). The angle of
the “plate elbow” as well as the radius of curvature must be filled in. Left and right lengths of
straight portions are also defined as well as the extrusion length
• Omega Stiffener : select Geometry Description
Complex shaped composite laminate : to define the geometry of this part, starting from the
neutral fiber of the part. A polyline is used to set the main geometry of the profile, then thickness
above/below this fiber is set, as well as radii used to smooth the part. The extrusion length
(perpendicularly to the complex profile) is also defined by the user.
Figure 2.312. GUI for the definition of a complex-shaped composite
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Once the geometry of the composite has been defined, the inner structure can be specified
(Figure 2.313, “: GUI for the definition of a multiply composite.”). In particular, ply orientations,
number of patterns and epoxy layers are described. Each ply is defined as an orthotropic ma-
terial with a given fiber orientation. On Figure 2.313, “: GUI for the definition of a multiply com-
posite.”, a pattern consists of four successive plies with a relative 45° rotation between each ply.
Figure 2.313. : GUI for the definition of a multiply composite.
Either the user defines the ply with a given set of elastic constants, either an homogenization
at ply-scale may be performed from the description of a unidirectional ply, namely fiber density
and diameter as well as the frequency bandwidth of interest.
7.1.2. Materials
7.1.2.1. Single Ply Composite
The single ply composite option corresponds to a unidirectional fiber-reinforced composite, i.e.
a two-phase medium made up of fibers (infinite parallel cylinders) contained in an isotropic
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matrix. To model this type of material, Civa uses a method that "transforms" its two-phase
medium into an equivalent homogeneous medium whose mechanical properties are computed
by homogenization. The Material panel of the specimen window is as follows for a single ply
composite:
Figure 2.314. single ply composite
The first parameters input for a single ply composite are the mechanical properties of each
of its constituent materials, i.e. fiber and matrix. The user simply selects the lines Fiber and
Matrix in the top part of the material panel and enters the desired parameters for these two
media (see figure below).
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Figure 2.315. Fiber and matrix
Various assumptions are made about the two media, for example that the matrix is a homoge-
neous, isotropic, viscoelastic medium. It is therefore possible, as is the case for most fiber-rein-
forced materials, to also credit wave attenuation. It is also assumed that fiber crystal symmetry
is the perfectly elastic, transversely isotropic type. No fiber-specific attenuation can therefore
be taken into consideration. For further details on defining these two simple-type media, the
user is referred to Simple material.
Note: The numerical values given for fiber and matrix in the figure are "realistic" values for
carbon and epoxy resin. They can thus be seen as typical reference values for computing single
ply composite data.
After defining the composite materials, the user selects the line "Layer no. 0: single ply com-
posite" at the top of the material panel and enters the percentage of fiber in the composite, the
diameter of an individual fiber (in mm) and the "minimum" and "maximum" frequencies. These
frequency values serve to define the range over which the medium is to be homogenized (see
further details under "Homogenization method" below).
Once all the parameters have been defined, the homogenization process can be initiated by
clicking the "homogenization" button. A new, "homogenized" tab containing the parameters of
the homogenized material is then displayed (see next figure).
Homogenization method:
As stated earlier, the homogenization procedure used in Civa enables computation of the me-
chanical properties of a medium equivalent to the two-phase composition of a single ply mate-
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rial. This provides not only the elastic coefficients of the equivalent medium but also its atten-
uation law (i.e. attenuation behavior as a function of frequency), based on the viscoelasticity
of the matrix and the multiple scattering capability afforded by the set of fibers. The homoge-
nized medium is thus an anisotropic one with a hexagonal symmetry (five independent elas-
ticity constants) whose attenuation is given by a polynomial law. The properties of this homog-
enized medium are displayed under the "homogenized" tab (see next figure). For further de-
tails on the homogenization method, see: “Modeling of ultrasonic attenuation in unidirectional
fiber reinforced composites combining multiple-scattering and viscoelastic losses”, S. Lonné,
A. Lhémery, P. Calmon, S. Biwa and F. Thévenot, Review of Progress in QNDE 23, ed. by D. O.
Thompson and D. E. Chimenti (AIP Conference Proceedings 700, Melville, 2004), pp. 875-882.
Figure 2.316. Homogenization
The scope of validity for this method depends on the center frequency of the transducer being
simulated and the characteristic fiber diameter, which must ensure compliance with the criterion
ka<
To conclude the discussion of single ply composite materials, it should be noted that, for our pur-
poses, a homogeneous fiber composite is considered equivalent to a homogeneous anisotrop-
ic medium with hexagonal symmetry. Like any anisotropic, hexagonally symmetric material in
Civa, this medium has a preferential orientation (corresponding to that of the fibers), which is
direction Z in the piece reference frame. The user must apply to the homogenized medium the
rotations required to orient it in the desired direction.
7.1.2.2. Homogeneous multiple ply composite
The multiple ply composite category is used to define multilayer composite materials. Where-
as single ply composites alone (see previous subsection) are a rarity, aircraft industry compo-
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nents, for example, are often made up of several sublayers of identical single-ply composites
(i.e. with the same basic materials) each of which is stacked and disoriented by a given num-
ber of degrees with respect to the next. To describe such materials, the user first defines the
basic material (which is repeated for each successive sublayer), then the number of such sub-
layers and their respective disorientation angles. The subsequent modeling strategy consists
of homogenizing the resulting multilayer structure so that it is identified with a homogeneous
medium having mechanical properties equivalent to those of the multiple ply composite. The
Material panel for a homogeneous multiple ply composite is as follows:
Figure 2.317. Homogeneous multiply compsite
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In the example shown above, the basic sublayer is a conventional fiber-reinforced composite
that is defined and homogenized by using the single ply composite material described in the
previous subsection. This basic sublayer is then repeated seven times (to define a total of
eight sublayers) with successive disorientation angles of 0°, 45°, -45° or 90° around axis Z
of the piece reference frame. The user can define as many sublayers and apply whatever
disorientation angles between them as he wishes.
Note that if the basic sublayer is a single ply composite, a disorientation angle of 90° around
the piece Y axis is applied systematically to all the multiple composite sublayers. This angle
affords a disorientation of the crystal reference frame of each sublayer such that the fiber axes
coincide with the piece X axis, whereby the default orientation of a hexagonally symmetrical
anisotropic medium is along the Z axis.
To fully define the homogeneous multiple ply medium, the user must also enter a "Thickness"
value (in mm) for each sublayer in the relevant column of the table displayed on the panel.
This value does not necessarily reflect real sublayer thicknesses, but instead the proportion of
overall thickness represented by each. By default, each sublayer is assigned a thickness value
of 1, meaning that all sublayers have the same thickness.
Civa uses a homogenization method for multiply composites, in the same way as for single
ply composites. The purpose of homogenization is to simplify the properties of the multiply
medium by reducing it to a homogeneous equivalent whose elastic constants are determined
by an original approach. Briefly speaking, this original method consists, for a given angle of
incidence, of tracing the direction of the energy ray path as it propagates through the multilayer
structure, then synthesizing the equivalent slowness curves on the basis of the orthogonality
between slowness surfaces and the direction of energy rays. It is subsequently possible to
deduce an elasticity matrix that characterizes the equivalent material. For further details on this
homogenization method, see:
"Ultrasonic field computation into multilayered composite materials using a homogenization

method based on ray theory", S. Deydier, N. Gengembre, P. Calmon, V. Mengeling, O. Pétillon,
Review of Progress in QNDE 24, ed. by D. O. Thompson and D. E. Chimenti (AIP Conference
Proceedings 760, Melville, 2005), pp. 1057-1064.
This article can be obtained directly from the public Civa website at the following address: http://
www-civa.cea.fr/home/liblocal/docs/TableauPubli/ToutesLesPublisEnLigne_19.htm
Note: It is possible to define and perform beam or echo computations in multiple ply
composite without using homogenization method. This is done by selecting multilay-
er option in the geometry tab of the specimen panel, and by defining the number
of layer and associated material for each layer. The resulting computation accounts
for all the defined sublayers. This approach takes much longer than a computation
performed on a homogenized equivalent material.
7.2. Beam Computation and Inspection Simulation

Special features relating to Beam Computation and Inspection Simulation in the Composites
"Perspective" are :
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• The specimen material has to be homogeneized before computation (concerns delay laws,
beam computations and inspection simulation)
• With curved or cylindrical part the pencil model has been recently adapted to inhomogeneous
media. See section UT Modeling Theory
• Concerning 2D CAD specimen, it should be noted that anisotropic media will not follow the
shape deformation. This possibility is only implemented for Complex shaped composite lam-
inate.
7.3. Inspection Simulation with Fidel 2D

CIVA-FIDEL 2D is an “add-on” module available with CIVA UT. This tool consists in a hybrid
module dedicated to composites structures, using both conventional semi-analytical methods
of CIVA and the Finite Difference solver FIDEL (from Airbus Group Innovation). The connection
with Finite Difference solution allows taking into account more complex phenomena that can
occur in a UT inspection, in particular structural noise due to composites layers.
The definition panels of the CIVA-FIDEL 2D module are essentially the same as those of the
Inspection Simulation module, except the "Simulation settings" panel.
The other panels (Specimen, Probe, Inspection, Array settings, Flaws) involve few modifica-
tions, in terms of customizing only (some restrictions apply).
The following parameters are available for the computation of the coupled code.
Specimen: only the four composites laminate specimens are available.
Probe: all UT probes without wedge are accessible.
FIDEL DF computation is 2D and therefore the computation result will be relevant only if the
field emitted by the probe propagates in the incidence plane (the plane of the DF box).
Settings: Phased arrays probes can be used with the DF coupled code.
Flaws: Since the coupled computation is limited to 2D configurations, only those defects with
a representative 2D cross-section are accessible, i.e. the following: side-drilled holes, planar,
multi-faceted and branched flaws.
7.3.1. Simulation settings

The "Simulation settings" panel contains three tabs:
• Computation options,
• FD computation area
• Field visualization.
In the "Computation options" tab (Figure 2.318, “: “Computation options” tab”), users can set
the accuracy for the computation of the incident beam. The field is computed with the semi-an-
alytical method used in the Beam Computation module of CIVA. The incident field may take the
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attenuation into account. The mesh fineness for the FDTD computation may also be set. The
default position of the slider corresponds to the mesh-step computed with . A coarser or finer
mesh may be set with a mesh step equal to l/10, l/15, l/40 or l/80. The mesh-step size is first
computed from the GUI but may be subsequently modified. If the thickness of an intermediate
epoxy layer is smaller than the obtained value, the mesh-step is set as this value. Finally, the
mesh step is adjusted to match the periodic patterns of the stacking.
Users can set the duration of the FDTD computation if the ‘auto’ mode is not satisfactory. In
‘auto’ mode, this value is computed using the minimum velocities of the materials located inside
the box and the height of the box. This option may be used to reduce the overall computation
time or to visualize additional echoes.
Figure 2.318. : “Computation options” tab
In the "FD computation area" tab, users define the FDTD box size and position. The upper
boundary of the FDTD box must be inside the coupling medium and the width of the box should
be large enough so that the incident beam propagates fully through the box upper boundary,
otherwise the computation cannot start. It is better if the lower boundary of the FDTD box is
inside the coupling medium as well, but it is not mandatory. If such is not the case, PMLs on this
boundary may be unstable leading to the failure of the computation. That is why a checkbox
can be used to activate or not the PMLs on the lateral boundaries. The coupling between the
incident wavefield computed with CIVA and the wavefield computed inside the FDTD box is
performed only on the upper boundary of the FDTD box.
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Figure 2.319. : “FD computation area” tab
In the “Field visu” tab, users can activate FDTD data storage (to visualize the ultrasonic field
inside the FDTD box at the expense of larger result files). To reduce the size on disk of these
data, they may be stored on a coarser grid, through the use of X and Y mesh step factor. For
the same reasons, data may not be stored at every time step used in the FDTD computation.
The frequency of the snapshots corresponds to the number of time iterations between each
set of saved FDTD data. A value of 1 corresponds to all the data for each time interval, 10
corresponds to the data saved at iterations 0, 10, 20, etc.
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Figure 2.320. : “Field visu” tab
7.3.2. FDTD 2D imaging

The result of the simulation is similar to results obtained with the “Inspection Simulation” module
of CIVA. If the user opted to keep the FDTD data in the computation (see paragraph ), it is
also possible to display the particle velocity modulus field in the FDTD box. The maximum
value of particle velocity at each point of the box (static view) is represented on next image.
Cross-sections of this image representing the maximum amplitude measured on the vertical
or horizontal axis, at a value Xzone or Zzone set by the user are also displayed (1D image
field) on two related windows. The time signal (Ascan) at a given point (Xzone,Zzone) of the
FDTD box is displayed as well. In all these images, the value represented corresponds to the
particle velocity modulus. The particle velocity field at a given time-step (dynamic view) may
also be displayed.
Figure 2.321. maximum particle velocity field inside the FDTD box
These views may help understand the interaction between the ultrasonic beam and the com-
posite structure. They can also be used to check that the duration is sufficient to properly cap-
ture the various echoes. The static (maximum particle velocity) or dynamic (particle velocity
field snapshot at a given time-step) representation are obtained by clicking on in the
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upper toolbar. Switching from the static to the dynamic image is done by clicking on . It is
also possible to generate a video file by clicking on in the “Export & copy” menu.
Figure 2.322. snapshot of particle velocity field inside the FDTD box
ELECTROMAGNETIC TESTING
Chapter 3. ELECTROMAGNETIC TESTING
1. ET Modeling - Theory
1.1. Computation Theory
1.1.1. Introduction
The physical principle that lies behind the Eddy Current Testing (ET) is that a force, called also
electromotive force (e.m.f), is induced on the free charges inside a conductive material when it is
placed inside a variable magnetic field, called also primary field. This force generates a motion
of charges, so a current, which is called in literature eddy current or Foucault currents, from
the French scientist that studied this phenomenon. The current motion, which flows following
a closed path, generates a secondary field that tends to oppose the primary one (Lenz law).
ET uses the aforementioned principle in order to collect the information needed for the char-
acterization of the piece under test. In particular, a varying excitation current (or equivalently
the excitation flux), either harmonic or transient, is induced in the tested object by means of
external probes that are made of different kinds of coils with different geometrical shapes. As
a reaction, the eddy current, following the Lenz law, will flow in the material in order to oppose
the excitation current. If we suppose now that a discontinuity is present in the piece under
testing, then the eddy current path will be modified by the medium inhomogeneity. This leads
to a change in the electromagnetic perturbation detected by the receiving probe placed in the
vicinity of the tested object. A way to measure this variation is to detect the difference between
a reference signal and the collected signal. Otherwise, it can be detected by moving the coil
probe above the tested piece in order to pick-up the differences induction at different positions.
This variation is commonly called crack signature since it is different for each crack.
From the numerical point of view, the crack signature is modeled in CIVA by employing an inte-
gral-equation based approach in conjunction with the Method of Moments (MoM). In particular,
inside CIVA two methods are developed, the so called Volume Integral Method (VIM) and the
Boundary Element Method (BEM). A brief but exhaustive overview on the theory behind the
VIM and BEM implemented in CIVA will be given in this chapter.
CIVA software allows simulating a large variety of probes used to induce eddy current inside
the piece or as receivers. Different kinds of probe coils can be used, each being driven by
a variable current. In CIVA software allows to define probes that work in the absolute and
differential mode and in separated emission and reception. Moreover, coils array are also used
to enhance the collected information during the acquisition process. Moreover, different kinds
of coils can be used in order to collect information on different aspects of the electromagnetic
field induced by the tested object. In particular, 2D-symmetrical coils with and without ferrite
core can be modeled. Moreover, in case of non-ferrite core coils, 2D-symmetrical and non-
symmetrical 3D-coils can be modeled without restriction on coils orientations.
The theoretical aspects associated to the large variety of probes modeled in CIVA will also be
introduced in the forthcoming parts of this chapter.
Suggested references:
B. A. Auld, F. G. Muennemann, and M. Riaziat, Nondestructive Testing, Chapter 2: Quantitative

Modelling of Flaw Responses in Eddy Current Testing. London, U.K.: Academic, 1984, vol. 7.
R. F. Harrington, Field Computation by Moment Methods.New York, Florida: MacMillan, Krieger
Publishing, 1983.
C. Reboud, G. Pichenot, S. Paillard, and F. Jenson, , J. Knopp, M. Blodgett, B. Wincheski, and
N. Bowler, Eds., “Simulation and POD studies of riveted structures inspected using eddy cur-
rent techniques,” in Electromagnetic Non-Destructive Evaluation (XIII), Studies in Applied Elec-
tromagnetics and Mechanics. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: IOS Press, 2009, pp. 129-136.
C.-T. Tai, Dyadic Green Functions in Electromagnetic Theory,ser.Series on Electromagnetic
Waves. New York: IEEE Press, 1991.
Bowler and T. Theodoulidis, “Boundary element calculation of eddy currents in cylindrical struc-
tures containing cracks,” IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 45, no. 3, pp. 1012–1015, Mar. 2009.
W. C. Chew, Waves and Fields in Inhomogeneous Media, Series on Electromagnetic Waves.
New York: IEEE Press, 1995.
W. C. Chew and S. Y. Chen, “Response of a point source embedded in a layered medium,”IEEE
Antennas Wireless Propag. Lett., vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 254–258, Mar. 2003.
T. Theodoulidis, “Developments in efficiently modelling eddy current testing of narrow cracks,”
NDT&E Int., vol. 43, no. 7, pp. 591–598, Oct. 2010.
J. R. Bowler, “Eddy-current interaction with an ideal crack. I. The for-ward problem,” J. Appl.
Phys., vol. 75, no. 12, pp. 8128–8137, Jun. 1994.
J. R. Bowler, “Inversion of open cracks using eddy-current probe impedance,” Rev. Progr.
Quant. Nondestruct. Eval.,vol.19A,pp.529–533, 2000.
A. Baños, Jr., Dipole Radiation in the Presence of a Conducting Half-Space. New York: Perg-
amon Press, 1966.
S. K. Burke and T. P. Theodoulidis, “Impedance of a horizontal coil in a borehole: A model for
eddy-current bolthole probes,”J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys., vol. 37, pp. 485–494, 2004.
R. Miorelli, C. Reboud, D. Lesselier, and T. Theodoulidis, “Eddy current modeling of narrow
cracks in planar-layered metal structures,” IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 48, no. 10, pp. 2551-2559,
Oct. 2012.
R. Miorelli, C. Reboud, T. Theodoulidis, Nikolaos Poulakis, and D. Lesselier, “Efficient modeling
of ECT signals for realistic cracks in layered half-space,” IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 49, no. 6,
pp. 2886-2892, June 2013.
Bowler, T. Theodoulidis, J. Xie, anf Y. Ji, “Evaluation of eddy-current probe signals due to
cracks in fastener holes,”IEEE Trans. Magn., vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 1159–1170, Mar. 2012.
J. Adams Stratton, Electromagnetic Theory, Series on Electromagnetic Waves. New York:
IEEE Press, 2007.
V. S. Cecco, G. Van Drunen, F. L. Sharp, Eddy Current Manual: Test method, Chalk River
Nuclear Laboratories, 1981.
C. Zorni, C. Reboud, J.-M. Decitre, L. Santandréa, Y. Le Bihan, S. Ventre, A. Tamburrino, and

M. Lambert, “Modelling eddy current testing of ferromagnetic medium,” Int. J. of App. Electrom.
and Mech. Vol. 39, no.1, pp. 245-250, 2012.
C. Reboud and T. Theodoulidis, "Field computations of inductive sensors with various shapes
for semi-analytical ECT simulation," in Electromagnetic Non-Destructive Evaluation (XV), Stud-
ies in Applied Electromagnetics and Mechanics. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: IOS Press,
pp. 3-10, 2011.
1.1.2. Maxwell equations

Electromagnetic phenomena are ruled by a set of equations known as Maxwell equations.
Therefore, before passing to the different theoretical developments, associated to the ET mod-
eling in CIVA, a brief overview on the concepts behind the Maxwell equations is needed. Let
us consider a time harmonic regime dependency consist in the real part of exp(-i ω t) (exp(-
i ω t) is suppressed hereafter). The differential expressions of the Maxwell equations are
Figure 3.1. Maxwell equations

• The first equation is known as the Faraday law where E(r) [V/m] and B(r) [T] are the electric
field and the magnetic flux density, respectively.
• The second one is the so-called Ampère law where H(r) [A/m] is the magnetic field, D(r)
2 2 2
[Cb/m ] is the electric flux and J(r) [A/m ] is the current density and M(r) [T/m ] has been
introduced to keep into account the variations due to magnetic sources.
• The last three equations establish the divergence of the magnetic, electric flux and the cur-
rent density (the last equation is known also as continuity equation). We define the complex
2
number i = -1, ω [rad/sec] stands for the angular frequency.
In the presented theory we assume to deal with linear isotropic media. Therefore we can write
the following constitutive relationships:
Figure 3.2. Constitutive relationships

where, ε is the electric permittivity and µ is the magnetic permeability such that ε = ε0 εr with
-12 7
ε0 = 8.854 10 [F/m], µ = µ0 µr with µ0 = 4 π 10 [H/m]. Another well known and useful
relation, known as Ohm law, permits to link, in the quasi-static regime, the current density inside
a conductive material is linked to the electric field via the relation J(r) = σ E(r), where σ [S/m]
is the electric conductivity associated to the medium.
In theory of ET modeling, as we will see later, a very useful quantity called skin depth δ, is often
employed to describe the magnitude decay of the electric field with respect to the considered
position inside a conductive medium. The skin depth is defined as the distance through which
the incident plane wave is attenuated by a factor 1/e of its original amplitude. In particular we
define it as
It is worth underlying that in the ET framework other parameters, which are not present in
the previous equation, can imply changes in the penetration of the incident field inside the
considered medium. In particular, variation on coil probe dimensions but also variation medium
conductivity and permeability (i.e. piece wise or continuous variations) may involve changes
in the effective skin depth. All these variation can be easily evaluated with the tools provided
by CIVA software.
In the forthcoming sections we will briefly introduce, from the theoretical point of view, how the
Maxwell equation previously introduced are used to calculate the electromagnetic field inside
a suitable region of an unbounded planar or cylindrical geometry. Moreover, the flaw response
associated to 3D inhomegeneities ( as for examples crack, flaw, hole, rivets, etc.) inside will
be presented.
1.1.3. Field computations
1.1.3.1. 2D symmetrical case - air-cored coil

Let us consider, for example, the test configuration shown in the following figure, presenting
a 2D symmetry around the vertical axis:
Figure 3.3. test geometry with rotation symmetry.

This geometry exhibits rotation symmetry. The unknown parameter is the azimuthal compo-
nent A of vector potential A. By choosing a cylindrical coordinate system, the vector potential
satisfies a partial differential equation:
(8)
Analytical resolution of this modelling problem means finding generic solutions for the differen-
tial equation which likewise satisfy boundary conditions at the interfaces. In the above example,
if reference frame origin is on the top surface of the slab and, assuming a slab thickness d,
then the boundary conditions are:
where zl = 0 and zl = -d are the respective positions of the two interfaces on the z axis. Indexes
l and (l+1) correspond to regions of the space:
• l = 1: air region for z ≥ 0

• l = 2: conducting region for -d ≤ z ≤ 0
• l = 3: air region for z ≤ -d
The existence of purely analytical calculations, in this case, lead to explicit mathematical ex-
pressions of the angular components of vector potentials in each of the three regions of the
space. Induction coil terminal impedance is computed from vector potential A:
,
where I is the driving current in the coil and dl an elementary vector tangent to the current
path in the coil. It is therefore possible to obtain an analytical expression for impedance. This
analytical approach is fully developed in academic papers and is commonly related to Dodd
& Deed 2D models.
Conclusion: Numerical impedance and vector potential values are determined by numerically
computing analytical expressions. The computation time depends essentially on whether a
mathematical formula exists for computing the parameter of interest.
In contrast to a purely numerical method, the mathematical formula which is considered takes
into account implicitly both a 2D geometry and 2D boundary conditions. A change in piece
geometry, e.g. an increase in the number of layers of material, likewise modifies all boundary
conditions, making the final formula more complex. However, this complexity is solved by the
analytical approach and therefore has little impact on the computational time.
1.1.3.2. 2D symmetrical case - ferrite-cored coil

When the sensors to be modelled are equipped with ferrite cores and/or conductive shieldings
(see figure below), they can not be only considered as simple sources, since interactions be-
tween the coil, the ferrite core, the shielding and the piece have to be taken into account. To
solve this type of electromagnetic problem, a 2D numerical solver based on the Finite Integra-
tion Technique formalism is used.
This formalism is described from a theoretical point of view in a specific section below.
1.1.3.3. 3D case - air-cored coils
The last family of sensors modelled in CIVA are a set of air-cored sensors with 3D shape and
arbitrarily orientable in space (3 rotations). In CIVA 11, some new sensor shapes have been
added, see figure below.
Any combination of sensors may be used to model a particular probe. The theoretical model
used to compute electromagnetic fields and the induced current density in planar or cylindrical
pieces is the Truncated Region Eigenfunction Expansion (TREE), which is a very efficient and
accurate modal approach [1].
To illustrate the principle of the TREE method, let us consider a planar stratified medium made
of N layers with respective electric conductivities and magnetic permeabilities ( σi; µi), 1 ≤ i ≤ N.
By convention, layers number 1 and number N correspond to air above and below the piece,
respectively, and the sensor is driven at the angular frequency w by a volumetric current density
J(r) located in layer 1 (air above the piece). The principle of the TREE method, illustrated below,
consists in solving Maxwell equations using the separation of variables into a finite box of
dimensions hx and hy along directions x and y, respectively. This box is chosen large enough in
transverse directions x and y so that the solution calculated may be set to zero at its boundaries
(and outside of the box). For the sake of clarity, the coil size in the figure below has been
exaggerated. The introduction of a finite box leads to expressions of the fields as series instead
of the integrals corresponding to the infinite case. From the computational point of view, when
choosing finite numbers of terms Ni and Nj in the x and y directions, the electric field El emitted
in layer l > 1 can be accurately approximated by the expression of equation (1),
The magnetic field Hl emitted in the same layer can be derived with a similar expression. In
equation (1), the term Rij stands for contributions due to reflections and transmissions at the
interfaces of the medium and is calculated recursively [1]. More importantly, the source term
h(s)(ui; vj) corresponds to the contribution due to the sensor, with its shape, position and ori-
entation. As sensors considered in this problem are not affected by the vicinity of the piece,
i.e they do not contain any ferrite core or parts, this source term is the 2D Fourier transform of
Hoz, the component normal to the interface of the magnetic field Ho emitted in free space by the
sensor. In other words, any sensor shape and orientation can be addressed by this approach,
provided that the component Hoz can be computed in free space at the location of the interface
between the piece and the layer containing the sensor. This particular calculation is carried out
using analytical expressions available for a standard trapezoidal shape of the source. By using
superposition, the source term Hoz is then rapidly obtained for sensors with complex shapes,
as illustrated below.
More details about these particular fields computations may be found in [2].
References
[1] T. Theodoulidis, E. Kriezis, Eddy Current Canonical Problems (with applications to nonde-
structive evaluation), TechScience Press (2006).
[2] C. Reboud and T. Theodoulidis, "Field computations of inductive sensors with various
shapes for semi-analytical ECT simulation", Electromagnetic Non-Destructive Evaluation (XV),
Studies in Applied Electromagnetics and Mechanics, B.P.C. Rao, T. Jayakumar, K. Balasub-
ramanian and B. Raj Eds., Amsterdam : IOS Press (2011), pp. 3-10.
1.1.3.4. In presence of a ferrite core - SIE/TREE
In presence of a ferrite core and except for axisymmetric planar configuration, the calculation of
the primary field is handled by coupling a numerical solver to a modal solution. The numerical
solver relies on the boundary element method for surface integral equations and is limited to
the ferrite core of the probe. Its magnetic coupling with the tube is evaluated by successive
iterations between the numerical model (applied to the probe domain) and the modal approach
(applied to the tube domain).
The initialization process of the coupling is to calculate the magnetic field radiated by the probe
in air at the location of the tube interface (step 0 in Fig. 1), by computing the core’s response to
the field induced by the coils. Hence no interaction between the probe and the tube is present
at this step. As the conductivity of the core is assumed to be zero, this particular sub-problem
is quasi-static but can be solved with a magnetostatic formulation. We employ a high-order
polynomial expansion of the unknown surface density within a single layer potential formulation.
We then calculate the tube's response to this field, which is the magnetic field reflected by the
tube at the surface of the ferrite core (step 2 of Figure 1.a). In a straight tube, this calculation
can be performed by a fast and accurate modal approach, namely the TREE method.
We recalculate the field radiated by the probe at the surface of the tube, but this time by taking
into account the previous response of the tube in the incident field (step 1b in Figure 2). We then
iterate (responses of tube and ferrite) until convergence. In practice, it takes a few iterations
to converge (less than 10 iterations with a stopping criterion set at 1/1000). After convergence
of the iterative process, the primary electromagnetic field is obtained in the workpiece without
defect. The calculation of the response of a defect can then be achieved by the usual method
used in CIVA. Its principle is to formulate the problem as a volume integral equation involving
an auxiliary source replacing the flaw, the Green dyad of the (canonical) workpiece and a
contrast's function that confines the computational domain to the defect's volume.
Reference
[1] A. Skarlatos, E. Demaldent, A. Vigneron, C. Reboud, Modelling of Specimen Interaction

with Ferrite Cored Coils by Coupling Semi-Analytical and Numerical Techniques, workshop
ENDE 2013
Figure 3.4. Schematic representation of the iterative coupling. From left to right:
configuration example, calculation of the field radiated by the probe in the air,
calculation of the response of the workpiece, calculation of the response of
the ferrite core. Steps 1.a and 1.b are repeated until convergence of the field.
1.1.4. Modeling of flaws signals with integral methods

In the framework of the flaw response modeling, this section is devoted to an overview on two
Integral Equation Methods (IEMs) developed in CIVA software. CIVA aims at efficiently ad-
dressing the simulation of Eddy Current Testing (ET) signals due to flaws in unbounded planar
and cylindrical layered half-space without compromises in terms of accuracy and performance.
In ET signal modeling we can distinguish two main families of integral-equation-based method:
the Volume Integral Method (VIM) and the Boundary Element Method (BEM). The main dif-
ference between them resides in the integral equation, called also state equation, used to de-
scribe the electromagnetic problem. Indeed, mathematically speaking, the VIM is based on
the second-kind Fredholm equation, whereas a first-kind Fredholm equation is employed in
BEM. The BEM state equation can be obtained from the VIM state equation, under particular
assumptions based on the physical behavior of the electric field inside the crack zone. These
assumptions allow us to introduce simplifications that will be presented along the section ded-
icated to the BEM.
In ET, we collect information on the eddy current distribution by measuring the electromagnetic
field over the workpiece surfaces with different kinds of sensors (coils, Giant magneto resis-
tance, Hall effect sensor, etc.). The physical quantity of interest is the change of coil imped-
ance (or voltage at coil terminals) with respect to the one measured in the unflawed case. The
variation of the coil impedance ∆ Z is expressed as ∆ Z = ∆ R + i ∆ X where ∆ R and ∆ X
are, respectively, the variation of resistance and of reactance of the coil impedance. In CIVA,
∆ Z can be plotted in the complex plane as so-called Lissajous curves that represent the crack
signature. Other useful plots can be obtained by tracing crack(s) signature(s) with respect to
the coil position for both real and imaginary normalized parts. CIVA allows also displaying re-
sults as complete map in terms of amplitude, real or imaginary parts is also used all around the
crack(s) zone(s) in order to provide a qualitative picture of the crack(s) signature(s).
The CIVA modeling approach is based on a semi-analytical technique where a three-stage
strategy is adopted. Such an approach gives us the opportunity to describe the problem in
terms of perturbation with respect to a reference case. In ET signal modeling the reference
case corresponds to the tested piece without flaws, and the perturbed problem is obtained by
introducing discontinuities in the electromagnetic characteristics of the medium with respect to

the reference case. Therefore the crack presence can be modeled as a fictitious source that
modifies the current density inside the medium. Only the geometrical description of the crack
zone and the electric field associated to this region is needed. If the size of discontinuities
are very small compared to the geometry dimensions, as usually in ET problems, then the
equivalent problem leads to a great reduction in terms of number of unknowns that one needs
to determine in order to find the solution of the problem.
In the semi-analytical approach, if we consider the case of a non-ferromagnetic inspected mate-

rial, we first compute the incident electric field, the so-called primary field or unperturbed electric
field E0(r), inside a known volumetric zone (V) within the piece under test. At this stage we af-
fect the zone V with a discontinuity in terms of electromagnetic material properties. Then, at this
second step, we can express an equivalent electromagnetic problem describing the effects of
the crack presence by means of an integral equation called state equation. Such an equation is
used to express the perturbation, introduced by the crack, as a distribution p(r) of current dipole
densities inside the volumetric zone. The effects of p(r) on the observation points are calculated
by employing a suitable dyadic Green function to describe the host medium geometry (i.e. pla-
nar or cylindrical geometry), and the host medium electromagnetic characteristics (i.e. conduc-
tivity and/or relative permeability). In order to solve numerically the state equation we employ
the Method of Moments (MoM). The obtained matrix equation system suitable can be efficiently
solved via standard numerical-analysis tools. After obtain the values of the problems unknowns
i.e. the dipole distribution p(r) inside the flaw zone, we are able to calculate the variation of coil
impedance by using the reciprocity theorem as:
where I is the driving current.
1.1.4.1. Volume integral method (VIM)
Starting from the Maxwell equations in time-harmonic regime, after applying the nabla ( ∇ )
operator to the Ampère law then we obtain then:
by using the constitutive equation D(r) = ε E(r) we get:
Let us substitute the constitutive equation B(r) = µ H(r) inside the Faraday law, then we obtain:
Substituting this relation inside the previous equation, we end-up with the propagation equation
associated to the magnetic field:
One can prove that, in the same manner, the propagation equation associated to the electric
field is given as:
In the above equations J0(r) is the incident current in a bounded domain inside the host medium.
Moreover, in case of quasi-static approximation k H = √ (i ω µ σ H) where σ H stands for the
host-medium conductivity.
The variation of permittivity and permeability are responsible for the scattering in incident elec-
tromagnetic waves. Therefore, we are interested in the description of the discrepancies of elec-
tromagnetic material characteristics inside the homogeneous half-space, we characterize them
in function of position inside the host medium.
In the electromagnetic problems, dyadic Green functions are often employed to solve differ-
ential equations that are used to describe the wave phenomena for a given electromagnetic
scenario. In particular, the dyadic Green functions are the solution of the propagation equations
introduced above, when punctual sources are considered.
To properly describe the wave phenomena, a suitable dyadic Green function has to be con-
sidered. In particular, such a dyad must fulfill the boundary condition at infinity and continuity
condition of the tangential components of electric and magnetic fields at each interface that
describes the discontinuity in electromagnetic material characteristics.
One can show that starting from the definition of dyadic Green function, by employing the Green
theorem, we achieve the solution of both the propagation equations introduced before
these two equations belong to a second-kind Fredholm equation, where E(r) and H(r) repre-
sents the total electric and magnetic fields, respectively. E0(r) and H0(r), represent the incident
electric and magnetic field inside the host medium. The so-called electric-electric dyadic Green
function G ee(r,r’), is used to describe the effects of an electric source placed in r’, on the
electric field components at an observation point placed in r. The magnetic-magnetic dyadic
Green function G mm(r,r’) retain the same meaning of the previous one just by replacing the
electric source and the electric field components with the magnetic one. The electric-magnetic
dyadic Green function G me(r,r’) describes the effects of an electric source, placed in r’, on
the magnetic field components at an observation point placed in r. The meaning of G em(r,r’)
readily follows from what we have already explained for Gme(r,r’).
The above equations are coupled when ferromagnetic media are considered. Therefore solu-
tion of both of them is needed in order to find the values of the problems unknowns. These
coupled equations are suitable to describe the wave phenomena in the whole host medium
domain. In ET signal modeling, we are interested in calculating the perturbation due to flaws
buried inside the inspected pieces. In this way, we can express the coupled system of equa-
tions, presented before, in an efficient and convenient way by describing an equivalent problem
based on fictitious sources defined as follows:
for the equivalent electric sources and
We can notice that the equivalent sources are defined just on a finite support associated to the
volumetric flaw inside the host medium. We can employ these equivalent sources by defining
the so-called contrast functions as concerning the electric parts,
and for the magnetic ones. By employing these contrast functions
inside the system of coupled state equations, in conjunction with the definition of equivalent
sources, we obtain:
If a non-ferromagnetic material is considered, the above equations are uncoupled since no

magnetic sources (m(r)) are present. Therefore, we can describe the problem by employing
the following second-kind Fredholm equation only:
where G (r,r') stands in this case for the electric-electric dyadic Green function. In order to find
the numerical solution of the set of two coupled state equations employ the Method of Moments
(MoM). Therefore we need to discretize the problem sub-domains small enough to consider
the variation unknown values is sufficiently smooth. The discretization procedure leads to the
following set of matrix equations:
then the system of equations is given as:
This set of equation is the numerical counterpart of the two analytical state equation used to
describe theoretically the ET electromagnetic problem.
1.1.4.2. Boundary element method (BEM)

Inside the previous paragraph we have presented the theory associated to the VIM model by
showing the system of equations that are used to describe the perturbation due to volumetric
flaws in inhomogeneous layered structure. In particular the analytical treatment developed for
the VIM is suitable to be applied for both ferromagnetic and non-ferromagnetic host medium.
In this paragraph we introduce an alternative integral-equation based model the Boundary Ele-
ment Method (BEM). Before give an overview of the theory, some important assumptions have
to be considered.
The BEM developed in CIVA is based under the condition that all time long we have to deal with
non-ferromagnetic, isotropic and linear media. This means that the set of two coupled equations
associated to the VIM turns into a single state equation due to the absence of magnetic sources.
The state equation obtained, is suitable to describe the presence of volumetric discontinuities
is given as
Where, we recall, J0(r) and J(r) are the incident and the total current densities inside the volume
V, respectively. G(r,r’) stands in this case for the electric-electric dyadic Green function. p(r) is
the fictitious source associated to the discontinuity region V and p(r) is always zero outside V.
In order to find the suitable state equation associated to the BEM used in ET signal modeling,
we have to introduce the some more assumptions that rely directly to the geometrical property
of the discontinuities that we want model. We can sum-up these assumptions as follows:
1) the main crack faces lay parallel to each other,
2) the crack opening is sufficiently small with respect to the skin depth and the characteristic
dimension of the sensor
3) the electric field inside the crack can be considered to be normal to the main lateral faces.
Furthermore, from the electromagnetic point of view we also have that the crack is an impen-
etrable barrier to the incident eddy current.
All these assumptions play a considerable role for developing the state equation associated
to the BEM model for ET. In particular, the effect of considering the assumption 3), implicitly
impose that the dipole distribution inside the crack zone can be described by considering the
normal component only. Thus we have
where n is the normal direction to the crack main faces and σ (r’) is the crack conductivity and
σ H is the host medium conductivity. In the low-frequency approximation, under the hypothe-
sis that the crack conductivity is negligible compared to the one of the host medium, we can
assume that no incident eddy current flows through it, therefore the state equation associated
to the VIM presented before turns into
this state equation belongs to the family of first-kind Fredholm equations. In the previous equa-
tion the wave number kH = √ (i ω µ0 σ H) and the function f(r) is the contrast function and it
is given as ( σ (r’) - σ H ) / σ H.
To find the numerical solution of the state equation associated to the ET problem, we transform
the first-kind fredholm equation into a linear system of equations by applying the Method of
Moments. Thus, we can show that the problem is reduced to the following matrix system
that, once it has solved, it gives the values of the unknown dipole density in each cell of the
discrete problem.
1.1.4.3. Coupled approach (VIM-BEM)
In the previous paragraph we have introduced the state equations associated to the VIM and
the BEM. For the BEM we have also specified a well defined set of assumptions that depend
on the flaw geometrical characteristics and the given electromagnetic scenario (i.e. host medi-
um conductivity, working frequency, flaw conductivity, etc.). The payback of our assumptions
is a bounded validity domain for the BEM model that mainly depends on the penetration of
eddy current inside the inspected medium. In this way, ET signal modeling based on BEM in
presence of narrow cracks and volumetric flaws is beyond BEM validity domain. Therefore,
simulations are no more feasible with a good degree of reliability. This limitation in BEM model
makes it impossible to model problems that involve volumetric flaws as for example flat bottom
hole or through-thickness hole, rivets or wide opening cracks. In these cases only the VIM can
achieve good results.
From the point of view of the VIM, limitations in terms of high efficiency and accuracy occur
when narrow cracks are present in conjunction with volumetric flaws. The lost of efficiency is
due to the very fine mesh required to describe the problem with the complete VIM. To overcome
this issue, a coupled approach VIM-BEM has been embedded inside CIVA suitable to treat in
a more efficient way, with respect to the pure VIM modeling, cases that involve at the same
stage volumetric flaws and narrow cracks inside non-ferromagnetic planar stratified media.
Starting from the parts introduced before in this chapter concerning the VIM and the BEM the-
ory, we propose hereafter an example used to give a general overview of the coupled approach
from the theoretical point of view.
In order to show how the VIM-BEM approach works we consider, for example, a two-layered
half-space with a rivet and two narrow cracks departing radially as sketched inside the image
below.
Looking more in detail this problem we can consider, from the electromagnetic point of view,
the presence of four distinct flaws as sketched in the next figure.
With the coupled approach VIM-BEM we can describe such a problem with a set of four equa-
tions and four unknowns. In particular, two scalar current densities are used to describe the
perturbation due to flaw 1 and 2, since both of them are assumed to be narrow cracks. On
the other hand, two vector quantities are associated to the current densities distributions inside
flaw 3 and 4, since both of them are volumetric flaws (note that layer 2 and layer 3 may have
different conductivities). Therefore, in such a problem we are dealing with a mixed problem
where two kinds of state equations, the first- and the second-kind Fredholm equations are em-
ployed, describing narrow cracks (BEM) and volumetric flaw (VIM), respectively.
Starting from the expression of the state equation associated to VIM and BEM one can show
that, after applying the MoM, the following matrix system can describe completely the problem
where, p1, p2 are the scalar dipole densities associated to the two narrow cracks (i.e. flaw 1 and
2), whereas p3 and p4 are the vector dipole densities associated to flaws 3 and 4 (i.e. the two
parts of the rivets). Inside the matrix, on the right hand side of the above matrix system, we have
the dyadic Green functions that describe the effects of a vector source onto the components
of the electric field. In the same matrix, we have also the dyadic Green functions that are used
to describe the effects of a scalar source onto all components of the electric field.
1.1.4.4. Electrical circuits
1.1.5. Modeling of flaws signals with the Finite Integration Technique (FIT)
The Finite Integration Technique (FIT) is a numerical method introduced by T. Weiland in
1977 [1] for the solution of electromagnetic problems. It is based on a discrete reformulation
of Maxwell’s equations, in their integral form, using a system of two staggered computational
grids. In the classical FIT formulation these grids are mutually orthogonal and they can con-
form to the Cartesian, cylindrical or spherical coordinate systems (extensions to non-orthogonal

grids have also been proposed leading, however, to more complex discretisation schemes).
Application of Maxwell’s equations in the FIT grid doublet yields a system of algebraic equa-
tions, which are referred to as the Maxwell’s grid equations:
The state variables of the above discrete formulation are the contour integrals of the electric
and magnetic fields along the edges of the grids, the surface integrals of the corresponding
flux densities and the volume integrals of the charges [2], namely:
where Li, Ai, andVi denote the edges, the facets and the cell volumes of the primary grid G, the
tilded ones standing for the corresponding dual grid entities. An illustration of the FIT variable
allocation scheme for a dual cylindrical grid system is shown in the following figure.
The analogy with the continuous case is reflected upon the algebraic properties of the FIT
topological operators, i.e. it holds
in the same fashion as div rot=0. The scheme is completed by introducing the material matri-
ces, which relate the field integrals with the respective grid fluxes, in the same fashion as the
constitutive relations do in the continuous case. The discrete constitutive relations for the linear
case read:
Application to eddy-current problems

Assuming an harmonic time dependence of the form exp(j ω t), the Maxwell’s grid equations
are written as follows:
After elimination of the magnetic field and the magnetic flux density from the first two equations
and making use of the constitutive relations, we obtain
This is the discrete curl-curl equation. Notice that in the frequency domain, the quasi-static
approximation does not provide distinct advantages, so the complete formulation can be used
even for low frequency applications without significant numerical cost.
In eddy-current applications, where the contribution from the displacement current term is very
small, specific attention must be given in non-conducting regions where the system becomes
nearly singular. A well-established remedy for this problem is the addition of a curl-free “gauge”
term, which shifts the zero-eigenvalues of the system spectrum leaving in the same time the
solution intact. The application of such a gauge term is particularly simple in FIT thanks to the
algebraic properties of the topological operators, presented above [3]. Nevertheless, for the
2D-TM case, which the present module concerns, the use of gauge terms is not necessary.
References
[1] T. Weiland , “A discretization method for the solution of Maxwell’s equations for six-compo-
nent fields,” Electronics and Communications AEÜ, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 116–120, 1977.
[2] R. Schuhmann and T. Weiland , “Conservation of discrete energy and related laws in the
finite integration technique,” Progress Electromagn. Res. (PIER), vol. 32, pp. 301–316, 2001.
[3] M. Clemens and T. Weiland , “Discrete electromagnetism with the finite integration tech-
nique,” Progress Electromagn. Res. (PIER), vol. 32, pp. 65–87, 2001.
1.2. Application of VIM and BEM to the planar geometry

The theory upon which CIVA software is based allows the definition of unbounded planar mul-
tilayered structures made by any number of parallel layers. These layers can be arbitrarily
defined without limitations in terms of number, thickness and conductivity. Layers that do not
contain any flaw may also have a relative permeability greater than one. However, relative
magnetic permeability is always equal to one in flawed layers.
In order to better explain the application of VIM and BEM in planar geometries, we recall the
state equation associated to VIM namely,
Where J(r) is the total current inside the flaw volume (V), J0(r) is the incident eddy current on
the same volume and kH = √ (i ω µ0 σ H) is the wave number associated to the host medium.
In case of BEM modeling we have
Where, p(r) = n.p(r) and the electri-electric Green function G(r,r’) = n.G(r,r’).n, n is the normal
vector to the main lateral faces. We have seen that, to solve such an equation, the Method
of Moments (MoM) has to be used. In this paragraph, we will detail the integral formulation
used to simulate configurations when multiple flaws are present in different layers of a given
layered half-space.
The dyadic Green function represents the solution of the following Helmholtz equation associ-
ated to the electromagnetic problem when a punctual source is considered
where δ j(r,r’) is the Dirac function, I stands for the identity dyadic operator and the subscripts
i,j identify the observation and the source zones, respectively. Moreover, kj = √ (i ω µ0 σ j) is
th
the wave number associated to the source layer, and σj is the conductivity of the j layer.
Gij(r,r')must fulfill the continuity condition of the tangential components of the electric and mag-
netic field as well as the radiation condition at infinity. These conditions must be fulfilled at each
layer interface. Analytical expressions of the dyadic Green functions associated to a planarly
layered media have been deeply studied in the literature. This theory has been also retained in
CIVA models in order to calculate the expression of the dyadic Green function in layered half-
space. For the interested reader we address to the referred bibliography.
Concerning the planar structures, inside CIVA software is possible to describe complex flaws
configurations involving, in very general manner, skewed flaws as shown for example in the
figure below.
In this figure, two flaws are embedded into two different layers and they do not share the same
angle with respect to a given general coordinate system, no tilt angles are admitted in our
model. By using the definition of the VIM state equation and the definition of the dyadic Green
function, one can show that the coupled set of state equations can be written with the following
compact form
The Green dyads Gij(r,r’) keep into account the fact that the two considered cracks may be
skewed. In the case of BEM modeling the above state equation turns into
Modeling of planar layered geometry may involve particular kind of configurations that are very
useful for the end users. CIVA software allows addressing modeling of planar layered medium
affected by a large variety of flaws more than the already cited rectangular slots. In particular,
parametric elliptical, semi-elliptical and quarter of ellipse flaws can be modeled as well as flat
bottom hole. Inclusions (VIM only) and conductivity bridges inside the flaws zone can be also
addressed with the theory presented in this chapter.
In the framework of planar multilayered structure, modeling of fastener site inspection can be
also performed by keeping into account the presence of complex-shaped objects. In this frame-
work the developed theory inside the VIM allows to describe in parametric way the rivet, keep-
ing into account also a parametric description of the head shape.
1.2.1. Computation of the primary field for a single air-core coil and for stratified medi-
um
If the coil is not tilted, then the primary electric field is computed using symmetry about the coil's
axis. When the coil is tilted with respect to the slab, see figure below, a modal approach is used.
Computation of the primary electric field emitted by a tilted coil
1.2.2. Special case of modeling a ferrite-core probe

For this test configuration, the semi-analytical approach is the same as described above. The
aim is to compute the response of a ferrite core probe due to a volumetric flaw.
Figure 3.5. A NDT configuration implying a ferrite-core probe.

Assuming that the defect does not affect the magnetization of the core, since it has been verified
in practice, the forward problem may be solved by computing the primary field itself in the
flawed region (a limited meshed zone) by considering three steps illustrated and described in
the figure below:
The magnetic field in the ferrite core zone and the impedance of the coil itself are first computed.
As the ferrite core is an additional component that creates secondary magnetic sources in a
finite domain that is delimited by the volume of the ferrite core, it induces a change in the
magnetic field initially created by the induction coil alone. Thus, an equivalent magnetic source
M is introduced in order to take into account the presence of the core.
The primary electric field is computed in the slab or the flawed region considering that the flaw is
absent. The impedance of the ferrite core probe over a homogeneous media is also available.
Figure 3.6. Different steps for computing the primary field due to a ferrite-core probe.
1.2.3. Computation of the Green’s tensor

Once the primary field has been calculated in the slab without the flaw, Green's tensors involved
in state equation(s) are to be calculated in order to model interactions between the primary field
and the flaw. A Green's tensor is a solution of the vector differential equation
It includes all boundary conditions and depends on the geometry of the workpiece. In the case
of a stratified medium, it becomes:
The source point is located in the source region j and the observation point is located in the
observation region i. Following boundary conditions are satisfied at interfaces separating dif-
ferent regions:
Where n and m stands for the two layers.
1.2.4. Stratified planar geometry

When a flaw is present is a non magnetic stratified planar geometry (n layers), a set of integral
state equations has to be solved for k=1...n:
Where and stand for the primary electric field and the total electric field in the
layer k, respectively.
1.3. Application of VIM and BEM to the cylindrical geometry

Modeling of unbounded cylindrical geometries with CIVA software allows simulating problems
involving homogeneous tubes affected by only one defect that can be longitudinally or trans-
versally oriented with respect to the tube axis.
In case of cylindrical geometry we have specified the validity of the VIM and the BEM models
developed in CIVA. Indeed, the VIM allows simulating problems involving both non-ferromag-
netic and ferromagnetic tubes, whereas the BEM can be used for simulating non-ferromagnetic
tubes only.
As shown in the previous paragraph, we recall that the state equations suitable to solve the ET
electromagnetic problem in case of linear homogeneous ferromagnetic specimens are given as
f we consider a problem involving non-ferromagnetic media we have to deal with the elec-
tric-electric dyadic Green function only, called hereafter G(r,r’). In case of VIM we obtain
that turns into
if the BEM model is considered. We recall that J(r) is the total current inside the flaw volume
(V), J0(r) is the incident eddy current on the same volume and kH = sqrt (i ω µ 0 σ H) is the
wave number associated to the host medium. Moreover, p(r) = n.p(r) and the electric-electric
Green function G(r,r’)=n.G(r,r’).n, n is the normal vector to the main lateral crack faces.
From the above expressions, we can readily notice (in case of non-ferromagnetic media), that
the expression of both state equations do not differ from which of the planar case. Indeed, the
differences are embedded inside the dyadic operator G(r,r') that is used to describe the effects
of a source located in r’ on the electric field components in a given point located in r.
1.3.1. Calculations of the primary fields

The calculation method of primary electric and magnetic fields depends on the sensors choice
and positioning. If a sensor is a coil that is centred about the tube axis, then corresponding
fields calculations are 2D because of the symmetry about this axis, and a very fast calculation
is carried out.
Figure 3.7. Case of coils centered about the tube axis: in this case the primary
fields' calculations are very fast, due to the symmetry about the tube's axis
Primary fields' calculations corresponding to other cases (off-centred coil, rectangular coil and
sectorial coil) are carried out in 3D. In these cases, electric and magnetic fields are expressed
as finite sums over a truncated region using the TREE method.
1.3.2. Particular case of sensors including a ferrite core

Field calculations corresponding to coils with ferrite cores and/or shielding are done in an equiv-
alent planar geometry. In this case, the user is informed by a pop-up window that the calculation
will be carried out in planar geometry. Simulation results are afterwards adapted and displayed
into cylindrical coordinates of the tube. This approximation is valid if and only if the probe's size
is small with respect to the tube's size. Moreover, in this case axial coils and sectorial coils may
not be used, as they have no equivalent in the planar geometry, see INSPECTION window.
1.3.3. Modeling of interactions between flaws and primary fields

Interactions are modelled into CIVA using Green’s tensors calculated in the coordinate system
adapted to the piece geometry. In the cylindrical case, the regular part of these tensors is
expressed in particular along the angular direction as an inverse Fourier series involving Bessel
and Hankel functions. The presence of these terms, which are numerically more delicate to
evaluate, is the main cause of a slower computation than in the planar geometry. Moreover,
flaws with dimensions smaller than 0.1 mm along the angular direction leads to the computation
of terms with Bessel and Hankel functions of very high order and thus increases a lot the
computational time.
1.4. Computation definition

ET simulations with CIVA are carried out after the definition of the complete ET configuration
in terms of geometry and electromagnetic characteristics and acquisition parameters, like the
frequency and the connection between the probe elements (emitting and receiving parts).
The various parameters defining an ET configuration are set up in several panels opened when
clicking on buttons. The majority of these panels, described in the next part of this manual, are
common to the ET Field Computation and ET Inspection simulation modules of CIVA. Some
specific panels will be described in sections ET CIVA - FIELD COMPUTATION and ET CIVA
- INSPECTION SIMULATION.
Figure 3.8. Example of the lateral panel ´Specimen´ opened by

clicking on the Specimen button located at the bottom of the 3D view .
Numerical parameters that are not directly linked to the geometry or physical characteristics
have been reduced to the minimum (only the parameters of flaws meshes when necessary) in
order to facilitate the use of the software. Moreover, all objects shapes are parametric so that
they are defined quickly with a reduced set of parameters.
2. ET - Active Model Setup

2.1. Specimen
The "Specimen" window opened by clicking the "Specimen..." button provides separate tabs
for definition of piece Geometry, Material and Mesh (the latter for 3D CAD pieces only). From
the dropdown File menu, it is possible to Load or Save a piece description file in XML format.
The menu also permits loading of a parameter file from a Recent Files list corresponding to the
latest files of this type opened in the Specimen window. The Close button closes the window.
Specimen tabs

A dropdown list shown in the figure below allows choice of the type of piece geometry.
From this list, the user can define the parameters for a plane piece, cylindrical piece or bore.
2D CAD pieces are either defined using the CAD module included in Civa or imported from
another CAD program and saved in .dxf format. 3D CAD pieces are imported from another
CAD program in STEP or IGES format.
Choice in specimen
Moreover, some specific specimen geometries are modelled with the 2D cylindrical solver.
Their description is done in the part ET - Inspection Simulation 2D cylindrical.
2.1.1.1. Plane specimen
A flat or plane specimen is defined by its length (along the x axis), its width (y axis) and its height
(z axis), all of which are expressed in mm. Plane specimen reference frame axes are shown in
the figure below. Frame origin belongs to the specimen entry surface (plane z = 0), which has
only positive x and y coordinates. Points located inside the volume have a positive z coordinate.
and thickness (all in mm). Its angular sector (in °), which by default is 360° can be reduced
as shown in the figure below.
Note: Angular sector is not an exclusively graphic concept, but is truly accounted for in com-
putation. The inner radius of the cylinder is deduced from its outer diameter and thickness; but
the user can also define the cylinder from its inner radius (its outer diameter is then deduced
from its inner radius and thickness).
Figure 3.9. cylindrical specimen
2.1.2. Definition of piece structure

For planar and bore piece, the "Structure" zone of the Specimen window allows selection of
one or more layers of material (Homogeneous or Multilayer options).
Figure 3.10. Structure for specimen
If the multilayer option is selected, the Geometry box enables insertion of a new layer either
above the one highlighted or at the end of the list, using a set of blue-colored buttons located to
the left of the list. These buttons also serve to displace the highlighted layer to a lower or higher
position and to define layer thicknesses by changing the values in the list. It is also possible
to remove the highlighted layer.
Multilayers structure

The "Material" menu in the Specimen window is intended for defining the material(s) making up
a piece. Depending on piece structure (Homogeneous or Multilayer as described in the previous
section), one or more materials need to be defined for each of the volumes that comprise it.
There are two possible ways of defining a material:
by clicking the Load button
. This button gives access to a list of predefined materials saved in XML format;
or by directly defining in the desired material properties (name, conductivity) via the GUI. Once
a material has been defined, it can be saved (by clicking the button
) as an XML file, which can subsequently be reloaded by clicking the load button.
In case of a planar or bore piece, the material is nonmagnetic. In case of a cylindrical piece,
however, the material is allowed to be magnetic, i.e. its (relative) permeability can be greater
than 1.
2.1.4. Defining mesh

In case of a bore piece, a "Mesh" tab is activated.
Mesh tab
The ECT module of Civa, the rivet is considered as a defect. So the user has to choose the
number of cells in order to define the mesh of the rivet. Three numbers of cells are required
corresponding to each axis of the coordinate system of the specimen. The number of cells in
the Y direction is necessary equal to the number of cells in the X direction.
2.2. Probe
This panel contains all the geometric properties of the eddy current probe. The probe is basically
made up of a set of elements such as a cylindrical coil or a sectorial coil. Probes shapes and
positioning depend on the geometry of the workpiece considered: for instance, in the case of
a flat piece, probes may include a ferrite core (with a constant magnetic permeability) or a
cylindrical shield, whereas in the case of a cylindrical piece, only punctual probes may have one.
Available probes configurations are detailed below in the case of flat and cylindrical workpieces,
respectively.
The different coil operating modes (absolute mode, separate T/R mode, etc.) and type of driving
current are selected via the Acquisition panel.
2.2.1. Probe type

The first parameter which has to be defined by the user is the type of the probe. This parameter
depends of the geometry of the workpiece and the application (Field Computation, Inspection
Simulation (3D), and Inspection Simulation (2D cyl)).
For a flat piece in the Field Computation and in the Inspection Simulation (3D), the user can
choose between:
• Simple (will typically correspond to a surface probe in this case)

• +Point-like (also called "Orthogonal Cross Wound" probe)
• Rototest-like
• Array probe
For a cylindrical piece for Field Computation and Inspection Simulation (3D), the user can
choose between:
• Simple (will typically correspond to a rotating sensor in this case)

• +Point-like
• Rototest-like
• X Probe-like
• Axial probe
• Custom
For the Inspection Simulation (2D cyl), the probe type will be always an Axial one, and the
choice is not available.
2.2.1.1. Simple
The Simple probe type permits to define a surface probe with one or several elements which
can be different. In the default configuration, there is only one element. The user can:
To come back to the configuration with only one element, the user has to delete all the elements.
The coordinates (x,y,z) for a flat piece (resp. (R,y,theta) for a cylindrical geometry) reported in
the tab correspond of a point in the coordinate frame reported in the 3D view.
The values reported in the X, Y and Z columns of Element N°1 does not correspond the coor-
dinates of element N°1 in the coordinates frame of the probe, but refer to the distance between
Element N°2 and Element N°1.
Note that, if the user modifies the coordinates of Element N°2, the coordinates of Element N°1
will change so that the distance between the elements will remain constant.
For a cylindrical geometry, the “inner” or “outer” option permits to locate the origin of the frame
associated with the probe on the inner (as typically for a rotating probe) or on the outer face
of the cylinder.
If the user defines a probe with several elements in the cylindrical geometry, a new parameter
appears: “reference tube radius”.
The following pictures permits to understand this parameter. In the example, the inner radius
of the tube is 11.11 mm and the outer radius is 12.38.
2.2.1.2. +Point-like
Introduction
The +Point like probe type is a model of orthogonal wound sensors based on the so-called
"+Point" probe concept.
Such sensors uses 2 interlaced coils having their axis parallel to the inspection surface in two
perpendicular directions. The 2 interlaced coils are generally mounted on a ferrite core (with
a “+” shape) to maximize the induced field in the test piece. The 2 coils generally work as
a combined transmit-receive mode and the reception is then processed in differential mode
(other designs can use a driver pick-up mode). This probe technology is naturally less sensitive
to lift-off noise as the 2 receivers in differential mode are located at the same position.
In CIVA, this probe can be defined either with a planar or cylindrical configuration.
Definition of the probe
The "+Point like" probe type model built in CIVA assumes that both coils are mounted on a
ferrite core.
Therefore, the definition page asks to key in all relevant data to define coils and ferrite core
properties.
The sketch shown in the probe panel ("geometry" tab) allows the different parameters to be
quite self-explaining, they are detailed below:
• C: Inner length of ferrite pot in mm

• A: Outer length of ferrite pot in mm
• B: Inner length of coils around ferrite pot in mm
• H: Height of ferrite pot in mm
• Relative permeability of the ferrite core
• Th: Thickness of coils winding in mm
• Number of turns
Only one "+Point" sensor can be defined as a built-in one in CIVA user interface.
The lift-off value and probe orientations an be defined as for another probe in the "Position"
tab of this panel.
Figure 3.11. +Point sensor in the 3D view
Manage acquisition parameters and computation with such probe
The "+Point like" probe type available in CIVA assumes that both elements operates as a
combined transmit-receive mode with a reception in differential mode.
(For other setup such as Driver - Pick up, you will have to define manually an orthogonal wound
sensors with "simple" elements).
The Acquisition panel will let the user enter the frequency (ies) of the acquisition channel(s).
There is no specific information to define for the acquisition mode and differential reception,
it is automatically set with a "1" coefficient in the reception panel (to enable the differential
reception) and 1mA as the driving current in both coils (a voltage source can also be selected).
The +Point like sensor appears at a single element in the channel definition:
Figure 3.12. Acquisition Panel for the "+Point-like" probe type
Due to the complex ferrite shape, the modelling of this probe type in CIVA software involves
a combination of Surface Integral Equations (SIE) (to compute the field of the sensor) with a
semi-analytical calculation of the field in the conductive specimen and the defect response.
This computation methods requires a quite high amount of RAM to work smoothly, at least for
the first stage of the computation based on an iteration process. Once the iteration is achieved,
the calculation continues as another one in CIVA eddy current.
Due to this calculation process, it is advised to run such configurations on quite performing
machines (with at least 16Gb of RAM).
2.2.1.3. Rototest-like
Introduction
The "Rototest-like" probe type available in CIVA stands for the type of rotating sensor technolo-
gies specially developed for rivet and fastener bore-hole inspections. It consists in a separated
function sensor where the driver surrounds 2 pick-up coils with D shape. The receiving coils
are mounted around a D-shape ferrite core and generally works in differential mode.
In CIVA, this probe can be defined either with a planar or cylindrical configuration.
The "Rototest-like" probe type model built in CIVA assumes that both receiving coils are mount-
ed on a ferrite core.
Therefore, the definition page asks to key in all relevant data to define the 3 coils and ferrite
core properties.
The sketch shown in the probe panel ("geometry" tab) allows to the different parameters to be
quite self-explaining, they are detailed below:
• Cylindrical coil: This section refers to the surrounding driving coil. Being cylindrical, all the
parameters are the same as for a simple cylindrical coil:
– Outer diameter in mm
– Inner Diameter in mm
– Height in mm
– Number of turns
• D-shaped coils: This section refers to the 2 receiving coils located inside the emitter. The first
4 parameters are similar to the ones of the "D coil" shape available for the "simple" probe
type and described also in a further section. The 2 other parameters refer to the relative
position of these 2 coils within the whole probe:
– External Radius (R2) in mm
– Internal Radius (R1) in mm
– Height in mm
– Number of turns
– Interval (I) in mm: Air gap between the inner sides of the 2 receiving elements
– Coil offset in mm: Part of the receiving coils that will overtake the driving coil. When this
value is positive, the bottom of the receivers are closer to the specimen. When the value
is 0, the bottom of both drivers and receivers are at the same level versus the specimen.
• Ferrite: It refers to the 2 ferrite cores:
– Height in mm
– Ferrite offset in mm: Part of the ferrite core that will overtake the receiving coil. When this
value is positive, the bottom of the ferrite cores are closer to the specimen. When the value
is 0, the bottom of both receivers winding and ferrite cores are at the same level versus
the specimen.
– Relative permeability of the ferrite core
Only one "Rototest like" sensor can be defined as a built-in one in CIVA user interface.
The lift-off value and probe orientations an be defined as for another probe in the "Position" tab
of this panel. The lift-off will be considered versus the element of the probe which is the closest
of the specimen (driving, or receiving coils, or ferrite core).
The image below shows a Rototest-like sensor configuration inside a bore where an offset of
0.5mm has been defined for the receiving coils (vs the driving coil bottom) and an offset of
0.2mm has been defined for the ferrite cores (vs the receiving coil bottom).
Figure 3.13. Rototest like sensor in the 3D view
Manage acquisition parameters and computation with such probe.
The "Rototest like" probe type available in CIVA assumes that the probe operates as a separate
transmit-receive mode with a reception in differential mode.
(For other setup such as Driver - Pick up, you will have to define it manually with "simple" D-
coils elements).
The Acquisition panel will let the user enter the frequency (ies) of the acquisition channel(s).
There is no specific information to define for the acquisition mode and differential reception,
it is automatically set with a "1" coefficient in the reception panel (to enable the differential
reception) and 1mA as the driving current in the driving coil (a voltage source can also be
selected). The Rototest like sensor appears at a single element in the channel definition.
Figure 3.14. Acquisition Panel for the "Rototest-like" probe type
Due to the complex ferrite shape, the modelling of this probe type in CIVA software involves
a combination of Surface Integral Equations (SIE) (to compute the field of the sensor) with a
semi-analytical calculation of the field in the conductive specimen and the defect response.
This computation methods requires a quite high amount of RAM to work smoothly, at least for
the first stage of the computation based on an iteration process. Once the iteration is achieved,
the calculation continues as another one in CIVA eddy current.
Due to this calculation process, it is advised to run such configurations on quite performing
machines (with at least 16Gb of RAM).
2.2.1.4. Array probe
The array probe can be multi-layers.
Thanks to the Element panel (described in the following section) it is possible to define the
characteristics of every winding coils of a given layer.
The characteristics of the array probe have to be defined for every layers, using the Layer
panel. The parameters are the following:
• Position of the array probe. ∆ x, ∆ y and ∆ z correspond to the position of the layer
• Number of elements along x and y axes
• Step between two elements along x and y axes. Both steps are regular
• Optional: Staggered rows or not. If not, the elements are put along a rectangular grid. If yes,
the shift along the x and y axes can be defined
The number of elements can be different from two layers.
Figure 3.15. Array Probe Definition
Wiring
This panel allows defining how the elements of the matrix are wired and their function: emitter,
receiver, emitter/receiver or emitter/receiver half bridge.
Few configurations are proposed in order to configure quickly the multi element probe. Then
it is possible to modify these parameters and so the mode switches to “Expert”. First, the con-
figurations are described.
First thing to do is to select the type of wire, using the Wire Type panel. Four types are available:
• One element by cable

• All elements on the same cable
• Expert
This mode means that each element of each layer is connected by a specific wire. It is used
to do modelling.
The position of the element in his layer is indicated into brackets. By default, each element has
an emitting/receiving function: Emission/Reception. The function of the cables can be changed
for all the cables using the combo box function, or for one cable only in the table (then, the
wiring type moves to Expert).
The One element on one cable mode is the same as before except that it concerns only the
given layer and not the whole matrix as previously. The operating mode can be defined for
every element of the layer: emitter, receiver or emitter/receiver.
The All elements on the same cablemode connects all the elements of the given layer with the
same cable. Therefore, the operating mode is the same for all elements of the layer.
In this mode, the elements of the given layer are connected with the same cable. The four
functions are allowed: emitter, receiver, emitter/receiver and emitter/receiver half bridge. The
polarity switches every other element. By default odd-numbered are positive and even are
negative (bold in the editor table). But it is possible to specify the polarity of each element in
the cable table.
In this mode, the elements of the layer are connected by row or columns. The connection axis
has to be selected. Choose x axis to connect the elements by columns and y axis for row
connection. The step connection panel allows to defining specific schemes.
Figure 3.16. Probe Wiring Definition
Expert using the editor panel
This mode allows modifying the wiring of the elements of the whole matrix using the editor
panel.
It is possible to specify if an element works as an emitter (resp. a receiver), using the Wiring
Editor panel.
With a click right of the mouse when put on an element, a new panel appears giving two pos-
sibilities:
• function of the element: emitter, receiver , emitter/receiver or emitter/receiver half bridge

• polarity : positive or negative
Figure 3.17. Expert Wiring Definition
The colour of the element (in the drawing as in the table) depends on its function:
• red for emitter

• blue for receiver
• pink for emitter/receiver
In the table, it becomes light when negative polarity is selected.

Settings
This panel allows defining patterns and sequences of activation.
The parameters Patterns and Trajectories are specified in the Editors. It is possible to view the
succession patterns and sequences by clicking on the play button. Patterns and Trajectories
have to be "saved and exit" to be taken into account in the editors.
Patterns
The pattern corresponds to the elements which work together. The simplest pattern is com-
posed with only one emitter/receiver function element. But it is possible to specify more com-
plicated patterns composed with one emitter and several receivers or several emitter and one
receiver, etc ….
A pattern is defined by clicking directly on the elements on the drawing in the sequence editor
panel. For instance, if one pattern is composed with one emitter and one receiver, the panel
will be:
It is possible to define several patterns. The list of patterns is incremented in the sequences
editor panel.
Once the patterns are defined, trajectories have to be specified.
The users has to indicate the reference coil of the patterns and the location of the measurement
point represented by a target (barycenters of pattern by default) and an eventual offset following
x and/or y. Invariant element can be added: this element stay will stay at the same place when
the others will follow the trajectory.
Figure 3.18. Patterns Definition
Trajectories
The Trajectories corresponds to the way the previously defined patterns are activated.
Once, you define the patterns, you can define the electronic trajectory. You can use simple
trajectory as "linear X or linear Y": the pattern will do first trajectory along X (or Y) then wraps
the line/columns. Yuo can use manual trajectory and delete some positions. If several elements
are on the same cable, the other elements of the cable will be in light colours in order to show
every elements active in the same timeslot.
It is also possible to compose a sequence with different patterns by adding timeslots. You can
activate timeslot in the editor. then a new column will be editable. Every pattern at one position
(=line in the table) which have the same timeslot number will be activate in the same time.
During a timeslot, several patterns can be activated.
Figure 3.19. Sequences Definition
Figure 3.20. Timeslot Definition
C-Scans
You can define here how many C-Scans you want to vizualise at the end of the calculation.
By default, one C-Scan by patterns. But you can create as much as C-Scans you need with
several patterns in the same C-Scan. The names are editables.
Figure 3.21. C-Scans Definition
Figure 3.22. 3D view with 3 Datasets
2.2.1.5. X-probe like
Introduction
The X-probe like is a multi elements probe dedicated to the tube inspection. In Civa this kind of
probe became available only when the specimen is defined as a cylinder. Generally this probe
is composed of two or three rings with a regular distribution of the coils in each ring.
In Civa, the geometry of the probe is defined in two steps.
The properties of the probe are defined in the first part of the probe panel. The user will define
successively:
• The number of rings that compose the probe

• The number of elements by ring
• The distance between the rings
• The gap between two rings which corresponds to the angular offset between two successive
rings
• The curvature radius of the probe. The default value of this parameter corresponds to the
inner radius of the tube (specimen)
In the second part of the probe panel the user will define the coil properties such as:
• The inner diameter

• The outer diameter
• The height
• The number of turns
Figure 3.23. X-probe like parameters
The X-probe like probe is working in a separate transmit-receive mode. This kind of probe can
be used for the detection of both circumferential flaws or longitudinal flaws. Depending on the
type of flaw to be detected, different patterns can be used. In Civa, 3 predefined patterns are
available under "Settings" tab. Two axial patterns with transmission coil and reception on dif-
ferent rings are useful for longitudinal flaws detection and a transverse pattern with transmis-
sion coil and reception coil on the same ring which is useful for circumferential flaws detection.
Figure 3.24. Predefined patterns
Figure 3.25. X-probe like predefined patterns,

from left to right Axial 1, Axial 2 and Transverse
From the C-Scans tab, the user can prepare the post processing by defining the C-Scans
that will be available at the end of the computation. Several C-Scans can be defined as a
combination of the signals corresponding to the patterns defined in the previous tab. By default
two C-Scans are created, one corresponding to an axial detection, the other to a transverse
detection.
Figure 3.26. Predefined C-Scans
Acquisition parameters
The operating frequency, the input current and the phase of the emitter are defined in Civa
Acquisition panel.
Figure 3.27. Acquisition panel
2.2.1.6. Axial probe
With an axial probe, the user can define a probe where the axis of the different elements is
aligned with the axis of the cylinder. The number of elements is not limited.
2.2.1.7. Custom
The last probe type combined the surface riding probe type and the axial probe type. The
number of elements is not limited.
2.2.2. Probe elements

Then, the user has to define the geometry of each element constituting the probe. The choice
depends of the geometry of the workpiece and the application, and it has to be done in the
following list:
• Cylindrical coil
• Rectangular coil
• ‘D’ coil
• Spiral coil
• Spiral coil( Rect)
• Racetrack coil
• Meander coil
• Magnetic sensor
• Axial coil
• Sectorial coil
• Permanent magnet
Note that for all elements, it is possible to define electrics parameters.
This will be discuss in a following part of the user guide.
Cylindrical coil
The cylindrical coil can be use for all workpieces, all types of probe (except Axial), and all
applications (except Inspection Simulation (2D cyl)). First, the user has to define the winding
dimensions, according to the associated picture.
For the cylindrical coil, it is possible to add a ferrite core and a Shield (except in the field
computation application, associated with a cylindrical workpiece).
Three geometries of ferrite core are available, and there descriptions are defined in the following
picture.
For the shield, the user has to define the dimensions and the material constituting the shield.
Note that if the user defines a cylindrical coil with a ferrite core and/or a shield, the axis of
coil has to aligned with the z direction for a plate workpiece, and with the radial direction for
a cylindrical geometry.
Rectangular coil
The rectangular coil can be use for all workpieces, all types of probe (except Axial), and all
applications (except Inspection Simulation (2D cyl)). The user has to define the winding dimen-
sions, according to the associated picture.
‘D’ coil
The ‘D’ coil can be use for all workpieces, all types of probe (except Axial), and all applica-
tions (except Inspection Simulation (2D cyl)). The user has to define the winding dimensions,
according to the associated picture.
Spiral coil
The spiral coil and the spiral coil (rect) can be use for all workpieces, all types of probe (except
Axial), and all applications (except Inspection Simulation (2D cyl)). The user has to define the
winding dimensions, according to the associated picture
Racetrack coil
The Racetrack coil can be use for all workpieces, all types of probe (except Axial), and all ap-
plications (except Inspection Simulation (2D cyl)). The user has to define the winding dimen-
sions, according to the associated picture.
Meander coil
The Meander coil can be use for all workpieces, all types of probe (except Axial), and all appli-
cations (except Inspection Simulation (2D cyl)). The user has to define the winding dimensions,
according to the associated picture.
Magnetic sensor
The Magnetic sensor coil can only be use for plate workpiece, all types of probe, and only in
the Inspection Simulation (3D). For this sensor, which is punctual element, and only a receiver,
the user has just to enter the sensitivity value.
Axial coil
The axial coil can be use for cylindrical workpieces, with axial and custom type probe, for
all applications. The user has to define the winding dimensions, according to the associated
picture
Sectorial coil
The sectorial coil can be use for cylindrical workpieces, with axial and custom type probe, for
all applications (except Inspection Simulation (2D cyl)). The user has to define the winding
dimensions, according to the associated picture
Permanent magnet
The last element is the permanent magnet, which are useful for EMAT probe (next section)
However, this element permit to compute the static field distribution. It is available only for plate
workpiece in the field computation module. The user has to define the dimension of the magnet,
the orientation and the intensity of the magnetic field, according to the following picture.
2.2.3. EMAT probe

The ElectroMagnetic Acoustic Transducer probe is a new ultrasonic transducer which use
Lorentz force to generate ultrasonic wave.
To build an EMAT probe, the user has to generate a probe constituting by a coil and a per-
manent magnet. Then, using the appropriated option in the computation parameter panel (de-
scribed in another section of the userguide), Civa will compute the Lorenz force resulting of
the interaction of the static field generated by the permanent magnet and the Eddy currents
generated by the coil. Then, the Lorenz force will be used in the ultrasonic module to generate
an ultrasonic field in the specimen.
2.2.4. Element positions

Then, the user has to define the position of each element in the coordinate frame associated
to the probe.
Plate workpiece
The position options are the following:
If there is only one element, the coordinate along the Z axis is the only one which is available,
and the element is located above the center of the coordinate frame of the probe.
In a multi element configuration, the user has to define the X, Y and Z coordinate in the coor-
dinate frame of the probe if the ref option is not checked. If this option is selected, (X, Y, Z)
refer to the coordinate of the ref element, and to the distance between the ref element and
the selected one.
Note that for the Z coordinate, the user can define the position of the center of the winding
or he can modify the lift-off value of the element (including the ferrite core and/or the shield
if necessary).
To complete the position of the element, it is possible to define a combination of three rotations.
Cylindrical workpiece
The position options are the following:
If there is only one element, the user has to specify the coordinates theta and r. The coordinate
along the Y direction is not available, and it is fixed at 0. Note that the theta coordinate is
available only if the radius coordinate r is not equal to 0. For a sectorial and an axial coil, the
radius coordinate is not available.
In a multi element configuration, the user has to define the r, theta and y coordinate in the
coordinate frame of the probe if the ref option is not checked. If this option is selected, (r, theta,
y) refer to the coordinate of the ref element, and to the distance between the ref element and
the selected one. For a sectorial and an axial coil, the radius coordinate is not available.
Note that for the r coordinate, the user can define the position of the center of the winding or
he can modify the lift-off value of the element (including the ferrite core and/or the shield if
necessary).
For a custom probe type only, the user has to specify if the element is inside or outside the
cylinder (this position option has already be defined at the bottom of the panel for a surface
riding probe, and it is not available for an axial probe).
To complete the position of the element, it is possible to define a combination of three rotations.
2.2.4.1. Interdependent rotations
This functionality is described for a plate workpiece, and it is exactly the same for a cylindrical
specimen.
First, the user defines the angle of rotation. When he press the enter key, the field “around the
axe” become available, and a second rotation can be defined.
For rotation N°2 and N°3, it is possible to define a rotation around an axis of the coordinates
frame of the probe or around an axis of the element. For the rotation N°1, this discrimination is
not available, because the three axes of the frame of the probe are aligned with the axis of the
element’s frame. The following picture displays the difference between a rotation around the Y
axis of the probe’s frame and a rotation around the Y axis of the element’s frame.
To display the element’s frame, the user has to right click on the element in the 3D view and
check the “display frame” option.
Notes:
• Rotations are not permitted by the computation model for cylindrical coil with a ferrite core
and/or a shield.
• For a rectangular coil, rotations are available so that a side of the coil is included in the plane
(XY).
2.2.5. Electrical parameters

In CIVA, it is possible to define electrical parameters of cylindrical, rectangular and axial coil.
This new, functionality permits to take into account some electrical parameters of a real coil.
The user has to specify the value off several resistivities, capacities and inductances according
to the associated picture.
Note that if the user don’t know the value of winding resistance (RS), it can be estimated using
some geometrical parameters of the wire and its conductivity.
For a matrix probe, it is possible to define the electrical parameters of the wire. The list of
electrical parameters depends of the function of the wire (Emitter, Receiver, ER, and ER_half).
To help the user, for each case, an appropriated picture is proposed at the bottom of the panel.
For an Emitter wire, the panel is the following
If the Amplifier option is checked, the user has to adjust the value of the gain, in dB, or in the
universal unit system.
For a Receiver wire, the panel is the following
If the Amplifier option is checked, the user has to adjust the value of the gain, in dB, or in the
universal unit system.
For an Emitter-Receiver wire, the panel is the following
And for an Emitter-Receiver half bridge wire, the panel is the following
2.3. Inspection
2.3.1. Introduction
The Inspection window is dedicated to the definition of the probe's position as well as the dis-
placement of the probe. Probe's displacement is used only in the inspection simulation module
and is defined with respect to the position of the frame associated with the sensor. The probe's
position is defined by the position of the frame in the workpiece reference frame.
Descriptions given here for the various tabs apply to the ET inspection simulation module. Any
differences for the ET Field Computation module are also indicated. This section covers the
various flat and cylindrical piece geometries.
2.3.2. Flat specimens

Three tabs are activated in this window:
• Configuration
• Positioning
• Scanning (available only in the inspection simulation module)
In the configuration panel, the user has to define the inspection plane. It can be aligned with
the X axis or with the Y axis of the specimen framework.
In the positioning panel, the user has to define the coordinates of the probe in the specimen
framework. The reference point of the probe is the origin of the probe's frame.
Note that it is note possible to change the value of the Z coordinate. To modify the position
along the Z axis of the different elements of the probe, the user has to modify the lift-off in
the Probe panel. To define a variation or a POD on the lift-off, the user has to check the ref
option of one element in the probe panel and select the lift-off of the ref element as a variable
parameter (right-click - in a POD or VAR context).
The default positioning button permits to locate the probe above the centre of the specimen.
In the inspection simulation module, the displacement tab is used to set up scanning parame-
ters in the X (Scanning direction 1 frame) and Y directions (Scanning direction 2 frame). Starting
from the probe's position, defined in the previous tab, the displacement is defined as a number
of steps in the two directions. In both cases, probe displacement involves a constant-value step
between two consecutive measurement points, expressed as a whole number. The number of
measurement points is thus always equal to the number of steps + 1.
In Civa, the user can define two types of trajectories: crenel or comb. The following picture
explains the difference between the two trajectories.
If the user clicks the button at the bottom of the tab (Visualization of the probe's position), then
these positions are displayed at the bottom of the tab and the user can see on the 3D window
the evolution of the probe's scanning by moving sliders.
Note that scanning 1 and scanning 2 refer to the displacement of the probe along the X and
along the Y directions respectively. The scanning slider contains the entire trajectory in the
two directions.
At the bottom of the bottom, the user can find the coordinates of the probe define by the position
of the sliders.
2.3.3. Cylindrical specimens

For a cylindrical piece, the configuration panel is not available.
In the positioning panel, the coordinates of the probe are given in the cylindrical coordinate
frame of the specimen, and rotations are available.
At last, the user can define the scanning in the scanning panel. With a cylindrical specimen,
two scanning modes are available:
Scanning/increment
Helicoidal
The Scanning/increment mode is the same than in a planar configuration.
The panel associated with a helicoidal trajectory is reported on the following picture.
In the Scanning mode section, the positive (resp. negative) option permits to define a rotation
around the Y axis with a positive (resp. negative) angle combined with a displacement along
the Y direction.
Then, the user defines the length of the trajectory along the Y axis and the angular displace-
ment.
For the other parameters, the user has the choice between acquisition parameters and geo-
metrical parameters. These two types of parameters are linked together.
The acquisition parameters are available for users who want to be close to experimental pur-
pose. He can define a speed translation, a speed rotation and a frequency as in an experimen-
tal setup.
In the geometrical parameters section, the user defines the translation step along the axis of
the cylinder, and the number of angular positions per round.
2.4. Flaw definition

One or several flaws can be introduced in a test piece by clicking the Flaw button in the In-
spection Simulation window (see Figure below for a flat test piece flaw). Flaw characteristics
are defined via the "Flaw properties" window using Geometry, Mesh, Positioning and Material
menus. Different kind of defect shapes can be considered.
Figure 3.28. inspection simulation window, positioning

of the defect and a 3D view of the NDT configuration
To add (resp. delete) flaws, the user has to click on the
(resp.)
button.
2.4.1. Geometry tab

The choice of the shape of the defect is defined by clicking on the Geometry tab. In planar
configurations, three kinds of defect can be introduced (parallelepiped flaw, flat bottom hole,
elliptic 2D5) and two kinds of defect in cylindrical geometries (a flat button hole and a notch
defined in a cylindrical coordinate system).
2.4.1.1. Fretting wear
For cylindrical specimen and 3D modelling only. The flaw fretting wear is available.This flaw is
an outer flaw defined by its length and its height.
Figure 3.29. Fretting wear
2.4.1.2. Parallelepiped defect
For flat test pieces, a parallelepiped flaw is placed according to the Cartesian coordinate sys-
tem and the edges of the flaw are aligned with the three axis of this coordinate system. The
characteristics of the flaw such as its Length along X axis, its Width along Y axis and its Height
along Z axis are introduced in millimetres.
Characteristics of a Parallelepiped defect and the 3D representation
In a bore configuration, it is possible to consider a parallelepiped flaw, as reported in figure

below.
Parallelepiped defect in a bore configuration
2.4.1.3. Flat-bottom hole in planar geometry
A Flat-bottom hole is defined by its diameter in the XOY plane and the length of the defect
along the Z axis. The axis of the hole is implicitly orientated along the Z axis and its location is
also fixed by the "ligament" parameter in the positioning tab.
Characteristics of a Flat-bottom hole in planar geometry
2.4.1.4. Ellipse and quarter ellipse
A 2D5 flaw corresponds to an elliptic profile defined in a XOZ plane and then, this 2D shape is
extruded along to the Y axis. The 2D profile is characterized by three parameters (two radiuses
and the height) and the thickness of the flaw is defined by the width. All these parameters are
introduced in millimeters. In the same way, a quarter ellipse can be designed. Note that ellipse
and quater ellipse can be defined for flat specimens only (plane and fastened plate).
2.4.1.5. Combined flaws
For flat specimens (plane or fastened plate) selected in the "Inspection simulation" (3D) model
as well as cylindrical specimens in the "Inspection simulation" (2D) model, several flaws with
different geometries can be defined in the same configuration. The computation of the signal
takes into account, not only the contribution of every defined flaw, but also their mutual inter-
action.
This mutual interaction is not computed in the case of cylindrical specimens in the Inspection
simulation (3D) model, even if several flaws can also be defined at the same time. The signal
is only the addition of every contribution.
2.4.1.6. A notch defined in a cylindrical coordinate system
The notch is characterized in a cylindrical coordinate system flaw (R,θ,Y) as shown in figure
below. The notch is defined by its Thickness (e) in the radial direction, its Lenght (L) along Y axis
and its Angular opening the azimuthally direction θ. The values are introduced in millimeters
or in degrees for the opening.
Characteristics of a cylindrical notch
2.4.1.7. Flat-bottom hole in cylindrical geometries
A cylindrical hole is defined by its diameter and its length both introduced in millimeters in the
Positioning tab. The axis of the hole is implicitly orientated along the radial direction and its
location is also fixed by the “ligament” parameter in the positioning tab.
Example of a Flat-bottom hole in a cylindrical geometry.
2.4.2. Positioning tab

This tab leads to define the position of the flaw. For flat (cylindrical) pieces, the center of the
defect is located by introducing the values according to the X axis (Y axis) and the Y axis (θ
axis).
For flat pieces, the ligament (in mm) corresponds to the distance from the flaw to the selected
reference surface, which may be the surface (surface button) or the backwall (Backwall button).
For tubes of finite thickness, the reference surface may be the inner surface (Inner button) or
the outer surface (Outer button) of the tube.
2.4.3. Material tab

The same "Material panel" is displayed both for the different types of NDT configurations (flat
pieces, cylindrical pieces).
Constitutive parameters of the flaw are defined via the "Material" tab. Generally, it is assumed
that the flaw is constituted by air: the conductivity is null and the relative magnetic permeability
is equal to one. If the case of an inclusion, the flaw is characterized by a non null conductivity
(measured in MS.m-1) which must be introduced by clicking on the "Inclusion" button. For
this version of CIVA, it is possible to consider an inclusion of magnetic material only for the
cylindrical geometry.
For usual materials, the value of the conductivity can be loaded by clicking on the opening
button. Then, it is possible to choose a specific material.
Material tab
2.5. Acquisition
The Acquisition window is accessible by clicking the Acquisition button at the bottom of the
Field Computation or inspection simulation window. Last parameters are set up in this window,
before the calculation is run. These parameters are the frequency and the functioning mode
of the probe. In Civa, the "Acquisition" panel is exactly the same in the field computation and
inspection simulation modules.
The ET Acquisition window displayed in the case of a Field Computation in shown in figure
below. The upper part of this window consists in the list of channels that can be modified using
blue buttons located on its left. A channel consists in a set of parameters: the frequency of the
driving current, the channel's title and sensors operative modes. The title and the frequency
are set up directly in the channel list, and when an active channel is selected (Channel 2 in the
example below), corresponding operative modes are listed in the lower part of the window. The
driving current's amplitude and phase is entered in this list, as well as a reception coefficient.
In the example, three channels are set up, and in the case of the active one (Channel 2),
Sensor n°1 is emitting with a driving current of 1 mA (phase 0 degree), and sensors n°2 and
3 are receiving with reception coefficients 1 and -1, respectively. These coefficients mean that
signals received by these two sensors will be subtracted (differential mode). Further examples
are given below in order to illustrate the use of this particular window (which do not depend
on the geometry of the work piece).
Figure 3.30. ET Acquisition window in the case

of the calculation of a inspection simulation.
Operative modes corresponding to the active channel (the second one) are displayed in the
lower part of the window.
2.5.1. Example 1: use of eddy current sensor in absolute mode

Let us consider the case of a flat, conductive plate with a flaw. The sensor is a single, air-cored
coil (with no ferrite), and the eddy current signature of the flaw is obtained by reading either
impedance changes or electromotive force (EMF) at coil terminals. The test configuration for
this example is shown in the figure below.
Figure 3.31. First test example, with absolute mode sensor

In this example the calculation will be carried out at the frequency of 500 kHz, the channel title
is "Absolute coil 0" and the only sensor is driven by a current with an amplitude of 1A, a phase
of 0 degree and operates as an emitter and a receiver (with a multiplicative reception coefficient
of 1). This operating mode is called the absolute mode. The flaw signal phase reference is
determined by the excitation current in the transmitting coil.
2.5.2. Example 2: use of eddy current sensor in separate mode (with separate transmit-
ting/receiving functions)
The test configuration for this example is shown below. In this case, a similar coil has been
added (see SENSOR window) to the EC configuration, and a new channel called “Separate
Mode” has been created . The frequency is the same as in the first channel (500 kHz, see
previous section).
Figure 3.32. Second test example, with separate mode eddy current sensor.
The reference coil labeled sensor n°1 is the transmitting coil, which is supplied with current in
the same way as above (1 A, 0 degree). The receiving signal is obtained by weighting the two
observation signals supplied by each of the two coils. The flaw signal for "separate function
mode" is obtained by entering coefficients 0 and 1, which correspond to having only sensor n
°2 as a receiver. This operating mode is called separate mode.
2.5.3. Example of sensor operation in differential mode

To simulate the behavior of a differential sensor, the user simply adds another channel in which
both coils supply current (1000 mA, 0 degree), and reception coefficients are 1 and -1, respec-
tively. Therefore the two observation signals supplied by each of the two coils will be subtracted
to produce the response of the EC probe.
Figure 3.33. Third test example: differential sensor with opposingly-wound coils.
Any number of sensors may be added to the configuration (see SENSOR window) with any
current amplitude and phase and any reception coefficient (which is a real number). A sensor
provided with current amplitude of 0 and a reception coefficient of 0 will not be used in the
channel considered.
3. ET - Field Computation
The ET field computation module offers simulation tools to evaluate and visualize the incident
electric field E and electric current density J induced in an unflawed (possibly stratified) planar
workpiece by an ECT probe. The probe consists in a set of elements driven each by a harmonic
current with a specific amplitude and pahse. An example of configuration is shown in Figure
below.
Example of field computation with CIVA: a set of disoriented cylindrical an rectangular coils
induce an electric field in a planar workpiece.
Note that a planar workpiece is assumed to be infinitely extended in the radial direction and
a cylindrical workpiece to be infinitely extended in the axial direction. These infinite boundary
conditions are implicit in the analytical formulation selected for Civa. Depending on the sensor
modelled, analytical, semi-analytical or numerical calculatons, described in section ET-Theory.
3.1. ET Field Computation - Active Model Setup

Figures below present a typical views of CIVA ET Field Computation. Panels Specimen, Probe,
Inspection, Acquisition are used to define completely the configuration and have already been
described in section "ET Modeling- Active Model Setup".
In the case of a field computation, the panel Computation Parameters is used to define the
zone where the field is calculated. In the case of the calculation of Normalized impedance
diagram of one probe element, the panel Probe response is used to choose the element and
the frequencies or lift-offs at which its impedance is calculated. These two panels are described
in detail in the next sections.
Various panels present in the case of an ET field computation. Panels Specimen, Probe, In-
spection, Acquisition and Computation Parameters are used to define completely the configu-
ration, and the button Run and the panel Probe Response are used to launch a field calculation
or a set up and launch a Normalized impedance diagram calculation, respectively.
3.2. Computation Parameters panel

Some specific options that appear in the panel Ćomputation Parameters´ have to be set up
for a field computation.
Figure 3.34. Example of the lateral panel ´Specimen´ opened by

clicking on the Specimen button located at the bottom of the 3D view.
All options n this panel aim at sizing and positioning a 2D or 3D box in which the electric field
E and the electric current density J will be calculated. If the box is 2D, then it may be oriented
horizontally or vertically, as shown below.
Examples of 2D zones for the field computation with CIVA ET. Three 2D zones orientations
are supported: along directions X and Z (left), Y and Z (center) or X and Y (right).
A regular 2D or 3D grid of calculation points is defined with parameters Ńb of steps´ along
each dimension. The zone dimensions are defined with parameters ´Xzone´, ´Zzone´ and (in
the 3D case only) Ýzone´.
The positioning of the calculation zone is set up by the position of its center in cartesian coor-
dinates.
In the case of a 2D zone, its orientation is defined by the value of two rotation angles that accept
values of 0° and 90° only. The default orientation of the zone is along directions X and Z.
Figure 3.35. Example of a 2D zone definition.

After the definition for all the different parameters, the computation is launched by clicking the
Run button.
In the case of a field computation, electromagnetic fields due to all active elements are calcu-
lated in the computation zone for all channels defined (see Acquisition Panel).
When the computation is done, results are displayed in the analysis window described in the
following section.
In the case of an EMAT calculation, harmonic fields calculations are carried out at several
frequencies (number of channels appearing in the CIVA wait-bar in this case) of the spectrum
for every active inductive elements and then the current distribution in time domain is calculated
using an inverse Fourier transform. This current distribution is combined with magnetostatic
magnetic fields due to the permanent magnets to obtain the Lorentz force distribution in the
piece.A 2D horizontal slice of the results is then displayed in the Imaging module, in order to
show the spatial distribution of the Lorentz force (the third dimension -time- is not displayed).
Note: After saving the results, the CIVA configuration is to be loaded in the Transducer panel
of the UT module to define an EMAT probe (as the Lorentz force distribution constitutes the
excitation term of the EMAT probe for the UT field propagation model).
3.4. ET Field Computation Imaging

Results produced by ET field computations (in this version only planar pieces are available in
this mode) are displayed in tabs inside the main CIVA window. For each channel defined (see
Acquisition section for details), two quantities are calculated: the electric field E inside the piece
and the current volumetric density J.
In this example the amplitude of the electric field module, defined as Module = √(|Ex|² + |Ey|²
+|Ez|² ), has been computed in a 3D box. The probe considered is composed of two identical
rectangular coils rotated of 90 degrees from each other with respect to the vertical axis z.
Figure 3.36. Example of field computation results displayed in CIVA. The

amplitude of the electric field module has been computed in a volume)
In addition of standard imaging tools described in section ET Analysis Functionalities, some

tools that are specific to the field imaging are available in this mode. They are briefly described
in the next paragraphs.
Figure 3.37. Example of stream lines representation in the case of a

permanent magnet located over a conductive but non-magnetic plate.
The static magnetic field is not perturbed by the piece.
Figure 3.38. Example of stream lines representation in the case of

a permanent magnet located over a conductive and magnetic plate.
The magnetic field is guided inside the plate in this case.
Figure 3.39. Iso-surface representation of the magnetic field module.

When the computation is done inside a 3D box, results may be visualized in 2D slice oriented
along XY (bottom left image), along XZ (top right image) or YZ (bottom right image). When
a 3D view of the piece is activated (top left image), results are displayed using slice cursors
that the user can move with mouse, changing this way the images described previously. These
cursors are also accessible in the images windows (horizontal and vertical black lines). Another
possibility is to enter numerical values in order to position the cursors in the zone position panel
located at the bottom of the window, see figure below for a zoomed view.
On the left, a smoothing tool can be used to interpolate the data displayed in the active.
This particular panel displays numerical values corresponding cursor(s) position(s) in the active
widow, as well as some color bar settings.
1D images are accessible from the Scan Explorer (located in the bottom left corner) by right-
click/Display. Standard drag and drop functionalities are available for these plots.
3.4.1. ET Field Analysis ToolBar

The ToolBar is the entry point of the main features available for ET Field Analysis.
Figure 3.40. ET Field Analysis toolbar


tion)
Project Any image Project

in mm ment
Any result image (ex-

Component Component
cept 3D view)
Colormap display next to the image Any 2D image Colormap

two, none)

Any result image Cursor connection

Any image with same
unit for both axes
for axis)
age (Flip Vertically, Flip Horizontally, Di- Any result image Mirror and rotation
rect rotation)
Smoothing a result Any 2D image Smoothing

Any image Export data
values)

Any image Copy
board

format (the user has the choice to export - DXF export
Open a new and empty tab for analysis Always Add an analysis page
3.4.2. NDE project and comparison tools
The project feature allows to gather data.
In order to compare 2 or more results, 3 tools are available :
• 1) [Quick look] Directly drag and drop a curve on the other one from your analysis page
(the scale will stay the same),
• 2) [Overview] Open the Multi-curves window and drag and drop the curves to compare inside
(the scale will automatically take the maximum one),
• 3) [Precise] Open the comparison tool to make a more precise comparison that you can
save between various channels and results coming from the same or different CIVA files.
This comparison mode can also be applied to C-scans.
Quick look
Drag and drop the 1D curve on the other.
This tool allows you to have a quick comparison. The scale will stay the existing one in the
graph in which you have dropped the curve. Therefore, you have to drag and drop the curve
with the smallest scale into the other to see the curves properly.
You can delete the new curve in the tool box "Superimposition".
Example below: after a drag and drop of the curve with the smallest scale into the other.
Example below: after a drag and drop of the curve with the bigger scale into the other.
Overview comparison
In order to avoid the scale issue, you can drag and drop a curve in the Multi-curves window.
• a) Open the Multi-curves window,

• b) Drag and drop all the 1D curves you want,
• c) Choose the line color and the line type of your curves.
Example below: Location of the Multi-Curves tool in the Scan Explorer
Example below: Multi-curves window open (but empty for the moment)
Example below: Several curves dropped into the Multi-Curves window
Be careful, this windows is an overview and is not saved if you close the software.
If you want to save the comparison, you have to use the third tool, the comparison tool.
Precise comparison tool - Create a *.nde project/Create a comparison page
In order to avoid the scale issue and save your comparison(s), you can use the comparison tool.
i) First, you have to create a NDE project including the data you want to compare. To do so,
click on the relevant icon shown below and select a name for your project,
• > your project *.nde is created (empty)
ii) Import the CIVA file(s) including the data you want to compare. This(ese) CIVA file(s) must
not be open already in CIVA to be loaded in a *.nde project,
• ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
iii) Enable the "Compare with..." menu with the relevant icon,
iv) Choose the different channels you want to compare,
• > The comparison page is created in CIVA manager and opens automatically,
v) Tick the curves you wants to visualize in the comparison page.
• ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example below for these 5 steps
i) Create a NDE project
ii) Give a name to your project and import the relevant CIVA files
The *.nde project is created in the CIVA files manager
iii) Then, enable the "Compare With" menu.
iv) Choose the different files and channels you want to compare and click "OK"
The comparison page is created in CIVA manager and open automaticaly
v)Tick the curves you wants to see illustrated.
Precise comparison tool - How to use it
In the "Sources" menu, information is given on the CIVA file(s) the curves come from and you
can modify the line type, color and also the name of the curves.
In the "Views" menu, "General" tab: You can tick or untick "Highlight data" in order to enable
setting the lines in bold when the corresponding channel is selected in the list at the top,
"Views" Menu, "General" tab.
In the "Tools" tab: A measurement tool is proposed with the following features
1) you can rename your measurement and add/remove other ones
2) you can remove the measurement tool (untick the thumbnail)
3) you can choose your measurement method, that is to say, you define how to select the first
point of the measurement (foot) and the last point of the measurement (head).
For the foot (pink cursor), this can be:
• Position: First point of the measurement selected at the pink cursor position
• Interval: First point of the measurement selected at the maximum value in the interval defined
by the two pink cursors. Interval width in mm can be changed
• Zero: First point of the measurement is 0 (i.e. typically for "0 to peak" measurements)
• Average position: First point of the measurement is the average signal value among the
selected interval
For the head (red cursor), this can be:
• Position: End point of the measurement selected at the pink cursor position
• Interval: End point of the measurement selected at the maximum value in the interval defined
4) you can see your results in the "Result" tab and export your data
1) "Tools" menu
2) Untick the thumbnail to remove measurement cursors in the graph
3) "Tools" menu - Measurement from zero to maximum in an interval
"Tools" menu - Measurement from a position to maximum in an interval
4) Result tab: value of the measurement for the selected channel
The NDE project can be saved and zipped in order to keep together all important data for
your work and to keep your comparisons available.
3.4.3. Measure
This feature gives information about 123
Max values in points
3.4.4. Selection of the data component

The component of the electric field or the current density that is visualized can be accessed
through the icon.
Components X, Y, or Z can be chosen. It corresponds to the X axis, Y axis and Z axis. In these
cases, the quantity visualized may be the real part, imaginary part, value (amplitude) or phase.
An additional quantity called modulus and defined as Modulus = sqrt[|Ex|2 + |Ey|2 + |Ez|2] is
also available in value only.
sub-window, the Component panel button highlighted with a red circle.
Menu appearing when clicking the button.
Figure 3.42.
3.4.6. Cursors
sis page.
the selected view.
3.4.10. Smoothing
This option concerns the field smoothing, only active for 2D images. When the resolution
of the image is too low due to a lake of computation points, it is possible to obtain an interpolate
image of the computed field, as shown in following pictures.
Figure 3.43. Smoothing for 2D images
This functionality is useful for large 3D computation zone.
For the 3D view frame the smoothing is activated through the toolboxes panel, under Options /
Planes.
Figure 3.44. Smoothing for 3D view
3.4.11. Export
3.4.12. Copy
3.4.13. DXF Export
3.4.15. Export in 3D view and associated toolboxes

Simulation results may be exported in a 3D view containing different elements (see 3D View
section for details). When this view is active, a toolbox panel appears when clicking the asso-
ciated button on top right corner of the 3D view window, as shown in figure below. Some tools
are already described in the common toolboxes section.
Figure 3.46. Toolbox panel appearing at the bottom of the 3D window

(maximized in this case) when clicking the toolbox button highlighted in red.
This panel, shown in detail in Figure below (with the tab tool activated), contains five elements
used to set up (from left to right):
• the component visualized in the 3D view (equivalent to the tool described previously for the
2D views),
• the color settings,
• if (and only if) the Module component has been chosen, the display of stream lines with a
set of arrows with custom density and size,
• the display of iso-values surfaces with custom size and opacity (see for an example).
Figure 3.47. zoomed view of the Toolbox panel.
Figure 3.48. Example of stream lines visualization in the 3D view.
The component Module has to be chosen in the Component toolbox for this feature to be
available.
Figure 3.49. Example of Iso-surfaces visualization in the 3Dview.
3.5. Probe response

Part of the ET-FIELD module of CIVA, the Probe response tool is an evolution of the Normal-
ized Impedance Diagram, previously available for specimens with planar geometry.
3.5.1. Normalized Impedance Diagram

This part describes a specific tool dedicated to the plot of a normalized impedance diagram
for a coil located above a (stratified or not) slab of infinite length and width but finite thickness.
This tool is not available in the cylindrical geometry. Coil geometries allowed in this tool are
cylindrical and rectangular coils that may be disoriented, as well as non-disoriented (i.e with a
vertical axis) cylindrical coils with a ferrite core and/or a shielding and with a vertical axis.
Configurations available for the calculation of an impedance diagram in CIVA.
Remark: When several sensors are defined in the active configuration, the user has
to choose a sensor for the computation of its normalized impedance diagram, with
the drop down list located on top of the "Normalized Z" panel.
3.5.1.1. Physical significance of a normalized impedance diagram

The example given here is a cylindrical coil supplied with sinusoidal AC current I, which angular
frequency is ω = 2 π f, where f is the working frequency in Hz. The impedance of this coil in
air is expressed as a complex variable:
Z0 = R 0 + j L 0 ω ,
where R0 is the coil resistance in air and L0 its inductance. Given the very low resistivity of
the wire making up the coil, the R0 is usually neglected with respect to L0 ω. Consequently, if
normalized impedance is represented as:
in the complex plane, along normalized x-axis R / (L0 ω) and y-axis L ω / (L0 ω), the point
corresponding to
has the coordinates (0,1). If a conductive, magnetic or nonmagnetic plate of finite thickness
is placed near the coil of interest, the eddy currents induced by that coil produce a magnetic
reaction field that modifies the coil impedance Zn. In the case of a nonmagnetic plate, for ex-
ample, reactance L ω decreases due to the magnetic reaction field and resistance R increases
due to Joule effect losses in the plate. In a normalized impedance diagram, this impedance
change is represented in the complex plane as a function of the working frequency f (and that
frequency only). Figure below shows the normalized impedance diagram corresponding to the
test configuration depicted, for frequencies ranging from 1 Hz to 500 MHz.
Note that where ω tends toward 0 i.e., in a steady state regime, the coil induces no eddy currents
in the piece and its impedance is then Z0. As is evident from Figure below, if f = 1 Hz, the
coordinates of the point representing coil impedance in the impedance plane are very close
to (0,1) along axes R/X0 and X/X0. The maximum resistivity value is achieved at frequency
f0 = 17 kHz. A final analysis of this diagram could enable definition of an optimum operating
frequency [MacMaster, 1986]
Normalized impedance diagram

In this diagram, X0 = L0 ω and X = L ω.
3.5.1.2. Computation of a normalized impedance diagram in CIVA

For a flat, homogeneous (flaw free) test piece, a normalized impedance diagram is computed
by clicking the Normalized Z button in the Field Computation window. This calls a Normalized
impedance window with a Select sensor dropdown menu and a table for entering frequencies
at which the user wishes to compute coil impedance.
By clicking the calculation button, the user initiates computation, then displays results as a
graph and a six-column table. For each of the different frequency values selected (column
1), this table gives the reactance values (X0) of the coil in air (column 6). Note that its in-air
resistance values are negligible. The table likewise shows coil resistance R and reactance X
for the configuration with a plate (columns 2 and 3 respectively), along with normalized values
Rnorm = R / X0 and Xnorm = X / X0, which correspond to the coordinates of computation points
in the complex plane. These quantitative values can be processed and saved in a file using
the Command, Settings and Position menus.
Computation of a normalized impedance diagram in the Field computation window. Normalized

impedance window (left panel) is displayed by clicking the Normalized Z button (right panel).
Values of real and imaginary coil impedance components at different frequencies.
Further references and scientific articles developing the theory briefly presented in the above
sections are available at CIVA web site: http://www-civa.cea.fr
3.5.2. Frequency response with electrical circuit
3.5.3. Lift-off response
3.6. EMAT source computation
3.6.1. Outline of EMAT modeling in CIVA

EMAT modeling is introduced as an expert user feature in CIVA 11. As of CIVA 11, there is
no dedicated EMAT module, thus modeling is done in two steps combining the two existing
ET and UT/GWT modules:
• Lorentz force simulation in CIVA – ET module

• Acoustic propagation simulation in CIVA – UT or GWT module
The underlying philosophy here is that the electromagnetic phenomena are separated from
the ultrasonic propagation effects. This is made possible because electromagnetic propagation
speeds are several orders of magnitudes faster than typical ultrasonic speeds, thus allowing
decoupling of the problems. To give a general idea, the UT module will use the calculated
Lorentz body forces as a special kind of transducer definition, thus making the model fit in the
general frame of UT tools already present in CIVA (Specimen, Transducer, Options and so on).
The next section will present the modeling options for EMAT technology as implemented in
the ET module.
3.6.2. Available coils and magnets

An EMAT transducer results from the interaction of eddy currents and a static magnetic field.
Thus, EMAT probes in the ET module are constituted of coils and magnets. Any geometry of
coil available in the CIVA ET module can be used:
Cylindrical coils Rectangular coils Racetrack coils D-coils
Spiral coils Rectangular spiral coils Meander coils
Static magnetic fields are generated using rectangular magnets:
For coils and rectangular magnets, the usual parametric options are all available (geometry:
width, length, spacings...).
3.6.3. Defining an EMAT model and running a calculation in the ET module

As EMAT modeling is an expert feature in CIVA, we are assuming you are already familiar with
the modeling order of the ET module:
1.Load the ET module
2.Specimen geometry selection EMATs only work on planar specimens. Therefore please se-
lect this option in the drop-down list:
3.Characteristics of modeled material should be defined in the corresponding tab:
4.Probe definition in the probe panel.
5.Inspection panel settings.
6.Computation parameters definition.
7.When done with configuration settings, please hit the run button.
8.Once the calculation is done, please save the file to your disk. It can be useful to append
the suffix “_ET” to your ET calculation file, as you will run a second calculation in the UT or
GWT module that will contain UT or GWT results and that could thus be named with the suffix
“_UT” or “_GWT”.
3.6.4. Analysis of ET module calculation result

As explained before, the model simulates the Lorentz forces that are generated by the inter-
action of material-induced eddy currents with a static magnetic field. In CIVA ET module, the
result of an EMAT calculation is a three component Lorentz force field defined on the surface
lying directly underneath the EMAT probe. The surface force field has three components along
the axes. The calculation result appears after the computation is finished as a child node in the
configuration shown in the CIVA manager.
Each of the three components of the force field can be inspected using the standard image
tools. The default view displayed in CIVA is a color map of the amplitudes of the Lorentz forces.
The picture below shows an example of such a view.
To distinguish between the individual components of the forces, you can use the component
selector, accessed by clicking the letter (for components):
Based on the example shown above, the individual force components are as follows (from left
to right, x,y and z):
Once you have confirmed that the force distribution is as expected, the next step is to switch
to UT or GWT simulation.
4. ET - Inspection Simulation 3D
At this stage, the geometry and the constitutive parameters of the work piece (specimen panel),
the geometry and location of the probe (probe panel) and of one or more defects (flaws panel)
were specified. The numerical parameters associated with each defect must now be defined
(computation parameters panel) to run the calculation.
4.2. Computation parameters

We now define the numerical parameters associated with each defect. These parameters con-
cern the choice of modeling of the defect, by volume or boundary integral equations (VIM and
BEM, respectively), and the number of cells used in each direction of the defect. Specifically,
these cells will be used to represent the smallest Cartesian box (circular box with a cylindrical
configuration) that contains the defect. An automatic mode is now available for which the para-
meters are automatically filled in order to ensure a certain accuracy of the calculation. Anyway,
all the parameters can still be modified, with certain restrictions with the BEM model.
Indeed, the BEM model is accessible
• In plane configurations with a parallelepiped notch or an ellipse.

• In cylindrical configurations with a cylindrical notch when the relative permeability of the cylin-
der is equal to one (the calculation is done on an equivalent plane configuration when the
tube is not homogeneous or with several defects).
Besides, the BEM model does not handle inclusions (but it handles bridge contacts). Further-
more, the BEM model is not recommended when the opening of the flaw is not thin enough
with respect to the coil geometry and to the skin thickness (we refer to the presentation of the
model for further descriptions). It is recommended otherwise as it yields accurate results a
way faster than the VIM model.
The current flaw (blue line) is selected by clicking on the corresponding line in the ‘Computation
parameters’ panel. The automatic specification of parameters is achieved by clicking on the
‘Auto mesh (selected)’ button. The corresponding parameters are shown in the board below.
Then, it is still possible to modify this selection by giving new values in the board. Notice that
the number of cells in the width/opening direction is fixed to one with the BEM model.
'Computation parameters' panel: the VIM (volume) model
'Computation parameters' panel: the BEM (boundary) model

When all simulation parameters required for the studied configuration has been introduced by
the end-user, the computation may be launched by clicking on the run button.
The computation is done in several steps, and some computation windows show the progress
of the computation by displaying a wait bar for each step.
According to the theory which is described in previous sections, the different steps are sum-
marized:
1. The computation of the primary field for taking into account the geometry of the eddy current
probe, the characteristics of the work-piece to be inspected and the operating frequency. In
this case, the end user can see some wait bars which are similar to those already met in the
field computation module. See for instance:
2. Next, the computation of the dyads before solving the state equation for the computation of
the electrical field resulting from the interaction of the primary field with the flaw; this step takes
into account the characteristics of the flawed region and the mesh which has been chosen by
the end-user.
The wait bars are:
During the computation of the dyad, the end-user can observe two wait bars:
Next, during the computation of the fictitious eddy current density resulting from the interaction
between the defect and the primary field, one can see two kinds of behaviors. If the density
of the mesh is not too large, the algorithm launches a direct computation by computing the
inversion of a full large matrix, In this case, the end-user can see the following wait bars:
This method is usually very fast and all positions of the eddy current testing (ET) probe taking
into account the scanning of the ET probe are considered in a single step.
Otherwise, if the density of the mesh is too large, the fictitious eddy current density is computed
via an iterative process. In this case, the end-user can observe one single wait bar:
The computation is done for each position of the eddy current probe.
Finally, the computation of the response of the flaw is done. This step depends on the char-
acteristics of the receiving probe. The end user can observe a last wait bar but usually, the
computational time is very low and this window disappears very quickly.
This sequencing computation will be done successively for each configuration for each channel
defined in the acquisition panel. When the all the computations are finished, all results are
transferred to the analysis window which is described in the following section.
4.4. Imaging and data analysis
4.4.1. ET Imaging
Once the calculation is complete, the available results are displayed:
• Area A - CIVA manager: List of open files and associated results

• Area B - Scan explorer: List of available data for the currently selected result
• Area C - Display page: displays either the 3D view of the model (model page) or the results
(analysis page)
• Area D - Toolbar: List of available tool
• Area E - Toolboxes: Additional tools or options for the toolbar (some tools already described
in the common toolboxes section).
It is possible to go back to the configuration panels by right-clicking on the "model" button in

the CIVA manager (area A) or to compare the results of several calculations.
Figure 3.50. Interface with a model page
Figure 3.51. Interface with an analysis page
4.4.2. ET Inspection Simulation Analysis ToolBar

The ET Inspection Simulation Analysis ToolBar is the entry point of the main features available.
Figure 3.52. ET Inspection Simulation Analysis toolbar


tion)
Preferences Always Global preferences
Description of the associated control pa-

Any image Project
rameters
Any result image (all

Create a limitation defined by cursors Limitation
except 3D view)
Balance Any result image Balance
Calibrate Any result image Calibrate
Coordinates Any result image Coordinates
Filter Any result image Filter
Combine Any result image Combine
Convert zoom into lim-

Zoom into limitation Any result image
itation

Distance measurement
in mm ment
Open the histogram Any result image SNR
Compare Any result image Compare

two, none)
Peak-to-peak mea-
Peak-to-peak measurement Any 2D image
surement

Any image Cursor connection
Any image with same
unit for both axes
for axis)
age (Flip Vertically, Flip Horizontally, Di- Any image Mirror and rotation
rect rotation)
On Impedance plane
Centering a view Centered view
images
Using the same scale on different data Any result image Same scale
Smoothing a result Any 2D image Smoothing
On Impedance plane
Display a grid or Amplitude/Phase Grid display
images
Any image Export data
values)

Any image Copy
board
format (the user has the choice to export - Export in DXF
Open a new and empty tab for analysis Always Add an analysis page
4.4.3. NDE project and comparison tools
The project feature allows to gather data.
In order to compare 2 or more results, 3 tools are available :
• 1) [Quick look] Directly drag and drop a curve on the other one from your analysis page
(the scale will stay the same),
• 2) [Overview] Open the Multi-curves window and drag and drop the curves to compare inside
(the scale will automatically take the maximum one),
• 3) [Precise] Open the comparison tool to make a more precise comparison that you can
save between various channels and results coming from the same or different CIVA files.
This comparison mode can also be applied to C-scans.
Quick look
Drag and drop the 1D curve on the other.
This tool allows you to have a quick comparison. The scale will stay the existing one in the
graph in which you have dropped the curve. Therefore, you have to drag and drop the curve
with the smallest scale into the other to see the curves properly.
You can delete the new curve in the tool box "Superimposition".
Example below: after a drag and drop of the curve with the smallest scale into the other.
Example below: after a drag and drop of the curve with the bigger scale into the other.
Overview comparison
In order to avoid the scale issue, you can drag and drop a curve in the Multi-curves window.
• a) Open the Multi-curves window,

• b) Drag and drop all the 1D curves you want,
• c) Choose the line color and the line type of your curves.
Example below: Location of the Multi-Curves tool in the Scan Explorer
Example below: Multi-curves window open (but empty for the moment)
Example below: Several curves dropped into the Multi-Curves window
Be careful, this windows is an overview and is not saved if you close the software.
If you want to save the comparison, you have to use the third tool, the comparison tool.
Precise comparison tool - Create a *.nde project/Create a comparison page
In order to avoid the scale issue and save your comparison(s), you can use the comparison tool.
i) First, you have to create a NDE project including the data you want to compare. To do so,
click on the relevant icon shown below and select a name for your project,
• > your project *.nde is created (empty)
ii) Import the CIVA file(s) including the data you want to compare. This(ese) CIVA file(s) must
not be open already in CIVA to be loaded in a *.nde project,
• ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
iii) Enable the "Compare with..." menu with the relevant icon,
iv) Choose the different channels you want to compare,
• > The comparison page is created in CIVA manager and opens automatically,
v) Tick the curves you wants to visualize in the comparison page.
• ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example below for these 5 steps
i) Create a NDE project
ii) Give a name to your project and import the relevant CIVA files
The *.nde project is created in the CIVA files manager
iii) Then, enable the "Compare With" menu.
iv) Choose the different files and channels you want to compare and click "OK"
The comparison page is created in CIVA manager and open automaticaly
v)Tick the curves you wants to see illustrated.
Precise comparison tool - How to use it
In the "Sources" menu, information is given on the CIVA file(s) the curves come from and you
can modify the line type, color and also the name of the curves.
In the "Views" menu, "General" tab: You can tick or untick "Highlight data" in order to enable
setting the lines in bold when the corresponding channel is selected in the list at the top,
"Views" Menu, "General" tab.
In the "Tools" tab: A measurement tool is proposed with the following features
1) you can rename your measurement and add/remove other ones
2) you can remove the measurement tool (untick the thumbnail)
3) you can choose your measurement method, that is to say, you define how to select the first
point of the measurement (foot) and the last point of the measurement (head).
For the foot (pink cursor), this can be:
• Position: First point of the measurement selected at the pink cursor position
• Interval: First point of the measurement selected at the maximum value in the interval defined
• Zero: First point of the measurement is 0 (i.e. typically for "0 to peak" measurements)
• Average position: First point of the measurement is the average signal value among the
selected interval
For the head (red cursor), this can be:
• Position: End point of the measurement selected at the pink cursor position
• Interval: End point of the measurement selected at the maximum value in the interval defined
4) you can see your results in the "Result" tab and export your data
1) "Tools" menu
2) Untick the thumbnail to remove measurement cursors in the graph
3) "Tools" menu - Measurement from zero to maximum in an interval
"Tools" menu - Measurement from a position to maximum in an interval
4) Result tab: value of the measurement for the selected channel
The NDE project can be saved and zipped in order to keep together all important data for
your work and to keep your comparisons available.
4.4.4. Limitation
This feature gives information about 123.
The limitation is an imaging tool allowing to isolate a part of data views. The purpose of limi-
tations is to reduce the volume of data to be processed. Indeed, this feature generates views
with smaller volumes of data (unlike zooming, such reductions also affect "daughter" images)
and therefore ensures shorter processing times.
This functionality is available from different images and curves but really makes sense from a
Cscan view in the context of an Eddy Current inspection result.
You initiate the Limitation by clicking on the toolbar button
The following example illustrates how to define the limitation from a CScan image; select the
Cscan image and click on the to call the limitation tool. Then:
1. A new "post-processing" window opens and lets you define the limitation zone either by
entering the limits in X Y coordinates in a table as on the image below:
2. ... or graphically, by selecting a rectangular zone within the initial CScan as on the image
below :
3. The limited data are displayed on the image at the bottom right image and are automatically
rescaled. Then, just validate by clicking on "New" and giving a name to this set of data
The new data source appears in the current configuration tree of CIVA manager. Thus it is
possible to display the limitation result in a new analysis page.
You can also edit/modify limitation parameters or remove the limitation:
Figure 3.53. New set of limited data available as a new analysis page from
the CIVA manager (limitation parameters can be edited and modified)
4.4.5. Balance
4.4.5.1. Balance
By default, most of simulated results obtained with CIVA ET are automatically balanced, i.e.,
signal amplitude is set to 0 out of the zone where the defect has an influence on the result.
In some cases, the raw results needs to be balanced manually, as you would do in a real testing.
In these cases, the raw signal amplitude is not zero out of the "defect influence zone" but has
the value of the sensor impedance coupled with the tested specimen.
This is when:
• The analysis is performed on experimental signals that have been loaded in CIVA,
• The analysis deals with simulation cases where a voltage source is involved (instead of
current source) and/or electric parameters have been defined on the coils.
4.4.5.1.1. C-Scans
Click on the relevant icon, which will open the window to define balancing settings (figure be-
low).
You have to choose the location of the reference zone where the "zero" will be made. By default,
a rectangular zone is proposed to define this zone (figure below) which means that the average
value of the signal on the whole zone is set to 0mV. But other options are available for this
reference zone in the "balance mode" menu:
• Vertical interval : Reference zone considered on one vertical scan line on the C-Scan,
• Horizontal interval: Reference zone considered on one horizontal scan line on the C-Scan,
• By line: Reference zone considered for each line of the C-Scan in the selected zone.
• By Column: Reference zone considered for each column of the C-Scan in the selected zone.
You can check if the zone is at the right place for all the C-Scan chosen by clicking on the
different channels (in the "Data List" zone of the balancing window).
This is also possible to select for each channel a different zone and even a different type of
balancing zone (rectangular, or vertical interval or other choices) by clicking on "specific zone
definition" (whereas the balance mode selected in "Common Parameters" will apply for all
channels where no specific zone has been defined).
Then:
• Define the target value for the balanced signal (generally 0mV for both real and imaginary
parts)
• Select "Activate Balancing" to see the effect of the balancing in the window "Data treated"
at the bottom right
• Press "OK" to validate the balancing
• You are back in your analysis window and the balancing coefficients are reported in the "Tool
Box"
Figure 3.54. ET analysis window – Balance on C-Scans (main window)
Figure 3.55. ET analysis window – Balance on C-

Scans (rectangular balancing zone selected).
Figure 3.56. ET analysis window – Balance reported in "Tool Box".
4.4.5.1.2. 1D curves
The process is similar when you have no C-Scan and just curves (just 1 scanning line) except
that you have only one type of reference zone which is an interval along the scanning line.
Balancing with 1D curves (single scan line):
• Open the Balancing window

• Select the location of the reference zone (between the two red cursors) where the zero will
be made,
• Select "Active Balance" for all channels you want to balance,
• If necessary, select a "Specific Zone Definition" for several channels,
• Validate with "OK', your balance is reported in the "Tool Box".
Figure 3.57. ET analysis window – Balance on 1D curves.
Figure 3.58. ET analysis window – Balance reported in "Tool Box".
4.4.6. Calibrate
4.4.6.1. Absolute or differential calibration method
Two calibration methods are available: "Absolute" and "Differential. While absolute calibration
is based on a single point measurement (from zero to the max value in the selected zone), the
differential is based on 2 points measurement (peak to peak).
4.4.6.2. Calibration on C-Scans
First of all, select and adjust the zone where is located the relevant parts of the signal (maximum
value). Different type of zones are available:
• Rectangular zone: Peak value(s) is (are) extracted in the selected rectangle

• One Column: Peak value(s) is (are) extracted along the selected column (vertical scanning
line in the C-Scan), and within the limits defined by the 2 other horizontal cursors shown in
the C-scan
• One Line: Peak value(s) is (are) extracted along the selected scanning line, and within the
limits defined by the 2 other vertical cursors shown in the C-scan
• Column Interval (Differential calibration only): Peak values are extracted between 2 vertical
cursors, and also within the limits defined by the 2 other horizontal cursors shown in the C-
scan
• Line Interval (Differential calibration only): Peak values are extracted between 2 horizontal
cursors, and also within the limits defined by the 2 other vertical cursors shown in the C-scan
For the differential measurement, there are also 2 options:
• "Merged" : Both measurements points ("Foot" and "Head") will be extracted in the same zone
• "Split": Each measurement point will be extracted in a separate zone ("Head" and "Foot"
zones cursors have appear with different colors)
(Finally, the "Cursors position" menu deals with the other cursor that will select the position of
the signal displayed in the impedance curves at the bottom of the window. This cursor can be
either free or other linked to the calibration measurement zones define above).
You can check if the zones are at the right place for all the channels chosen by clicking on
the different ones.
The value of the measurement is displayed in the "Current" tab.
Then, write the target value (Amplitude and Phase) of the calibrated signal in the calibration
tab "Goal Calibration" value (amplitude and Phase), one for each channel.
This will compute the calibration coefficients (amplification and phase rotation) necessary to
reach this(ese) target value(s) (these coefficients are visible in the "Coefficients" tab).
Finally, click OK to apply these settings. Then, all the calibrations (for all channels) are reported
in the "Tool Boxes". The case "Activate Calibration" is activated.
From the "Tool box", you can save the calibration in a single "xml" file (will include all the
channels) and then reload it to apply these coefficients for all cases you want to compare with
and have the same calibration reference .
Different steps and examples of calibration processes are shown below:
Figure 3.59. Absolute Calibration on C-Scans:

Rectangular selection zone, measured signal
Figure 3.60. Absolute Calibration on C-Scans: Target

signal value defined in "calibration" tab (1V, 90°)
Figure 3.61. Differential Calibration on C-Scans:

Figure 3.62. Differential calibration C-Scans: Target

signal value defined in "calibration" tab (1V, 0°)
Figure 3.63. Absolute Calibration on C-Scans: Calibration applied in the analysis

window, coefficients reported in the "Tool Box" (with "Save" and "Load" buttons).
Figure 3.64. Differential Calibration on C-Scans: Calibration applied in the analysis

window, coefficients reported in the "Tool Box" (with "Save" and "Load" buttons
4.4.6.3. Calibration 1D curves
For a calibration on a single impedance curve (when scanning only in a single direction), the
process is the same as above excepted that there is only a unique type of measurement zone
to extract the reference signal.
An example is shown below for a differential measurement where (for instance), each peak
value ("Foot" and "Head") have been selected in 2 different zones.
Calibration on 1D curves:
• Choose different data you want to calibrate.

• Choose the place of the red zone between the cursors (and the magenta zone for differential
calibration)
• Write the calibration value (you can rename),
• Check the result on the 1D curve, press ok (you can save)
• Your calibration coefficients are calculated and reported in the "Tool Boxes".
Figure 3.65. Differential Calibration on a curve:

Figure 3.66. Differential calibration on a curve: Target

signal value defined in "calibration" tab (1mV, 90°).
4.4.7. Coordinates change
4.4.7.1. Change of coordinate

It is possible to change the reference frame of a given scan in order (for instance) to fit with
the exact experimental data setup.
Once you have selected this tool, with the relevant menu, you can change your reference frame
as below :
• Inversion X-Y: Change the orientation of your data,

• Mirror X and/or Y: Flip horizontally/vertically the data versus the center of the Scan
• Expansion X and/or Y: Modify the acquisition step of your data
• Offset X and/or Y: Shift the data by an offset value
You will find below an image where, from the initial data set shown at the top right, an inversion
X-Y then an expansion by 10 and finally a 25mm offset on the X-axis allows to:
• Put to X-axis (12-37mm) to the Y-axis

• Put the Y-axis (20-30mm) to the X-axis and adjust the coordinate frame to [0-100mm] after
the expansion and the offset
4.4.8. Filter
This features allow to apply filtering on the output signal of an ET inspection.

Different filters are available:
• Low pass / High Pass / Band pass filters

• Horizontal / Vertical : Filter applied to the signal corresponding to an horizontal/vertical scan-
ning line from the C-scan
• Mean: Automatic settings
For each filter type, the relevant input data shall be defined in the table:
• Cut frequency(ies) of the selected filter in kHz

• Order (2 or more) of the filtering function
• Probe velocity in m/s (allows to convert X-axis from millimeter into time)
Figure 3.67. Definition of filter parameters on the Eddy Current output signal
4.4.9. Multi-frequency combination
4.4.9.1. Principle
In NDT, the most commonly used frequency combinations are defined by summing signals
that were obtained at different frequencies, and then weighted by affine transformation. Such
"Multi-frequency combination" is intended to minimize potential disturbance effects due to lift-
off variation or presence of a conductive plate or a deposit, etc.
This technique relies on the skin effect, which causes current phase and amplitude changes in
induced eddy currents at different frequencies and therefore similar impact on the coil signal.
It entails the "subtraction" of a disruptive signal by acting on the phase and amplitude of eddy
current signals generated at these frequencies, to obtain a non null residual defect signal.
4.4.9.2. Data combination (or data mixing)
To define this data mixing operation, you have to select the 2 (or more) channels you want to
combine from the list of channels that have been simulated.
Then, for each channel, you can select between 2 types of multiplication:
• "Complex value": Simple amplification and phase rotation performed on the selected chan-
nel. Mathematically, it corresponds to a matrix multiplication to the signal "vector" (Real part,
imaginary part) using an antisymmetrical matrix (2 different coefficients only like Ak and #k
in the image below)
• "Matrix": You can define 4 different coefficients for the matrix multiplication.
The result signal will correspond to a channel "C" where C = [a] *A + [b] *B where [a] and [b]
are the multiplication matrix defined for each channel "A" and "B".
You can give a relevant name for the combined channel at the top of the panel (see images
below).
The process is summarized step by step and illustrated with the images below:
• Choose the different channel you want to mix.

• For each channel, select the type of multiplication and enter the coefficients to be applied,
• Check the result on the right,
• Press OK,
• A new channel is available in the scan explorer.
Figure 3.68. Frequency combination (multiplication with a simple "complex number").
Figure 3.69. Multi-frequency combination parameters "Complex number"
Figure 3.70. Multi-frequency combination parameters "Matrix".
Figure 3.71. New channel available after Multi-frequency combination.
4.4.10. Distance Measurement

Distance measurement is only available in mm/mm views (Cscan, True Scans, Specimen
Scans). First, select the view, and then click on the Distance Measurement icon . If the icon
is disabled, check that the selected view is compatible.
4.4.11. Signal to noise ratio
This feature enable to evaluate the signal to noise ratio.
From the “signal zones” tab, a zone that include the defect signal in the Cscan can be defined.
In the “Noise zones” tab one or more zones can be defined in a part of the Cscan that represent
the noise level. These zones are associated to signal zones selected in the previous tab and
the noise is calculated on the union of all noise zones defined in this tab.
The result is automatically given in the third tab “result”.
Note that in case of several defects in the same model, it is possible to define several signal
zones and several noise zones. The signal to noise ratio will be given for all defects in the
“Results tab”.
4.4.12. Compare With

This features allows to compare and superimpose several channels within the same data file.
Without using this tool, the different channels can be only visualized separately.
After having clicked on the icon
You can select the channels you want to compare together, like the 2 ones (100 kHZ and 500
kHz) shown on the image below:
Figure 3.72. Selection table of channels that will be compared
Then, you access to the comparison environment (see image below) which can allow you to
superimpose impedance curves of different channels:
Figure 3.73. Superimposition of impedance curves

of 2 channels thanks to the "Compare With" function
From this point, for more information, refer to the user manual section relative to the "ET com-
parison" function "NDE project and comparison tools" in which this comparison tool is
described precisely.
Figure 3.75.
4.4.14. Cursors
4.4.15. Peak-to-peak measurement
The peak-to-peak measurement feature gives access to a measurement mode where
CIVA gets the maximum value in an area. According to the selected area and the inspection
mode, CIVA computes the maximum value in the area.
The measurement is available in the second tab of the toolbox. The position of the measure-
ment is available in the third tab
Figure 3.76. Peak-to-peak measurement (C-scan, Lissajous curve and toolbox)
sis page.
the selected view.
4.4.19. Centered View
The centered view feature enables to adapt the size of the view to the size of the signal
on impedance plan views.
Typically, with a complete signal post processing, the view size is not adapted to the signal
size and location in the impedance plan. This feature enable to adapt the zoom to the signal
in one click.
4.4.20. Same scale
With this command the same scale is used for all results displayed in the post processing
page.
Minimum and maximum values of the scale are defined according to the minimum and maxi-
mum values of all results displayed in the post processing page.
4.4.21. Smoothing
The smoothing feature allows to create a new analysis page with smoothed results.
After defining the interpolation parameters click on “New” button to create a new analysis page
with smoothed results. A new set of results appears in the Civa manager, it can be displayed
thanks to a right click and by selecting “display the default page” option.
Figure 3.77. Smoothing
4.4.22. Grid display

The grid displayed on the Impedance plane, Amplitude/Phase or Real/Imaginary part can be
enabled or disabled by clicking on the icon.
Figure 3.78. Grid display
4.4.23. Export
4.4.24. Copy
4.4.25. DXF Export
5. ET - Inspection Simulation 2D cylindrical

The inspection simulation of 2D cylindrical configurations is performed in the current CIVA
version using a new 2D solver based on the finite integration technique (FIT).
The EC 2D cylindrical module is selected by clicking “Inspection Simulation (2D cyl.)” in the ET
menu of the main bar, as shown in the following image
The definition of the configuration follows the same pattern as in the other CIVA modules.
Definition of the specimen
At a first step, the end-used has to define the work-piece. To get to the specimen configuration
window, one has to click on the “Specimen” button at the bottom of the CIVA main window.
There are several differences in respect to the 3D Inspection Simulation module (VIM-based
module) concerning the definition of the work-piece. In contrast to the latter, where only single
layered infinite tubes are supported, the FIT 2D module allows the user to choose among three
types of pieces: multi-layered cylindrical tubes, 2D CAD objects of arbitrary profile and bead-
ings. The definition of each of the above mentioned geometries is described in the following
paragraphs.
Cylindrical piece
The tube dimensions are defined using the same parameter set as in the 3D Inspection Sim-
ulation module.
An important difference in the set-up of the FIT-2D module, however, is that the “Length” pa-
rameter corresponds to the real length of the piece. In other words, the considered pieces
are of finite length, in contrast with the 3D Inspection Simulation module.
A new feature in respect to the latter module, concerns the number of supported layers, which in
FIT-2D module is allowed to be arbitrary, each one processing its own material parameters (that
is conductivity and magnetic permeability). The choice between single and multi-layered tubes
is made using the scroll menu “Type” situated just underneath the tube parameter definition
boxes.
Clicking on “Multilayers” a new box containing the description of the layers appease at the
bottom of the tab.
Using the buttons on the right side of the box the user can “insert”, “append”, “delete” layers
in the list respectively, and using the lower button one can “reorder” the layers in the list. Note
that the above mentioned operations are understood in respect to the highlighted layer.
The inner radius of the first layer is the one given in the “Rint” box above. The outer diameter
parameter “D” is adapted automatically to the total thickness of the piece layers each time that
a new layer is introduced or after the value of its thickness is modified.
The material parameters are defined from the “Material” tab, which will be the object of a latter
paragraph.
2D CAD Piece
The “2D CAD” piece is defined via the generic 2D CAD description tab, which is common for
all CIVA modules. For a comprehensive presentation its features, the user is referred to the
respective paragraph.
Beading
This is a special type of work-piece, convening the tube expansion zones in heat exchangers,
and notably steam generators in nuclear power plants. The corresponding tab is shown in the
image below:
In general this kind of piece consists of two parts: the tube and the support plate around it.
There are therefore two groups of parameters for each part of the structure. The “zero” point
along the tube axis is considered to be the bottom of the “lower part” of the tube. The overall
length of the piece is given by the sum of the consisting part lengths, which are in increasing
z order: (i) the lower part of the tube, (ii) the beading and (iii) the higher part of the tube. The
“Inner radius” parameter corresponds to the inner smallest radius of the structure. The radius of
the broader part is obtained by adding the “Radius of extrusion” parameter to the previous one.
The two last parameters, namely “Higher fillet radius” and “Lower fillet radius” are not taken
into account in the current version of CIVA.
The plate thickness and width are determined by the corresponding boxes in the lower part
of the tab (the one concerning the description of the plate). The third parameter named “Plate
overhang w. r. to beading” determines the overhang of the upper horizontal plate interface from
the beging of the bending (i.e. the top of the lower tube).
Work-piece material definition
The material parameters are defined via the “Material” tab in the work-piece definition window,
which is organized in the same way with the corresponding tab in the 3D Inspection Simulation
Module. Notice, however, that since more layers may be allowed if a cylindrical multi-layered
tube has been selected in the “Geometry” tab, the material has to be defined separately for
each layer of the structure. To pass the wished parameters, the user has to select each layer
and edit the conductivity and the relative permeability in the corresponding boxes under the
layer list box.
Probe definition
The inspection probe is defined as usual by clicking one the “Probe” button at the bottom of
CIVA main window
To define the probe configuration the user has to follow the same procedure described for the
3D Inspection Simulation module. It has to be underlined that since the current FIT module is
restricted to 2D configuration, only axial probes are supported in this version with the given
module.
Inspection
Clicking on the “Inspection” button, CIVA opens the standard inspection configuration window,
which enables the user to define the probe position as well as the scanning trajectory:
The detailed description of the window arrangement is done in the corresponding paragraph
of the the 3D Inspection Simulation module.
Flaws
To open the flaw definition window one has to click on the “Flaws” button in the main menu:
and the following window appears:
In contrast to the 3D Inspection Simulation module the user can insert more than one defect.
The defect list can be manipulated using the same selection of buttons on the right hand of the
list, as the one used for the manipulation of the layers, and which has been described above.
There are only two geometrical parameters to be given for each flaw, namely its “Length (L)”
and its “Thickness (e)” since the current module is restricted to 2D grooves only. To supply
the dimensions of the highlighted flaw, one has to edit the corresponding boxes at the bottom
of the “Geometry” tab.
In 2DCylindrical module, the defects can also be of different material than air. In this case
we are talking about defects of “inclusion” type. To declare the highlighted defect in the list as
an inclusion, one has to click in the checkbox bearing the same name, and can be found just
underneath the defects list
Clicking on the “Inclusion” checkbox will make appear an additional tab named “Material”.
Selecting the tab, CIVA provides the usual environment for the definition of the inclusion ma-
terial parameters, i.e. its conductivity and relative magnetic permeability.
To conclude the flaw definition, one has to provide its position inside the work-piece. This is
done via the “Positioning” tab. In case of a multi-layered tube, it is the same tab with the one for
the 3D Inspection Simulation module. For 2D CAD and Beading geometries, the choice of the
impact coordinates (i.e. the cylindrical surface in respect to which is measured the ligament) is
done via the corresponding pop-up menu (see figure below).
5.2. Computation parameters

In general, the FIT 2D module is equipped with an optimal grid estimation algorithm, which
analyses the geometry of the problem and, taking into account the acquisition requirements,
fixes an appropriate computational grid. Therefore, the end-user in most of the cases does
not have to take specific action concerning the grid definition and can directly use the CIVA
proposed one.
The automatic grid may, however, not be sufficient for a given configuration or in applications
where increased accuracy is required. Thus, CIVA provides the user the option to modify the
proposed computational grid and to smooth the calculated signals, in case of increased nu-
merical noise, by performing differential computations (that is to calculate the signal variation
with respect to reference signal).
Fit mesh control environment is accessed by clicking on the “Computation parameters” button
in CIVA main menu.
This parameter control window is shown in the screen-snapshot below
The position of ruler sets the whished level of refinement for the default grid. Level 3 (default
value) signifies that the automatically generated mesh will be used. Increasing the ruler pa-
rameter will result in a refinement factor with respect to the difference between the actual re-
finement level and the default value 3. On the contrary, refinement levels 1 and 2 will lead to
coarser grids and hence faster computations.
Note that the refinement parameter should be used wisely since high resolutions may lead to
unnecessarily long computational times as well as to computation failure due to insufficient
memory!
Choosing noise removal by clicking on the respective check box, CIVA will provide in addition
to the usual complete signal calculation, a second result with the signal variation due to the
geometry defects (and/or inclusions) in respect to the signal of the unflawed geometry.
Both results will appear in the CIVA window with the results list the one corresponding to the real
signal being indicated as “complete signal”. Notice, again, that the choice of this option will lead
to a duplication of the computation time since each sequence has to be calculated twice.

When all simulation parameters required for the studied configuration has been introduced by
the end-user, the computation may be launched by clicking on the run button.
The user can have an overview of the calculation progress by consulting the CIVA console
window as is the case for the other modules.
5.4. Imaging
When the computation is over, results can be visualized and processed using the CIVA imaging
tools. The tools being similar for the modules ET Inspection simulation 2D and 3D, you can
refer to the section about Analysis of ET inspection simulation 3D results.
RADIOGRAPHY TESTING
Chapter 4. RADIOGRAPHY TESTING
1. RT Modeling - Theory
Radiography involves the use of penetrating gamma or X-radiation to examine parts and prod-
ucts for imperfections. An X-ray generator or radioactive isotope is used as a source of radi-
ation. Radiation is directed through a part and onto a detector. The resulting shadowgraph
shows the dimensional features of the part. Possible imperfections are indicated as density
changes on the film in the same manner as medical X-ray shows broken bones.
Radiographic radiation, be it produced by a gamma or an X-ray source, consists of uncharged

particles commonly referred to as photons. X-ray and gamma rays differ only in their source
of origin. X-rays are produced by an x-ray generator and gamma radiation is the product of ra-
dioactive atoms. They are both electromagnetic waves as visible light, infrared, microwaves…
Photons possess no mass, no charge and are not influenced by electrical and magnetic fields.
They can be characterized by their frequency, wavelength, and velocity. Due to their short
wavelength they have more energy to pass through matter than do the other forms of energy in
the electromagnetic spectrum. As they pass through the matter, gamma and X particles have a
probability of interaction (described by the cross sections), which depends on the energy range
of the ray, the density and the composition of matter and the thickness of this matter. A photon
might collide with an atom, and be either absorbed or scattered with or without losing part of
its energy but also might travel completely through the object without interacting with any of
the material´s particles.
For non destructive testing application, we can distinguish four types of interactions between
photon and matter.
1.1. Interaction of photons with matter
1.1.1. Compton interaction

Compton effect was first observed by Arthur Compton in 1923 and this discovery led to his
award of the 1927 Nobel Prize in Physics. Compton scattering occurs when the incident X-
ray photon is deflected from its original path by an interaction with an electron. The electron is
ejected from its orbital position and the X-ray photon loses energy because of the interaction
but continues to travel through the material along an altered path. Energy and momentum are
conserved in this process. The energy shift depends on the angle of scattering and not on the
nature of the scattering medium. Since the scattered X-ray photon has less energy, it has a
longer wavelength and is therefore less penetrating than the incident photon.
RADIOGRAPHY TESTING
Figure 4.1. Compton interaction
1.1.2. Photoelectric interaction

Photoelectric absorption of X-rays occurs when the x-ray photon is absorbed, resulting in the
ejection of electrons from the outer shell of the atom, and hence the ionization of the atom.
Subsequently, the ionized atom returns to the neutral state with the emission of an X-ray char-
acteristic of the atom. This subsequent emission of lower energy photons is generally absorbed
and does not contribute to (or hinder) the image formation process.
Figure 4.2. Photoelectric interaction
1.1.3. Rayleigh interaction

Rayleigh, coherent, or classical scattering, occurs when the X-ray photon interacts with the
whole atom so that the photon is scattered with no change in internal energy to the scattering
atom, nor to the X-ray photon. Thomson scattering is never more than a minor contributor to
the absorption coefficient. The scattering occurs without the loss of energy. Scattering is mainly
in the forward direction.
RADIOGRAPHY TESTING
1.1.4. Pair creation

Pair production occurs when the X-ray photon energy is greater than 1.02 MeV, but really
becomes significant at energies around 5 MeV. Pair production occurs when an electron and
positron are created with the annihilation of the X-ray photon. Positrons are very short lived
and disappear (positron annihilation) with the formation of two photons of 0.51 MeV energy.
Pair production is of particular importance when high-energy photons pass through materials
of a high atomic number.
Figure 4.3. Pair creation
CIVA modelling takes into account only photon interaction. Bremsstrahlung radiation generates
by secondary electron is not simulated in CIVA. So the validity physical limit is around 5 MeV.
1.2. Radiographic image simulation

A radiographic simulation is above all a particles propagation problem, in which the photons
going through the matter without interaction contribute to the direct radiation, and the photons
that have collided with the atoms of the matter constitute the scattered radiation.
It is quite intuitive to consider a simple physics model where the collision with an atom would
always result in an annihilation of the photon. Radiographic images are in fact quite often in-
terpreted as if this model was true. If the total attenuation probability for a photon were 0.5 this
would mean that a photon has 50% chance to survive through the matter, or in other word, half
of the photons would reach the film, while the other half would disappear. If the left half of the
detector was covered by a define thickness plate and received 50% of the photons, and the
right part of the detector was covered by two such plates, a simple reasoning would lead us
to expect 25% of the incoming intensity at the right part of the detector. Apparently, in a world
without scattering, intensity measurements could easily be related to wall thickness.
In our world, where scattering is a fact, things are not that simple. A scattered photon will no
longer contribute to the direct radiation at the target point it was initially aiming at, but this
photon is going to be deviated and impact somewhere else. If we applied our simple straight-
line attenuation reasoning to the intensity measurements made at that other target point, which
RADIOGRAPHY TESTING
now contains some scattered radiation, the result would inevitably be wrong. For the time being,
we should keep in mind that scattered radiation degrades our image quality and renders the
interpretation more difficult.
Another specificity of scattered radiation with respect to direct radiation is important in radi-
ographic modelling. As direct radiation depends directly on the distance travelled in a given
matter along a straight path between a source and an observation point, it follows variations
of the geometry quite accurately. In other words, the amount of direct radiation received repro-
duces the thickness variations along the ray path quite accurately: Direct radiation is sensitive
to high spatial frequency variations.
On the other hand, scattered radiation roughly corresponds to mean thickness variations, with-
out being able to follow small sudden variations. Scattering is sensible to low spatial frequency
only. We will exploit this behaviour in our modelling approach.
With this in mind, CIVA operates two models of computation to simulate direct and scattered
radiation.
1.2.1. Modeling direct radiation

Modeling direct radiation means calculating the ratio of emitted source intensity and direct ra-
diation intensity arriving at the film. If scattered radiation can be neglected, this is all we need
to calculate a radiographic image, and even if scattering is non-negligible, it is a useful result.
Modeling direct radiation is very straightforward: The ratio between the number of emitted pho-
tons and the number of photons contributing to direct radiation is described by a simple ex-
ponential law, often referred to as “straight line attenuation”, and sometimes called after the
physicians who formulated it, the “Beer-Lambert” law. It simply states that the ratio between
incident N0 and “surviving” uncollided photons Ni observes an exponential decay law, depend-
ing on the attenuation coefficient µ(E), and the thickness of the material to be passed.
The attenuation coefficient µ(E) is not a constant, but varies as a function of the photon’s energy
"E". The attenuation coefficient µ(E) is a material property, and can be found in tabulated form
in reference tables. The material thickness L to be travelled through can be obtained by a
simple geometrical calculation, provided that the part geometry, the source position and the
observation point are known. Since direct radiation photons travel along a straight line, just like
a light ray, from source to observation point, the algorithm used to calculate the lengths travelled
through a given material is called ray tracing or ray casting. It is computationally simple, can
be carried out very efficiently in a short time, and yet conveys a lot of useful information to
the radiographer. CIVA RT/CT allows you to carry out direct radiation simulations conveniently
and almost interactively.
1.2.2. Modeling scattered radiation

Modeling scattered radiation is significantly more complicated than modeling direct radiation.
CIVA RT/CT uses a conceptually simple but computationally intensive method called Monte-
Carlo, named after the town at the French Riviera famous for its gambling casinos. The Monte-
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Carlo method interprets the cross section tables as probabilities, and calculates the path of an
individual photon as a random walk, determining both the distance between two interactions
(the so-called free path length) as well as the type of interaction after having travelled the free
path according to random numbers obeying these probability laws. Individually, each photon
path is completely random, but if carried out for a very large number of photons, the proportions
of photons contributing to direct or scattered radiation converge towards the values calculated
by the straight-line attenuation method. This is what gambling theorists refer to as “the law
of the great number”: Each time you roll the dice (or spin the wheel, if you prefer roulette),
the outcome is completely random, but if you play many times and account for the result, you
will notice that odd and even results occur equally often. To obtain a meaningful result with
the Monte Carlo method with a low uncertainty, it is necessary to simulate a sufficiently great
number of events. We will see later that it is not always easy to know how many events need
to be simulated to converge towards a correct result.
1.2.3. Modeling a realistic radiographic image

In order to simulate a realistic image in a relative short time, CIVA uses both models described
above. The resulting image is the combination of the direct results obtained by the straight-line
method, with the scattered ones obtained by the Monte-Carlo method.
1.3. Reconstruction theory
1.3.1. CIVA TOMO FDK theory
1.3.1.1. Mathematical Modeling
Before presenting the selected reconstruction methods, we need to put a more solid basis
by describing the CT model from the mathematical point of view. The central idea of CT is
to recover a function characterizing a certain property of the imaged object from a set of line
integrals that are known through a set of measurements. This link can be modeled mathemat-
ically through the Radon transform or through the X-ray transform. These are two similar re-
lations that have associated operators and in fact they coincide in the two dimensional case.
n
The Radon transform Rf( Θ , s ) maps a function from R into a set of its line Γ
integrals over
n n-1 n n-1
the hyperplanes of R , inside the unit sphere S ε R . For Θ ε S with Θ the hyperplane
1
passing through origin and orthogonal on Θ and s ε R the signed distance from origin, the n-
dimensional Radon transform is defined for a function f belonging to the Schwartz space S(Z),
n-1
where Z= S x R ,
n
The n-dimensional X-ray transform Xf( Θ , t ) maps a function from R into a set of its line
integrals. With similar notations as for the previous relation, this transform writes
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Γ
BecauseΓ normally y is restricted to Θ ,X f(y)=Xf( Θ , y ) is sometimes called the projection of
Θ
f onto Θ and in 2D it reduces to the Radon transform. More specifically, one can define the
divergent transform D, which in the cone beam case is defined as
2
with x belonging to the curve that parameterizes the source path and Θ ε S .
These transforms model the acquired data and represent the measurements of the line inte-
grals associated to the X-rays traversing the imaged object. The goal of CT is to recover the
function f from the acquired sinogram, a set of such measurements. This is a non trivial com-
putation and several analytical inversion formulas can be derived using different ideas, as pre-
sented by Natterer, one being the use of dual operators.
For a function g ε S(Z), the dual operator of the Radon transform is defined as
One inversion formula uses this dual operator and the Hilbert transform in order to express
the function f as
(n-1)
where H is the (n-1)st derivative of the Hilbert transform. An alternative notation for the
above transforms employs the δ function, as in the next formulation that we also adopt in the
next sections.
1.3.1.2. Sampling Aspects
One of the core problems in digital signal processing is the sampling. The discretization of
the digital images in CT needs therefore an analysis from this point of view. Moreover, both
the spatial domain of the object and the Fourier space are discretized, which increases the
complexity of the problem. We give here only a basic introduction to the subject.
n
The classical sampling theory is based on the Nyquist-Shannon theorem. A function in R is
band-limited with bandwidth B if its Fourier transform is locally integrable and vanishes outside
the ball of radius B. Because the digital images are finite, the functions they represent have
compact support. Non-null functions with compact support are not band-limited in the strict
sense, therefore the usual functions we deal can only be essentially band-limited, in the sense
that their Fourier transform |F( ε )| is negligible for |ε|>B .
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The Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem states that a function f, B-bandlimited, with

n
Τ ≤ π / B (Nyquist condition), is uniquely determined by the samples f( Τ k ), k ε Z . This
2
state-
n
ment may also be applied for essentially band-limited functions and in the space L (R ) , a
function can be recovered from its samples by using
The spatial sampling of the projections is determined by the number of pixels in the detector.
Considering ∆ r the distance between adjacent pixels, we can approximate the Nyquist condi-
tion to the statement that the smallest detail that can be resolved has a dimension of 2 ∆ r.
In the fan beam case, this value is adjusted proportionally with the magnification factor used.
This is a very important aspect of the divergent geometry that we also use in our solution. The
angular sampling and hence the number of projections used in the reconstruction is an impor-
tant factor for the resulting image quality. A rule of the thumb found in literature states that a
good reconstruction needs at least the number of measured rays in each projection, but more
precise relations can be derived through the sampling theory. In order to avoid more involving
arguments, we only give the result for the optimal sampling for the parallel beam.
where N=2k+1 is the number of pixels of the detector and M is the number of projections over π.
This result can be derived more intuitively with geometrical arguments that also hold in the
fan beam case. Consider the imaged object radially sampled as in the following figure. The
discussion leads to the conclusion that for an optimal sampling, the angular increment at the
border of the object should be approximately equal to the spacing between the adjacent rays.
With the notations from the previous figure, this translates to ∆ a ≈ ∆ r. For the half circle the
following relation holds
Which , by using the previous equality (∆ a ≈ ∆ r), gives the number of projections over π
In practice this is rarely the case, and therefore usually some amount of degradation in the
reconstructed images has the source in the non-optimal sampling.
1.3.1.3. Filtered Backprojection Algorithm
This algorithm introduced in the medical field in the seventies by Shepp and Logan and Ra-
machandran and Lakshminarayanan, was first mentioned in radio astronomy by Bracewell and
Riddle in 1967. Because of its advantages over other types of inversion algorithms, it was the
leading path for the research in this area for several years and it was extended in various ways.
Filtered backprojection algorithm (FBP) is a method to reconstruct a two dimensional function
from a set of its line integrals. We start its description with the simplest case, for the parallel
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acquisition geometry. The derivations presented here follow the ones of Kak and Slaney and
some of the notations are similar. We aim to reconstruct a function f(x,y) from its projections
defined through the Radon transform as
where β ε [0,2π] is the angular position of the source and r the signed distance from the origin
to the ray r=x cos β + y sin β .These notations are illustrated in the following figure.
Figure 4.4. Notations for FBP in the parallel beam configuration
In order to make use of the equality given by the Fourier slice theorem, we first write the Fourier
transform of the function f(x,y) as
which, by changing to the polar coordinates using
writes
By some manipulations and taking into account the periodicity, the previous relation becomes
where the term |ρ| is usually called ramp filter and acts as a high-pass filter. The Fourier slice
theorem states that the Fourier transform of the projection at an angle β, P (ρ) equals the two-
β
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dimensional Fourier transform of the searched function in polar coordinates F (ρ,β).Therefore

we can write the previous relation as
This is the main result, but in computer implementation it is usually split into two steps, filter-
ing and backprojection. In the first step, for every r =x cos β + y sin β a filtered projection is
calculated with
The function f is then recovered by integrating the filtered projections
Passing now to the 2D divergent case, we describe the backprojection formula for the setup
with a flat detector in which the rays are equally spaced (or equally spaced collinear detectors
as found in some publications). In the discrete case, a ray can be identified in a fan with respect
to the fan axis and a projection is denoted , P βi(rk) where βi is the angular position of the source
with respect to its initial position and represents the position of a pixel k, with k = 0 being the
center of the detector. The size of a pixel of the detector is denoted αdet , the distance from
the source to the axis of rotation Dso and the distance from the source to the detector Dsd.
We consider as a virtual detector, a copy of the real detector translated such that it passes
through the axis of rotation, which is the origin of the coordinate system. With this convention,
the size of the pixel is
These notations and the geometry are displayed in the next figure. The backprojection algo-
rithm can be divided in three steps. First, the measured projections are weighted by
The second step is the normal ramp filtering which is done through a convolution. For better
results, a smoothing can be applied, with the help of a Hann window for instance. We write
then the filtered projection as a double convolution
The filtering step is usually carried out in the Fourier domain because the convolution trans-
forms into a simple multiplication and Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithms can be used.
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Figure 4.5. Notations for the fan beam configuration
Because in the discrete case the projections are considered as bandlimited and of finite order,
the convolution with | ρ| leads to artefacts caused by the interperiod interference. In order to
avoid such artefacts, the following function defined in the spatial domain can be used
which, transformed to the Fourier space produces the desired results of high-pass filtering.
For an array of N elements, the Hann window is
and as previously stated, its purpose is to smooth the projection by reducing the highest fre-
quencies. The third step is the backprojection and consists of a sum of the filtered projections
for all M angular positions. Denoting
The sum writes
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where rxy identifies the ray passing through the point (x,y) at the angular position Βi and is
computed with
Because normally this computation of rxy does not lead to an integer value that matches a pixel
rk an interpolation between neighboring pixels can be performed. This smooths the resulting
image and usually reduces some artefacts. Next figure should give an intuitive view of how
the sum in relation
evolves with the number of projections. The example is for a fan beam configuration with a
line detector of N = 512 pixels. With only 80 projections the object is recovered, but the image
is degraded showing a pattern specific to the backprojection. The reconstruction with 800 pro-
jections is smooth, and shows a clear transition at the edges.
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Figure 4.6. Examples of FBP reconstructions with different numbers of

projections (5122 pixels, brightness/contrast adjusted for best view): (a)
4 projections; (b) 8 projections; (c) 80 projections; (d) 800 projections
1.3.1.4. Feldkamp-Davis-Kress Algorithm
The Feldkamp-Davis-Kress (FDK) method is an extension of the FBP algorithm to the 3D case.
Sometimes referred only by "Feldkamp", it became the gold standard in 3D reconstruction
because of its good results in reasonably short reconstruction times. It is approximative outside
the central plane, but the results are sufficiently accurate for the relatively small beam openings
encountered in typical CT systems. In the 3D case, we want to reconstruct the function f(x,y,z)
from the set of projections P (r, ζ ).The detector is two dimensional and planar, with equispaced
pixels. With FBP, volumetricβ data can be recovered by stacking several slices independently
reconstructed, which implies the approximation to the parallel case on the vertical direction. The
idea of Feldkamp et al. was to avoid this approximation by taking into account the vertical tilt of
the reconstruction planes. For the points outside the central horizontal plane, the backprojection
is done with the values of the pixels identified by the tilted plane that intersects the detector.
The geometry is illustrated in the following figure and the notations are similar to the previous
section
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Figure 4.7. Geometry of projections for the FDK algorithm
A large number of researchers studied and extended this idea, between which we mention
as examples Kak and Roberts or Wang. Being an extension of the FBP, the same type of
reasoning applies and the decomposition into three steps applies also here. In the first step
the measured projections are weighted by a factor depending on the position of the pixel in
the 2D array of the detector
where we have considered a detector with square pixels.
The second step is the ramp filtering, performed independently for each horizontal line of the
detector. As in the case of FBP, this step is done through convolution and can include a smooth-
ing
The last step is similar to FBP, the filtered projections are backprojected for the whole volume
by taking into consideration the elevation of the plane. With the same notations, the sum writes
where rxyand rz are the coordinates of the pixel that identifies the ray passing through the point
(x,y,z) at the angular position βi and Uβi. These are given by the relations
As in the case of FBP, these computations usually lead to non-integer values and in practice a
bilinear interpolation is performed between the four points in the detector that are neighboring
the ray passing through the point (x,y,z).
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1.3.1.5. CIVA TOMO Helical-FDK theory
The Helical-FDK is an adaptation of the standard FDK algorithm describe above for helical
trajectories.
In this case, the weighting and the filtering step are identical to the standard FDK algorithm,
only the back projection step is changing to
Where r is the position vector , R is the distance Source-Object, D is the distance
Source-Detector, l0 is the angular position where the considered voxel is in the median plan
of the source-detector system, l is the angular position, gF is the filtered projection and ew is
the unitary vector normal to the trajectory.
1.3.2. CIVA TOMO PixTV theory
1.3.2.1. Mathematical Modeling
PixTV is an iterative reconstruction algorithm which minimizes the TV norm (total variation).
This algorithm uses the linear data model for the CT problem as the classical deterministic
algorithms (e.g. ART).
The projections and the imaged objects are discretized i.e. they are represented by vectors or
matrices. In the fan beam case (2D), a projection is written as
2
where Pk, is a vector containing the projection data for a ray k, N = n is the total number of
pixels, a is a matrix containing the weights for all the pixels and f if the vector containing the
attenuation value which is to be recovered.
The rays are considered as being completely independent, ranging from 0 to M, where
M = Mp × Ndet is the total number of projections in the fans at all angular positions, with Mp the
number of angular projections and Ndet the number of elements in the detector array. These
notations are illustrated on a fan beam configuration (2D).
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Figure 4.8. Notations for iterative methods, (2D fan beam case)
1.3.2.2. Algorithm
PixTV is an optimized implementation [1] of the TVAL3 algorithm [2]. It is capable of solving
not only the initial minimization problem but another two models.
The CT problem is modeled as either:
where µ is a penalty coefficient, A represents the system matrix, f the CT image, p the projection
data (sinogram) and ε a fidelity parameter. In the implementation ε is also used to select the
model to be solved. If ε < 0, the first version is solved (TV), if ε = 0 the second problem is solved
(TV-EQ) and if ε > 0 the third problem (TV-DN) is solved. In general, for noisy data the last
option is optimal and hence this is the default choice.
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The PixTV algorithm is synthesized as
References
[1] H. Wang, X-ray CT Image Reconstruction from Few Projections, PhD Thesis, Joseph-Fouri-
er University of Grenoble, 2011.
[2] C. Li, W. Yin, and Y. Zhang. TV minimization by augmented Lagrangian and Alternating
Direction Algorithms, 2009.
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2. RT Modeling
The RT module is used to simulate the results of an inspection done with an X-Ray tube or a
radioactive gamma ray source. CIVA RT simulates direct and scattered radiation, generated
by a source, through a specimen defined with potential flaws in order to create the final radi-
ographic image. The different images and results are displayed in Analysis pages.
The active model setup is launched by selecting the “RT simulation” module from the Desk:
Figure 4.9. Selection of the "RT Simulation" module from the Desk
The active model setup of the RT module is also loaded if a RT file is opened from the "File"
menu. In this latter case, the active model setup contains parameters of the simulated file, while
the results are displayed on an analysis page.
From the lower part of the active model window, the user shall define all parameters dedicated
to the inspection:
Specimen: See “Specimen” section .
Source : See “Source” section.
Detector: See “Detector“ section.
Inspection (positioning of the source and detector) : See “Inspection“ section.
Flaws : See “Flaws“ section.
Computation Parameters : See “Options” section.
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Click on Run to launch the computation.
2.1. Specimen
The "Specimen" window, opened by clicking on the "Specimen" button, provides separate tabs
for definition of piece Geometry and Material (and mesh for heterogeneous 2D CAD, 3D CAD
and Nozzle specimens). From the dropdown list ("File" menu), it is possible to open or to save
a piece description file in XML format. The menu also permits loading a parameter file from a
"Recent Files" list corresponding to the latest files of this type opened in the Specimen window.
The "Close" button closes the window.
Figure 4.10. Specimen tabs
Note: For the RT/CT computation CIVA generates STL files for geometries such as 3D CAD,
heterogeneous 2D CAD and nozzles. For those configuration a “mesh” tab is available.
2.1.1. Defining geometry

A dropdown list allows choice of the type of piece geometry.
From this list, the user can define the parameters for :
• Planar piece
• Cylindrical piece
• Cone
• Elbow
• Nozzle
• 2D CAD pieces
• 3D CAD pieces
• Blade groove
• Blade root
• Tomographic phantom
• Micro CT phantom
• TWP
• Weld
2.1.1.1. Planar specimen
A flat or plane specimen is defined by its length (along the x axis), its width (y axis) and its height
(z axis), all of which are expressed in mm. Plane specimen reference frame axes are shown in
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the figure below. Frame origin belongs to the specimen entry surface (plane z = 0), which has
only positive x and y coordinates. Points located inside the volume have a positive z coordinate.
Figure 4.11. Planar geometry description
and thickness (all in mm). Its angular sector (in °), which by default is 360° can be reduced.
Note: Angular sector is not an exclusively graphic concept, but is truly accounted for in com-
putation. The inner radius of the cylinder is deduced from its outer diameter and thickness; but
the user can also define the cylinder from its inner radius (its outer diameter is then deduced
from its inner radius and thickness).
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Figure 4.12. Cylindrical geometry description
2.1.1.3. Conical specimen
A cone is defined by its small inner radius 1 at one end, its internal radius 2 at the other end,
its thickness and its length (along the y axis, i.e. axis of symmetry), all values being expressed
in mm. Its angular sector (in °), which by default is 360°, can be reduced.
Note: Angular sector is not an exclusively graphic concept, but is truly accounted for in defining
specimen geometry for the computation. Outer diameter 1 and outer diameter 2 are deduced
from specimen thickness and internal radii 1 and 2. The user can also define the cone the
other way around, i.e. from outer diameters 1 and 2, in which case the elements deduced are
its internal radii.
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Figure 4.13. Conical geometry description
2.1.1.4. Elbow
An elbow is defined by its inner radius, thickness, main radius and the two lengths (length 1
and length 2) of cylindrical segments extending the elbow torus, all of which are expressed in
mm. Its angular sector (in °), which by default is 90°, can be modified.
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Figure 4.14. Elbow geometry description
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2.1.1.5. Nozzle
Figure 4.15. Nozzle geometry description
The nozzle definition window has three panels:
• one for choice of the relevant parameters,

• one for explanatory 2D and 3D drawings,
• a list of associated parameters.
The "Validation" button changes color at the same time as the drawing in the 3D view, whenever
a parameter is changed. The user clicks this button to credit new parameters in 2D and 3D
drawings.
By clicking one of the characteristics in the choice of parameters panel, the user refreshes the
other two panels to credit this choice and accesses the following parameters:
• nozzle configuration,
• principal cylinder,
• secondary cylinder,
• fillet,
• secondary cone,
• connection.
The content of this panel is modified according to the parameters selected for nozzle config-
uration (if, for example, the user does not select an inner or outer connection, connection no
longer appears in the choice of parameters panel).
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Figure 4.16. Nozzle configuration
As shown above, the user determines whether or not the nozzle has an inner cone, outer
cone, inner connection or outer connection by checking the corresponding options on the list
of associated parameters.
The cylinder simplification box is checked to tell CIVA that only two cylinders are involved. This
option has no impact on the graphic display of the specimen, but is useful if the user wishes to
simulate tests on the main or secondary cylinder without crediting a connection between them.
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Figure 4.17. Primary cylinder of the nozzle
The main cylinder is defined by its height, inner radius and thickness (in mm). Its outer diameter
is deduced from its inner radius and thickness. If the cylinder is defined the other way around,
from its outer diameter, then the element deduced is its inner radius.
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Figure 4.18. Secondary cylinder of the nozzle
The secondary cylinder is defined by its height, inner radius and thickness (in mm). Its outer
diameter is deduced from its inner radius and thickness. If the cylinder is defined the other way
around, from its outer diameter, then the element deduced is its inner radius.
Nozzle angle is expressed in degrees; it defines the angle between the main cylinder generatrix
and that of the secondary cylinder.
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Figure 4.19. Fillet of the nozzle
The fillet is defined by its outer and inner radii in mm.
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Figure 4.20. Secondary cone of the nozzle
The outer dimensions of the secondary cone (if "outer cone" is selected for the nozzle configu-
ration) are defined by the outer cone angle and length and its inner dimensions (if "inner cone"
is selected for the nozzle configuration) by the inner cone angle and length.
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Figure 4.21. Connection of the nozzle
The outer dimensions of the connection, when "connection" is selected under nozzle configu-
ration, is defined by the outer connection length and its internal dimensions (when "connection"
is selected under nozzle configuration) by the inner connection length.
Flaw positioning in a nozzle is based on the reference frame of one of the two figures of revo-
lution. The user first selects Main cylinder or Secondary cylinder, depending on which is used
as a reference for flaw positioning. The list of possible options is then:
Along joint axis
Perpendicular to revolution axis
Normal to joint axis
Oblic.
Under the Along joint axis option, the (Xdef, Zdef) plane is the one containing the revolution
axis (Y or Z) of the cylinder of interest and the point Directly below the flaw in the piece. The
(Xdef, Zdef) plane orientations associated with the Perpendicular to revolution axis and Slanted
options are identical to those defined for a cylindrical piece after replacement of the X, Y and
Z axes with the corresponding axes of the selected cylinder. Finally, the (Xdef, Zdef) plane
orientation associated with the Normal to joint axis option is identical to the orientation defined
for a CAD profile extended by revolution, after the same replacements as above.
Note: The Normal to profile option is not accessible for the Reference point positioning mode.
This is because procedures associated with these two options are incompatible.
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2.1.1.6. 2D CAD specimen
A 2D CAD specimen is defined as a profile to which a plane or cylindrical extension is added.
The button is used to read an already created CAO file, the button to edit it or create
a new file in a dedicated interface. See 2D CAD Editor, and in particular Save / Load Files for
the authorized file format and how to load a file.
The field Comment is a free field where the 2D CAD model can be annotated.
Choice of a Plane or Cylindrical extension gives access to the corresponding parameters at

the bottom of the panel. For a plane extension, a length is defined in mm. For a cylindrical
extension, a radius is defined in mm and an angle in °.
2.1.1.7. Blade groove
Blade groove is one of the two new parametric specimens, related to blade configurations :
Firstly, this specimen is defined by its overall dimensions (GUI, top). The total length of the
component is given by the front and back length (dimensions before and after the first and
last grooves – if several grooves have been defined) plus the groove spacing distance(s). If
only one groove is defined, then the length is given by front + back length distances, otherwise
the complete length is given by : front + back length + (N-1)*groove spacing (where N is the
number of grooves). The height of the component is simply given by the parameter “Height”.
The geometry of the root is given by several parameters which are interrelated. The root is
defined by the number of serrations, the bottom width, the conicity of the root, as well as dif-
ferent parameters related to length and fillet radius. Those parameters are not completely in-
dependent, therefore some modifications of parameters lead to other modifications (and some
values can be refused if it is not possible to build the attachment geometry using the parame-
ters defined by the user.
The bottom part of the GUI is used to define the extension (width) of the specimen, as well as
the extrusion of the root, which may be planar or circular. For that latter case, it is possible to
modify the center of the axis of the circular extrusion of the blade groove.
The material of the specimen is defined using the second tab of the Specimen GUI “Material”.
Only homogeneous specimens (made of one given material) may be defined.
The specimen built upon the definition of the parameters described above is built as a 3D
CAD, which means that the original parametric shape of the component will turn into a 3D
CAD part meshed with triangles. The meshing parameters are defined in the “Mesh” tab of the
Specimen GUI. Standard or “Expert” parameters may be used. The main parameter that shall
be accurately defined is the “mesh accuracy”, which corresponds to the maximum error to be
accepted between the native geometry of the component and the 3D CAD part built from the
meshing definition. A fraction of the wavelength (for instance, a tenth of the wavelength inside
the material) could be used as a correct criteria. The accuracy of the mesh of the component
may be checked by displaying the mesh structure (right click on the display of the component,
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then selection of “Mesh” in the submenu, and “visible”). It is recommended to “visually” check
this consistency of the component as turned out into a 3D CAD part, especially if the user
wants to evaluate the response of flaws close to the serration parts (which is the key interest
of simulation over blade roots and groove).
2.1.1.8. Blade root
Blade root is the second of the two new parametric specimens, related to blade configurations :
This specimen is the “complementary” part with respect to the “Blade groove”, related to turbine
blade attachment. Only one blade root can be defined, using the same set of parameters used
to define the blade groove.
Only one parameter (height) is added to the definition of this component, which corresponds
to the top length above the root attachment.
Similarly to the Blade groove definition, such a specimen is therefore built as a 3D CAD, so
that similar checking of the meshed part shall be carried out prior to computations.
2.1.1.9. Tomographic phantom
In order to evaluate the different types of artefacts in a tomographic set up, the user can open
a "tomographic phantom" which is made of two series of circular and rectangular holes with
decreasing sizes.
Figure 4.22. Reconstruction slice of the tomographic phantom. Details of the

tomographic phantom: (a) smallest squares (b) smallest circles (dimensions in mm)
The rectangular shape was chosen because we expect higher deviations near the corners.
When the angular sampling is insufficient, which is almost always the case in experiments,
artefacts appearing as streaks may be created by the sharp edges. The circular holes were
introduced because they may constitute a better indication of misalignment problems and in
order to have two similar features for comparisons between the ROI and the rest of the object.
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The diameters of the circular holes are equal to the edge of the squares, and have the follow-
ing values: 1.00, 0.80, 0.60, 0.50, 0.40, 0.30, 0.20, 0.10, 0.05 and 0.025 mm. The distances
between holes are similar, ranging from 0.80 to 0.025 mm. For the holes smaller than 0.60 mm
we added transversally pairs of identical holes, as depicted in the following figure. These series
of transversal groups may be used to estimate the spatial resolution of the imaging system.
With this specimen, the user can define a tomographic phantom composed of a stack of uni-
tary tomographic sample regular spaced (see next figure). The disk number label defines the
number of unitary tomographic sample used. The thickness label defines the thickness of the
unitary tomographic sample (each unitary tomographic sample has the same thickness). Then
the user has to define the distance between unitary tomographic sample.
Figure 4.23. Tomographic phantom geometry description
On the left, the tomographic phantom set-up with 3 unitary tomographic phantom with a thick-
ness of 4.5 mm and a distance between unitary tomographic sample of 4.5 mm. On the right,
representation of the tomographic sample created by the following setup.
The user has to define a material for each unitary tomographic sample with the material tab.
2.1.1.10. Micro tomographic phantom
The micro tomographic phantom has long been well established as the test object for demon-
strating artefacts occurred by all kind of approximate reconstruction algorithms. The micro to-
mographic phantom consists of eight high-density circular disks equally spaced at 3 mm apart
parallel to the axis of rotation. These disks are separated by low-density disks showing up as
darker material. The phantom is completed on either side by 10 mm of PMMA.
Phantom size:
• diameter ............................ 20 mm
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• length ............................. 48.5 mm
High-density disk:
• diameter ............................ 20 mm
• thickness/mm ............... 1
• density ......................... 1.38 g/cm
Low-density disk:
• diameter ............................ 20 mm
• thickness/mm ............... 3
• density ......................... 1.18 g/cm
Figure 4.24. Micro Tomographic phantom
On the left, an image of the micro tomographic phantom. On the right, tomographic reconstruc-
tion at 30°, 11° and 5 °
2.1.1.11. Weld
• One for choice of the relevant parameters

• Another to define the geometry of the weld
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Figure 4.25. Weld geometry description
• Configuration of the weld,

• Thickness,
• Symmetry of the bevel,
• Type of weld groove
Weld configuration: As shown below, the user determines whether the geometry is planar (de-
fined by its length and its extrusion (in mm)), cylindrical or longitudinal (defined by its inner
radius, its length (in mm) and its angle (in°)). The difference between the cylindrical case and
the longitudinal case is the direction of the weld which is circumferential in the cylindrical case
and along the cylinder in the longitudinal case.
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Figure 4.26. Weld configuration
Thickness: The user can choose a symmetric or a non symmetric weld. In case of different
thickness, the user defines the thickness of the both sides of the weld (in mm), the length
(in mm) and the angle (in °) of the tapering. The height of tapering is deduced from these
parameters. This tapering is symmetrical (same dimensions on the top and the bottom of the
weld).
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Figure 4.27. Thickness of the weld
Symmetry of the bevel: The bevel can be symmetrical or not. In case of non symmetrical bevel,
one side of the weld is necessary square groove.
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Figure 4.28. Symmetry of the bevel of the weld
Type of bevel: This panel has three parts:
• the choice of the bevel

• a schematic of the chosen bevel
• the parameters of the bevel geometry
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Figure 4.29. Type of bevel of the weld


the parameter h
• X-UV: defined by the gap, the root face, the top angle, the bottom angle, the parameter h
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radius of U root
Figure 4.30. List of available symmetric welds

able:
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parameter h
angles
Figure 4.31. List of available non-symmetric welds

modified. Furthermore, it is important to respect some conditions on these dimensions. For
example:
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2.1.1.12. TWP
This specimen if made of a tube welded on a plate with a given inclination angle. The following
homogeneous volumes can be distinguished : the plate (representative of the PWR vessel
bottom), the weld, the tube, the chamfer cladding, and the plate cladding.
CIVA generates the 3D geometry using several parameters devided in four tabs :
Plate: The length (Lp), the height (Hp) and the width (Wp) of the plate, as well as the plate
cladding thickness h must be defined in the 'plate' label (see figure below). All parameters are
in millimeters.
Figure 4.32. TWP geometry description
Tube: In the tab 'tube', we define the diameter (Dt), the thickness (Et), the length above the
plate (L1) and the length under the plate (L2) of the tube (see figure below), in millimeters. The
angle between the tube axis and the normal to the plate is θ, in degrees.
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Figure 4.33. Tube of the TWP
Milling: In the tab named 'milling' the parameters necessary to generate the geometry of the
chamfers have to be defined. Φ min (resp. Φ max) is the minimum (resp. maximum) angle (in
degrees) between the chamfer and the horizontal (parallel to the plate surface, see figure be-
low). Df is the milling diameter, and ∆ is the distance (in millimeters) between the milling axis
and the main axis. The main axis is the normal to the plate surface that intercepts the point
defined as the intersection of the tube axis with the plate surface.
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Figure 4.34. Milling of the TWP
Restriction: ∆, Df, Dt and θ must be compatible, i.e. chosen so that the tube is not outside the
bottom of the milled zone. This way, the bottom of the weld volume is planar (parallel to the plate
surface). The following figure shows examples of configurations not compatible with CIVA:
Figure 4.35. Not available TWPs
H1 is the height of the weld zone above the plate surface ; H2 is the height of the weld above
the plate surface ; e is the thickness of the chamfer cladding. At last, R1 and R2 are the radii of
curvature of the weld surface, the former close to the tube, the latter close to the plate. These
radii are the same in every cutting plane intercepting the main axis.
Once all parameters have been set, click on the box 'Validate the configuration' so CIVA can
compute the corresponding geometry.
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The 3D specimen is then shown in the viewing window :
Figure 4.36. Viewing of the TWP in the 3D view
2.1.2. Multilayer and heterogeneous pieces

For a multilayer or heterogeneous piece, the user must define the materials making up each
homogeneous volume. To do so, he simply selects the different volumes and defines the de-
sired materials in the specimen window "Material" tap. For more details on defining a material,
see the relevant pages of this section.
Figure 4.37. Layer selection in multi-layers structure
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Figure 4.38. Volume selection in heterogeneous structure

The "Material" menu in the Specimen window is intended for defining the material(s) making
up a piece. Depending on piece structure (Homogeneous, Heterogeneous or Multilayer as
described in the previous section), one or more materials need to be defined for each of the
volumes that constitute it.
Figure 4.39. Material tab
There are two possible ways to define a material:
by clicking the "Load" button . This button gives access to a list of predefined materials saved
in XML format; or by directly defining in the desired material properties (type, density, atomic
number, atomic mass, …) via the GUI. Once a material has been defined, it can be saved (by
clicking the button ) as an XML file, which can subsequently be reloaded by clicking on the
"Load" button.
This section describes the options available to the user for defining the material associated
with a given volume (homogeneous medium). Pieces comprising more than one volume are
discussed below.
To define a material, the user has several options: simple or alloy.
Figure 4.40. Selection of "Simple" or "Alloy" to define a material
2.1.3.1. Simple material

For a simple material, the user can choose among 100 materials in order to compose his part.
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Figure 4.41. Simple materials: selection of the material in the database

Each material is characterized by its photon cross sections, the atomic form factor and the
incoherent scattering functions (see Graph options below). The user can change the density
of the material.
2.1.3.2. Alloy
In the X-Ray material library some alloys are also available (as Stainless steel 304, Inconel600,
air, NaI, CsI, AgBr…).
It is also possible to create alloys. To create an alloy, the user must, first of all, select “Alloy”
in “Type” option.
Figure 4.42. Alloys selected in the "Material" tab

For an alloy, the user can add components by clicking on . Then, he must define the different
components composing the alloy.
To do so, he simply selects the different components and defines the desired materials in the
X-Ray material data base for each component.
Definition of materials for an alloy
These alloys can be defined as compound (ex H2O) or mixture (ex Stainless steel).
For a compound, the user will have to define the number of atoms for each element while for
a mixture he will have to define the percentage of each element.
Once all the elements and their contributions to the predefined alloy are defined, the user must
enter the density of the new defined material and must homogenize the predefined material by
clicking on the “Homogenization” button.
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Figure 4.43. Stainless-steel 304 creation
Figure 4.44. Stainless-steel 304 created
An alloy can be created for a simple specimen, a multilayer or a given volume in a 2D CAD
specimen containing several volumes.
2.1.3.3. Graph options
Photons X interaction in a given matter volume is depending on the attenuation coefficient.

This coefficient describes the probability of one photon, with a given energy, to interact in a
given thickness.
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In CIVA RT, for each component, it is possible to have a visualization of the total attenuation
in cm²/g depending on the energy, and also a visualization of the different interaction and
attenuation (e.g Compton scattering, photoelectric absorption…). The values of cross sections
depending the energy can be displayed in the form of a curve or a table.
Figure 4.45. Attenuation (curves and data), atomic

form factor and incoherent scattering functions data
Note:
Data of the different coefficients of attenuation are obtained in the Storm and Israël tables
published in Nuclear Data Tables.
The density results come from “Photcoef” software tables and have been compared with sev-
eral sources from literature.
Atomics weight come from “I.U.P.A.C Commission on atomic weight and isotopic abundance”.
2.2. Source
The user opens the "Source" window by clicking the "Source" button from the RT module.
Note that the position and the orientation of the source are described in the chapter Inspection.
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2.2.1. General parameters

In the GUI the source is represented by a yellow cylinder and the emitted yellow cone gives
the aperture of the source.
Figure 4.46. Representation of the source
An uncollimated X-ray or gamma-ray source emits photons in all directions. However, for the
purpose of radiographic modeling, it would be a waste of processing time if during a Monte-
Carlo simulation the paths of photons emitted in a direction without any chance of ever reaching
the film were traced. This is the purpose of an emitting cone (or cylindric) which defines an
angular range in which photons are emitted, and which is usually directed towards the film.
Note that there are situations where this approach would lead to approximate results. If the
source is located within a tube, the section of the tube behind the source might also contribute
to scattered radiation which would eventually impact on the film. The same applies for potential
scattering objects next to the inspected object. In these cases, restricting the emitting cone to
an angular range covering just the film would lead to an underestimation of scattering.
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Figure 4.47. Effect of emitting cone opening angle on scattered radiation

The first tab available in "Source" panel presents general information of the X-ray and gam-
ma-ray sources (beam geometry, opening angle, and height in case of gamma source).
2.2.1.1. General parameters of a gamma-ray source
Figure 4.48. "General" parameters of a gamma ray source
Geometry: The gamma-ray source is represented by a cylindrically shaped emitter, whose ra-
dius and height can be modified. The correct specification of the source dimensions is impor-
tant if geometrical sharpness due to the source size has to be taken into account.
Note: The options allowing to take into account the blurring of the source are available in the
"Options" panel.
Emitting geometry: The emitting geometry of the source can be conical or cylindrical:
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A conical source is described by the angle α on the top of the cone.
Figure 4.49. Schematic representation of a conical source

In the conical configuration, the user can choose between two configurations:
• collimated. The opening angle of the source is more than 0° and less than 180°.
• panoramic. The opening angle is 360°. The source irradiates into the whole space.
Note that the angle defined by the user is the complete angle and not the half angle at the top.
A cylindrical source is described by the following method:

The cylindrical coordinates Rc= (F, uc, vc, wc) are defined by the point F (cylinder center) and
three vectors:
wc is headed according to the opposite direction of the emitting vector S.
vc is along the cylindrical axis.
uc is the third vector as (uc, vc, wc) define a direct trihedral.
Three parameters are required to describe the illuminated portion of the cylinder:
The opening angle α1 is defined in the plane (in (F, uc, wc)).
The height angle θ1 is defined in the plane (in (F, vc, wc)).
The definition of the blurred options during the simulation of the source is available in “Options”
panel, "Source" tab. The available parameters in this tab are described in the RT Computation
parameters chapter.
Figure 4.50. Schematic representation of a cylindrical source
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2.2.1.2. General parameter of X-ray and High energies sources
The following figure presents the general parameter of X-ray and High energies sources.
Figure 4.51. General parameters of X-ray and High energies sources
Geometry: The source is defined only by a radius. The correct specification of the source di-
mensions is important if geometrical sharpness due to the source size has to be taken into
account.
Note: The options allowing to take into account the blurring of the source are available in com-
putation parameters panel.
Emitting geometry: As for gamma-ray sources, the emitting geometry can be conical or cylin-
drical, but only collimated sources can be modeled for X-ray and High energies sources.
2.2.2. Physical parameters

CIVA RT is able to deal with X-ray sources, High energies sources and gamma-ray sources.
2.2.2.1. Gamma-Ray parameters
For a gamma-ray source, CIVA RT/CT module comes with three pre-defined gamma source
spectra, which are Co-60, Ir-192 and Se-75. Other spectra could be added and also mono-
energetic beams are allowed.
To create your own source it is necessary to previously delete with “ " button the rays corre-
sponding to the previous source. Once the panel “Parameters” is empty, click on “ ” button to
add one ray. A line appears in which it is necessary to define the energy in keV and the number
of photons per radioactive disintegration. Repeat the process as many times as necessary to
describe the desired source.
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Figure 4.52. Add or remove rays for a Gamma-ray source
The new created source can be saved in the same data base than the other pre-defined
sources.
The source spectrum contains for each channel the number of photons produced per radioac-
tive decay. This information can be found in physics reference tables.
Figure 4.53. Pre-defined source loaded from the library
The source activity indicates the number of radioactive decays per second and is specified
in GBq (billions of Becquerel) or in Curie (Ci).
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Figure 4.54. Selection of the unit of the activity of the source
Please note that if the user switches between "GBq" and "Ci", the value will be automatically
converted in the appropriated unit.
Please notre that the source activity is a parameter only required for direct radiation image
calculations, and that the value indicated here is only a default value.
2.2.2.2. X-Ray spectra
One of the most influential parameters in a radiographic inspection is the source. This source,
in the case of the X-ray tubes, is defined by its spectral distribution and some complementary
parameters done to build the source geometry.
Information about spectral repartition is available in the "Parameters" tab:
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Figure 4.55. X-ray source parameters tab
The first parameters available in the "X-Ray source" window are the source intensity and name
of the spectrum.
Note: the user can enter manually the name of the X-ray tube.
From this window, the user will have to choose the type of edition of the spectrum: "Manual"
or "Modeling" (Accessible via the button at the bottom of the window).
There are three ways to define a spectrum in CIVA:
• By loading it from the spectrum library (Manual mode)

• By loading a text file (*.dat / *.txt) of experimental values (Manual mode)
• By using the spectrum calculator (Modeling mode).
Manual mode:
In manual mode the user has to load a spectrum.
• Spectrum loaded from the library:
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The spectrum can be loaded from the directory "DATAModelingXR_Source" reachable from
the folder icon .
The user can load precomputed spectrum obtained with a Monte Carlo simulation for a X-
ray tube with a tungsten anode, a target angle of 20° with other filter. The spectrum energies
are from 50 kV to 450 kV. After loading the spectrum, the user can modify manually the data.
The user can load precomputed spectrum obtained with a Monte Carlo simulation for a trans-
mission X-ray tube. The X-ray tube is modelled as a tungsten target layer of 6 microns de-
posited on a 250 microns Beryllium layer. After loading the spectrum, the user can modify
manually the data.
The user can load spectrum from Birch and Marshall catalog from 50 kV to 140kV.
• Experimental spectrum
An experimental spectrum can be loaded in a *.txt or *.dat format file by clicking the folder
icon .
Two types of displays are available:
• A table with 2 columns: energy (in keV) and number of photons (in Sr/s/mA)
• A curve which represents the number of photons Vs energy. A cursor allows the user to get
the photons number exact value Vs energy.
Modeling mode:
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Figure 4.56. Definition of an X-ray source using the modeling mode
The following options available from the spectrum model describe general parameters such as
the type and the angle (degree) of the anode and the acceleration voltage.
Note that the anode angle must be between 0 and 45 degrees. When the entire spectrum
generator is defined do not forget to validate your model by clicking on the "apply" button.
The spectrum modeling presents two types of models:
• Kramer model: used for low energies.

• Tucker model used for energy from 200 to 450 keV.
Generally speaking we advise the user to model an X-ray tube with a high voltage not over
450kV. Above this voltage the user will have to enter the spectrum manually.
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2.2.2.3. High energy sources (since CIVA 2016)
A library of High energies sources is available in CIVA. Seven different spectra are modeled:
• Linear accelerator of 4 MeV maximal energy

• Betatron of 2.5 MeV maximal energy
• Betatron of 6 MeV maximal energy
• Betatron of 7.5 MeV maximal energy
• Betatron of 9 MeV maximal energy
Figure 4.57. High energy source parameters tab
Those spectra have been simulated with Penelope, a code system for Monte-Carlo Code sim-
ulation of photons transport (developed at the university of Barcelona).
Once the spectrum is selected, the user have to defined the dose rate value.
2.2.2.4. Filtration
Filters can be added to X-ray and High energies sources by clicking on the “ ” button and
defining the material and thickness of the filter. Several layers of filters can be added.
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Figure 4.58. Filter tab of the source
The spectrum will me automatically modified when adding a filter and the display view of the
spectrum will be refreshed.
This filtration will be also considered for CT calculations.
2.2.3. Blurring options

The source blurring can be modeled from two different ways (analytic and geometric). These
options are available in "Options" panel. For the description please refer to the relevant chapter
RT Computation parameters.
2.3. Detector
The main detector user interface is composed by the name (and a comment), the type of de-
tector and the characteristics of its geometry, and the filter panel.
Note that the position and the orientation of the source and detector are described in the chapter
Inspection.
2.3.1. The detector geometry and resolution

The detector is represented by a green rectangle in the GUI of CIVA. The detector can be
planar or curved.
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Figure 4.59. (Left) Inspection with a planar

detector (Right) inspection with a curved detector
Simulated radiography requires the discretization of the detector by pixels. Care must be taken
to choose the appropriate resolution: if the resolution is too coarse, fine detail such as a crack
within the part might be not visible while, on the other hand, a very fine resolution slows down
computation unnecessarily. There is a compromise to be found and in some situations, the
designation of a region of interest (or ROI) might be indicated (see chapter RT Computation
parameters).
To define the size of the different detectors available, the user will have to set-up a number of
pixels and a resolution in mm. Be carefull, we advise to define a detector with maximum size
equivalent to 5000 pixels by 5000 pixels. If the detector is curved one more parameter must
be defined: the radius of curvature.
In the “Characteristics” tab the user defines the type of geometry and the dimensions of the
detector. The thickness of the detector can also be defined depending of the type of detector
chosen for the simulation (all excepted "NF EN ISO 1699-1 film" and "image plate" models).
For the description of the type of detector see next section.
Figure 4.60. (Left) Characteristics of a planar

detector (Right) Characteristics of a curved detector
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2.3.2. Detector type

There are six types of detectors: Standard, scintillator with CCD, tape-film, NF EN ISO 11699-1
film, image plate or generic detector.
Figure 4.61. Selection of detector type
2.3.2.1. Detector modeling principle
For a good detector simulation, the user should know the principle of detector modeling in CIVA
RT. For standard, Scintillator with CCD, Tape film and Image plate detector types, detector
modeling is carried out in 2 successive steps:
The first step deals with the calculation of deposited energy inside the sensitive layer of the
detector.
For that, we first compute the probability for each photon reaching the front side of the detector
to interact in the sensitive layer of the detector.
Where µfilt is the filter linear attenuation coefficient, Lfilt is the filter thickness, µdet is the detector
linear attenuation coefficient, Ldet is the detector thickness.
Note that the incidence of the photon on the detector is taken into account in the length of both
filters and detectors. In analytical mode, this probability is interpreted in a deterministic way as
the ratio of number of photons interacting in the detector to the number of incident photons.
Secondly, we calculate the amount of energy of each interacting photon which has been ab-
sorbed by the detector.
The user can choose between the lower bound, taking into account the ratio of the energy
absorption coefficient to the total attenuation coefficient (characteristic of the energy locally
absorbed in the detector) and the upper bound, assuming that all the energy of the interacting
photon has been absorbed locally. This choice has to be done in the component « Options »
in the field « energy absorption » (computing tab).
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The result of this computing stage is called "XX Energy YY" image, expressed in keV.
In a second step, the energy absorbed in the detector is transformed into the signal produced
by the complete detection system. This stage differs according to the kind of detector (see more
explanation in dedicated paragraphs just below). The result of this computing stage is the so
called « response detector» or “optical density”, expressed in units depending on the kind of
detector (optical density for film, gray levels for digital screens).
For NF EN ISO 11699-1 film and generic detector type, detector modeling is carried out in 2
successive steps.
The first step deals with the calculation of incident dose to the detector.
In a second step, the incident dose is transformed into the signal produced by the complete
detection system. This transformation is performed via a transfer function. For NF EN ISO
11699-1 film detector model, this function is pretabulated for each film via a second order
equation. For generic film, the transfer function is computed via a calibration file included by
the user. Generic detector can be used for any type of detector (digital (gray level) or analogic
(optical density)).
2.3.2.2. Specific characteristics of each detector model
• The main characteristic of standard detector is the global gain G corresponding to the trans-
formation of the deposited energy Eabs into a measurable signal. The DQE parameter gives
the signal/noise squares ratio in input and output of the detector. Finally the signal is given by:
In the material tab, the user can choose the detector material characteristic.
• The Scintillator + CCD detector is defined by the light photons’ wave length λ produced in
the scintillator screen, the light output of the screen ηs and the light output of optical coupling
ηopt, the quantum efficacy of CCD detection ηCCD and finally the reading electronic gain G.
The signal is given by:
where h is the planck’s constant and c the light speed.
In the material tab, the user can choose the detector material characteristic
• The Tape-film detector is modelled with measured data which are contained in a calibration
file (sensitometry curve), with the maximal optical density (ODmax) of the film, with a corre-
lation factor between grains (typically 1.33) and the number N0 of grains per pixel. The cali-
bration file is an ASCII file with 3 columns: the absorbed doses by the film in Gy, the optical
density OD and the standard deviation σDO of the noise over the OD. The signal in optical
density results of an interpolation of this sensitometry curve in doses values corresponding
to the deposited energy in the pixels:
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The conversion of the absorbed energy in keV toward doses in Gray is done by:
With e = 1.6 10-19C
So, the user must indicate the number of values of the calibration file. The model comes from
a Gray model.
The other parameters are:
• The max of optical density (values of calibration are always inferior to this value)
• The correlation coefficient ß between grains (higher than 1).
• The number N0 of grains by pixel. They are used to compute the grain noise in the "complex"
model (see RT Computation parameters.).
The model used to simulate the noise in this model of film takes into account the random
variations of optical density of the film in the final computation of the image. These random
can provide from:
• Fluctuation of incident radiation,

• Fluctuation of absorption in the emulsion,
• Variation of the size and distribution of the silver halides grain.
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Figure 4.62. Tape film characteristics
In the "Material" tab, the user can choose the material of the sensitive layer of the detector.
• The NF EN ISO 11699-1 film used in the commercial release of CIVA is based on the com-
prehensive NF EN ISO 11699-1 (previously named EN584) film classification standard.
This international standard, assumes that a film converts incoming radiation dose in a more
or less linear way into optical density, and neglects certain secondary effects. With this film
model, you can easily calculate the exposure time required by different films to obtain a given
optical density, but you cannot study the impact of a thickness variation of the amplification
foil of your film.
A film library is available from detector panel, characteristics and then parameters. It contains
the characteristics of the most widely used films in industrial radiography. The film character-
istics contain the transfer curve to convert radiation dose values to optical density. For further
details about this model see “Using the EN584-1 film characterization in radiographic model-
ing”, A. Schumm and Uwe Zscherpel (International Symposium on Digital industrial Radiology
and Computed Tomography, June 25-27, 2007, Lyon, France).
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The film library is accessible from detector panel, characteristics and then parameters.
Figure 4.63. silver film characteristics: library of films
• The image plate detector is based on the standard detector.
Based on the observation that imaging plates show reasonably good results on lower ener-
gy sources and correspondingly small wall thicknesses, and decrease in performance with in-
creasing wall thicknesses and increasing source energy, CEA and EDF (Electricity De France)
collaborated on a prospective study to better understand the difficulties encountered in the
application of imaging plates in industrial radiography. To that end, CEA developed a model
based on the Monte-Carlo code Penelope, modeling the response of an imaging plate in terms
of deposited energy for a given incident radiation beam. In this model, a certain number of
assumptions are necessary to model the imaging plate stack with the substrate material, the
active phosphor layer and the protective layer, both in terms of thickness and in terms of ma-
terial composition, as shown schematically in following figure. In CIVA, image plate were mod-
2+
eled, using different densities of BaFBr:Eu for the active layer with 70 - 100 mg /cm² for HS
screens and 40-50 mg / cm² for HR screens, knowing that the thickness of the phosphor layer
determines sensitivity and spatial resolution. A "HS" image plate is modelled with a sensitive
layer of BaFBr with a thickness of 300 µm. A HR image plate is modelled with a sensitive layer
of BaFBr with a thickness of 150 µm.
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Furthermore, an optional metal screen could be modeled on top of the protective layer.
Figure 4.64. Image plate modeling

The Penelope Monte-Carlo code used for this study simulates photon interaction with matter,
as well as the propagation of electrons produced by photoelectric absorption or Compton scat-
tering, and also models the related effects of Bremsstrahlung and fluorescence. In order to
determine the detector response, a monochromatic pencil beam with normal incidence to the
image plate is modeled and propagated across the material stack, taking due account of scat-
tering and electron production and propagation.
Figure 4.65. Penelope setup modeling

The actual detector response is accounted for in terms of energy deposit in the phosphor layer,
and a linear relationship between deposited energy and gray level after read-out is supposed,
which in itself is an approximation (as described in the standard detector type).
For further details about this model see “ Simulation of Computed Radiography with Imaging
Plate Detectors “ D. Tisseur, M. Costin, F. Mathy, and A. Schumm QNDE 2013Associated to
these 2 image plate type, CIVA allows simulations with different front filter described in ISO
17636 standard:
Figure 4.66. Library of image plate
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• The generic detector is modelled with measured data which are contained in a calibration
file. Classicaly this file is obtained with experimental measurement. The user has to measure
the detector response (gray level or optical density) and the noise associated to a range of
incident dose. With this data the user can create the calibration file.
The calibration file is a simple 3 columns text file. The first column is the “Incident Dose” to the
detector. The second colomun is the gray level (or optical density) associated to the “incident
dose” and the last column is the standard deviation of the noise associated to the gray level
(or optical density).
Figure 4.67. Calibration data for generic detector (table and curve)
Important: the first point of the calibration file has to be the gray level (or optical density) and
the standard deviation of the noise associated to an incident dose equal to 0 mGy.
The last point of the calibration file is a saturation point. Beyond this dose the detector response
is saturated and equal to the last gray level (or optical density) point of the calibration file.
The calibration file is specific to each detector with each type of ionizing radiation source. A
calibration file measured with 100 kV high tension X-ray tube is not the same as a calibration
file with a 400 kV high tension X-ray tube or Ir-192 gamma ray source.
2.3.3. Filter
Front and back filters can be added. By ticking the "front filter" and / or "back filter" options,
then clicking on button, the user can add a filter. Then he can define the thickness and the
material of the different layers. The graphical user interface will automatically be refreshed and
the filter will appear on the detector.
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Figure 4.68. Filter tab of the detector panel
Note: Front filters can be modeled for all the detectors. Back filters can be modeled for all the
detector except the "Generic" one.
2.3.4. Contact Dose rate

From the detector panel, for the so-called "NF EN ISO 11699-1" films and Generic detectors
one can activate the "contact dose rate" option. This option allows to consider the potential
presence of radioactive substances within solids that will have an impact on the darkening of
the film. By activating this option, one will have to enter a given value in mGy/s.This additional
dose will be taken into account in the computation and in the final conversion of the dose to
optical density on the radiogram. The final result corresponds to an offset on the dose value
(dose * build-up + contact dose rate).
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Figure 4.69. Activation of the contact dose rate option

(available for "NF EN ISO 11699-1" film and Generic detectors)
2.3.5. Detector noise

Depending on the detector type, several models of noise can be applied in CIVA. These pa-
rameters are available in "Options" panel, "Detector" tab. These options are described in the
relevant chapter.
2.4. Inspection
2.4.1. Description of the inspection panel

The "Inspection" window is used to define the relative positions and orientations of the source
and the detector
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Figure 4.70. Inspection panel / Positioning tab: positioning of the detector

Two types of positioning are available:
• "Specimen" :
The positioning is defined via the two menus "Source" and "Detector". The “Default positioning”
option can be used in order to position both detector and source in the centre of the geometric
scene.
• "Tomographic" :
With the tomographic positioning option, the user can redefine the positioning of the origin O.
With the orientation option, the user can change the orientation of the scene. In this option,
the rotations are defined with the origin O of the specimen.Then, the user has to enter the
distance between the source and the origin O and the distance between the origin O and the
detector. An offset button is available to define a geometric offset to simulate uncertainty on
the knowledge of the source and detector positioning.
2.4.2. Reference frames and conventions

To position the detector and the source relatively to the piece, the inspection window uses a
coordinate system specifically suited to piece symmetry (e.g. cylindrical coordinates for a piece
extended by revolution). A reference frame subsequently referred to as the "Piece reference"
frame is thus determined for all pieces except the Nozzle. The latter is assigned two reference
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frames, one for each of the two (primary or secondary) cylinders making up the piece. The
following paragraphs describe the "Piece reference" frames for each type of piece geometry.
The "Piece reference" frame is always associated with a Cartesian coordinate system (O, X,
Y, Z). The directions of the three coordinate axes are displayed in the bottom left-hand corner
of the 3D display window. The origin and orientation of the system are likewise specified below
for different type of piece.
• Flat piece
The Piece reference frame is Cartesian. Its origin O is located on the piece surface, which is
the plane (O, X, Y), and its Z axis is directed toward the inside of the piece.
Figure 4.71. Conventions for describing a flat piece
• Cylindrical piece:
The coordinate system is cylindrical. Origin O of the piece reference frame (O, R, θ, Y) is located
on the axis of revolution, which is the Y axis: and angle θ is defined by the conventions shown
in Figure below. X and Z axes of the associated Cartesian coordinate system are defined as
shown in Figure below.
Figure 4.72. Conventions applicable to a cylindrical piece
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• Conical piece:
A cylindrical coordinate system is adopted. Origin O of the piece reference frame (O, R, θ, Y)
is located on the revolution axis, which is the Y axis; and angle θ is defined by the conventions
shown in Figure below. X and Z axes of the associated Cartesian coordinate system are defined
as shown in Figure below.
Figure 4.73. Conventions applicable to a conical piece
• Elbow:
As indicated earlier, an elbow defined in the "Specimen" window, is made up of two cylindrical
segments and a toroïdal segment. Its origin lies on the revolution axis of the cylinder numbered
1 in the "Specimen" window, which coincides with the Y axis.
The curve formed by joining the all centers of elbow segments (i.e. the revolution axes of the
two cylinders and the equator circle of the torus is called the "Generatrix curve". The Piece
reference frame (O, R, θ, U) used to position the detector and source include a curvilinear
coordinate U along the generatrix curve. Figure below shows the conventions used to define
an elbow.
Figure 4.74. Conventions applicable to an elbow
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• CAD profile extended by translation:
The CAD profile belongs to the X,Z plane and is extended in the Y direction. Reference frame
origin O is retrieved from the CAD file.
The following figure shows the conventions used to define a CAD profile extended by transla-
tion.
Figure 4.75. Conventions applicable to a CAD profile extended by translation
• CAD profile extended by revolution:
The CAD profile belongs to the Y,Z plane. Origin O of the piece reference frame is taken on
the revolution axis and the coordinate system is cylindrical.
The following figure shows the conventions used to define a CAD profile extended by revolution.
Figure 4.76. Conventions applicable to a CAD profile extended by revolution
• 3D CAD piece:
The positioning of the source and detector can be defined in Cartesian or Cylindrical coordi-
nates. In configuration it is possible to change coordinates system by selecting "Planar" or
"Cylindrical" in “Type selection”.
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Figure 4.77. Choice of the type of coordinates

used for the positioning of the source and detector
The reference frame (O, X, Y, Z) used for simulation is normally the (ΩCAD, XCAD, YCAD, ZCAD)
frame read from the CAD file. The user can, however, modify the axes and the point of origin
of a CAD 3D piece.
• Nozzle:
As indicated earlier, a nozzle defined in the "Specimen" window is made up of two figures of
revolution, a so-called Main (or "Principal") figure to which a Secondary figure is connected.
Two Piece reference frames are defined: (Oprinc, Rprinc, θprinc, Yprinc) for the Main cylinder; and
(Osec, Rsec, θsec, Ysec), for the Secondary cylinder. The conventions applicable to these two
frames are similar to those for a cylindrical piece. It is possible to have a pre-positioning of the
source and detector in configuration tab by choosing the reference cylinder. The source and
detector can be positioned according the main or secondary cylinder or around the fillet.
Figure 4.78. Choice of the reference cylinder used

for the positioning of the source and detector
Note: The cylindrical coordinate system axes referred to in the "Inspection" windows are those
of the piece reference frame associated with the figure of revolution selected for detector and
source positioning. For this reason, the subscripts "princ" and "sec" do not appear.
2.5. Flaws
By "flaw" or "defect" is meant a volumetric object that occupies a part of the space contained
in a piece, itself contains one or more materials and is considered to be potentially detrimental.
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The flaws are considered as inclusion inside the part geometry inspected. In that sense all the
types of photons-matter interactions will be taking into account into the flaw geometry.
The flaw properties panel comprises two main zones:
• the top zone, which is always visible and serves to create, duplicate or delete all or part of
a list of flaws.
• the bottom zone, which includes three tabs. Under the first tab, the user defines the geome-
tries of the different flaws and their dimensions; under the second, he defines the flaws ma-
terials. The third tab enables the user to position the flaws in the piece.
Figure 4.79. Flaw properties panel
2.5.1. Flaw geometry menu

The following defects are available:
• Plane
• 3D CAD
• Flat-bottom hole
• Hemispherical-bottom hole
• Spherical
• Cylindrical inclusion
• Ellipsoidal inclusion
• Straight trapezoid
• Curved trapezoid
• Surface-breaking flaw (3D)
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2.5.2. Flaw material menu

The definition of the flaw's material type is exactly the same as that described in the part geom-
etry (see "Defining Material subsection").
2.5.3. Flaw positioning menu

The positioning and the orientation of the flaws can be done directly in the appropriated interface
or by using the "manipulator", described in subsection "Interactivity for flaws positioning".
2.6. Image Quality Indicator (IQI)

2.6.1. IQI properties panel
Figure 4.80. IQI properties panel
The IQI properties panel comprises two main zones:
• the top zone, which is always visible and serves to create, duplicate or delete all or part of
a list of IQIs.
• the bottom zone, which includes three tabs. Under the first tab, the user defines the type
of IQI; under the second, he defines the IQI's material. The third tab enables the user to
position the IQI in the piece.
2.6.2. IQI list management

The list of IQI is initially empty. By clicking the add button, the user creates a rectangular flaw
numbered 1. The operator can then duplicate (or delete) this flaw by clicking (or ) button.
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2.6.3. IQI geometry menu

Under this tab, a drop-down menu gives access to different IQI options:
• The geometry
• The type of IQI
Different geometries of IQI are available:
• EN – Step type
• EN – Wire type
• ASTM – Plaque type
• AFNOR – Hole type
• DIN 62 – Wire type
• CERL type
In the option "Type of IQI", for each type of IQI, the user can select the specified IQI type. For
example, with the "IQI EN step type", the user can between H1, H5, H9 or H13.
2.6.4. IQI material menu

The definition of the IQI's material type is exactly the same as the part geometry (see subsection
"Defining Material").
2.6.5. IQI positioning menu

The positioning and the orientation of the IQIs can be done directly in the appropriated interface.
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3. RT Computation
3.1. RT Computation outline
The RT module is used to simulation the results of an inspection done with an X-Ray tube or
a radioactive gamma ray source. CIVA RT simulates direct and scattered radiation, generated
by a source, of a specimen and the potential flaws inside the part geometry in order to have the
final radiographic image. The different images and results are displayed in "Analysis" pages.
Before launching the computation, the user shall define all parameters dedicated to the inspec-
tion:
• Specimen
• Source
• Detector
• Inspection (positioning of source and detector)
• Flaws
• Computation parameters
3.2. RT Computation parameters

The “Options” button gives access to parameters allowing simulating a radiographic image.
Once the part geometry, the source and the detector properties defined, the computation pa-
rameters have to be also defining before launching the computation.
The computation parameters panel includes three tabs. The fist one allows the user to define
the source blurring. This blur will have an incidence on the sharpness of the image. In the
second tab the user will find options for the simulation of the detector noise and blur (options
defer according the detector). The last tab (computing) is directly linked with the computation
model (analytic and Monte-Carlo).
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Figure 4.81. Options panel: a) Source tab, b) Detector tab, c) Computing tab
As it has been said, CIVA RT contains two simulations models (analytic and Monte-Carlo)
whose results can be combined in order to obtain a realistic radiograph.
3.2.1. Source
This tab allows the user to take into account the effect of the source blurring or not. To appreci-
ate the visibility of a geometrical detail, it is necessary to take the source blurring into account.
CIVA does this by two methods: "Analytic" and "Geometric". The "Single point" source option
does not take into account the blurring of the source.
3.2.1.1. Single point source
In this case of simulation the focus type of the source (see “Source” panel) is a point. The re-
sulting image is unnaturally sharp, but otherwise correct, and allows verifying if the configura-
tion you intended to set up is defined correctly. This “Simple point” calculation is also sufficient
if you want to determine the optical density for a given source activity and exposure time. It is
not sufficient, however, if you want to verify the projection of a detail such as a defect on the
image, since the geometrical sharpness due to the source extensions is not simulated.
In such simulation, the dimensions of the sources are not taken into account for the simulation.
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Figure 4.82. Image and profile line with single point source selected
3.2.1.2. Analytic source blurring
The blurring caused by the size of the focal spot of the source, is taken into account during the
computation of the energy image (analytic computation).
The computation of the blurring due to the focus size corresponds to the convolution of a Gauss-
ian function for each energy image computed for one energy channel of the spectra. The typical
dimension of the Gaussian function corresponds to the multiplication of the typical dimension
of the source by a medium magnification of the scene. Precisely, the focus size defined in
the “Source” option corresponds to the width of the Gaussian function measured at the half
height. The user can choose between the automatic mode, where the enlarging coefficient is
automatically computed considering the middle point of the crossed thickness along the central
ray, and the manual mode, where the user has to determine the enlarging coefficient.
Figure 4.83. Definition of the scaling for an analytic source blurring
Figure 4.84. Image and profile line with analytic source selected
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3.2.1.3. Geometric source blurring
The "Geometric" option to simulate the source blurring consists in discretizing the source vol-
ume into a number of point sources, and carrying out a straight line attenuation calculation for
each point source. By selecting "Geometric" in the source tab, the user can make a simulation
with 20, 60 or 200 source points. It is difficult to give a general recommendation for the number
of source points needed to obtain a good image result. The larger your source is, or the closer
it is to the part, the more sources you should use.
Figure 4.85. Selection of the "Geometric" source option
Figure 4.86. Image and profile line with geometric source selected
From a general way the analytical method is quicker and well suited for defects at the same
magnification whereas the geometric method is more precise (especially for a simulation with
several defects at different depths in the object).
3.2.2. Detector
The options presented here allow the user to take into account several physical parameters
from the detector. The three main parameters that are possible to simulate are the detector
noise (specific for each detector), the detector blurring and a region of interest (ROI).
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Figure 4.87. Options panel / Detector tab
3.2.2.1. Noise
The model applied to simulate detector noise depends on the type of detector that the user
has selected for the simulation. For "Standard detector", "Scintillator+CCD" "Tape-film", "Image
plate" and "Generic detector", the models available will be models "Simple", "Complex" or
"Complete" (see description of these models below). For the NF EN ISO 11699-1 films another
noise model is taken into account.
This detector noise is, with the photonic noise (“Computing" tab), one of the parameters which
can generate noise on the final image result. The photonic noise is simulated only during the
analytical computation (Monte-Carlo computation automatically generates this noise) while the
detector noise depends on the specific parameters of the detector.
• Simple model:
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Simple model is only available for Scintillator+CCD detector: this model consists in following
the cascade of phenomena and adding successive associated noise. Each phenomenon is
modelled as follows
• Complex model:
In this model the noise is calculated according to the different parameters of the chosen de-
tector.
Scintillator+CCD: this model groups successive noises into a single one, whose parameter is
the combination of parameters of each single phenomenon. So finally, the noise is equal to:
Standard detector and Image plate: we assume that the detector generates a global Gaussian
noise with a standard deviation calculated from the absorbed energy and the variance on the
considered pixel:
Tape-film: this model implements a binomial model (Segal and co) of noise granularity which
expresses the noise standard deviation σ of the film density by:
The distribution of black grains after developing follows a binomial distribution.

- Dmax is the max optical density that we can obtain on the calibration file.
- β the correlation coefficient between grains (1 if there is no correlation, > 1 if there is correlation
(typically 1.33)).
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- N0 the number of grains per pixel.
• Complete model:
This is a global noise of the detection system.
Standard detector and image plate: We compute the standard deviation of the global noise Vs
the gain, the variance image and the DQE:
As the DQE takes into account all phenomena (photonic noise and noise of the detection of the
radiographic inspection parameters) the computation of the absorption photonic noise should
not be added.
Tape-film and generic detector: This model also uses a Gaussian noise whose standard devi-
ation is computed by interpolation of data σOD given in the calibration file (3rd column)
As this noise is directly measured on the film image, it takes into account all phenomena
(photonic noise, acquisition, development...); the computation of the absorption photonic noise
should not be added.
• Grain noise:
This model simulates the granularity of the film and is available only with NF EN ISO 11699-1
films.
NF EN ISO 11699-1 defines film granularity σD in terms of diffused optical density measure-
ments on a zone with constant optical density 2, using a microdensitometer with 100 µm circu-
lar aperture, and specifies an appropriate measurement procedure.
In order to use this σD value for modeling purposes, two corrections are necessary. The equiv-
,
alent value σ D for a square aperture (due to the square pixel size) is obtained as
with A being the square aperture area in µm². Furthermore, since the granularity definition
supposes optical density 2, it needs to be scaled to the actual optical density D. The NF EN
ISO 11699-1 standard uses the approximation that granularity be roughly proportional to the
square root of D/2. The actual granularity value to be used then becomes
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This value can then be used to generate uniformly distributed noise around D.
• Fog:
This corresponds to the natural fog of the film. Typically for a C1 film the fog value is around
0.13. This option is available only with NF EN ISO 11699-1 standard film.
3.2.2.2. MTF Blurring Detector
The spatial resolution of the detector can be simulated in CIVA via the MTF (Modulation Trans-
fer Function).
The map Blurring permits to control the parameters of geometric blurring and global MTF (Mod-
ulation Transfer Function) blurring. Two types of blurring can be distinguished for the image:
blurring due to the focal spot of the source, and blurring due to the detector or to the global
system. Geometric blurring is taken into account during the computation of the energy image
(analytic computation). The global MTF blurring is determined during the computation of the
synthetic image. For both, the computation is based on a convolution procedure, done using
FFT techniques.
When the option "Global MTF Blurring" is selected, the user has the possibility to import an
experimental curve or to automatically generate a MTF curve using CIVA.
For the first case, the file containing the curve has to be an ASCII file, with two columns. The first
-1
one refers to the frequency in cm , and the second one refers to the value of the normalized
MTF. The first value of the MTF function (for the frequency equals 0) has to be equal 1, and
the last value has to be equal 0. The computation points have to be regularly distributed. If the
frequency for which the MTF function equals 0 is upper than the cut off frequency determined by
the sampling, the user is informed by a warning message (the Shannon criteria is not satisfied).
Figure 4.88. Selection of the "Global MTF Blurring"

option: case where an experimental curve must be loaded
For the second case, the MTF is approximate with the data “Measured spatial resolution”.
The spatial resolution is assumed to be measured in conformity with ISO 17636 standard. By
default, the spatial resolution proposed by CIVA is twice the pixel size.
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Figure 4.89. Selection of the "Global MTF Blurring" option:

case where an automatic curve is generated by CIVA
3.2.2.3. Region of Interest (ROI)
The region of interest is a small rectangular region within the film which is sub sampled to obtain
a finer resolution. The region of interest is usually a part of the film containing a significant
detail, such as the radiographic projection of a crack. The region of interest approach does
in fact limit memory consumption, but its prior role is to accelerate scattering calculations: If
the ROI is activated, straight-line attenuation calculations are always limited to the region of
interest and are therefore carried out with maximum resolution. The larger film with the coarse
resolution is then used exclusively for scattering calculations using the Monte Carlo methods.
Since scattering is only subject to global geometry variations, a coarse resolution is sufficient to
capture the scattering map and its variations. The coarse resolution also has the advantage of
letting the scatter map converge faster, since the number of photons impacting on each pixel is
roughly proportional to the surface of each pixel. A refinement factor of 10 increases the surface
of each coarse pixel by a factor of 100, which makes a significant increase in convergence
rate. The region of interest is therefore a necessity for scatter calculations on geometries with
large thickness, where the Monte Carlo simulation would otherwise converge too slowly to be
practical on a personal computer.
In the "Detector" tab of "Options" panel, one has to select "Use ROI" option to activate this
functionality. The user can sub sample the resolution of the detector in a given region of the
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detector by 2 or 3. Then the size of the ROI must be defined in mm. This ROI is automatically
visible on the GUI and positioned on the detector.
Figure 4.90. Definition of ROI
Figure 4.91. View of the detector without ROI (left) and with ROI (right)
3.2.3. Computing
From "computing" tab the user is able to launch separately an analytical computation to only
visualize the direct radiation computed from the Beer-Lambert law or a Monte-Carlo computa-
tion to take into account the scattered radiation. If one select both analytic and MC computation
a combination will be automatically made in order to get the final radiographic image.
Two types of parameters can be distinguished: common parameter and parameters which are
specific to the computation model: Analytic, Monte-Carlo, or combination Analytic / Monte-
Carlo.
3.2.3.1. Common parameter
The Exposure time parameter permits to control the experimental time. The value entered in
CIVA is given in seconds (s).
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3.2.3.2. Analytic computation
The analytical mode is used to compute images created from direct radiation. The method is
based on a ray tracing and on the application of the exponential attenuation law or Beer-Lam-
bert law (see RT Modeling - Theory chapter).To launch an analytical computation it is neces-
sary to validate “Enable direct analytic” button. By activating this option, different parameters
specific to this model are available. Those parameters are described below.
Figure 4.92. Definition of an analytic computation
3.2.3.2.1. Energy absorption
The energy absorption coefficient is used during the computation of the deposited energy in
the detector. This option is a complementary of the total absorption coefficient.
A particle deposits energy on the detector. This energy depends on the incident energy. When
« Energy absorption » option is not selected (thick detector), each photon which has been
stopped in the detector’s sensitive layer leaves its total energy. The deposited energy is exactly
the incident energy of the particle:
Where probint is the probability of interaction in the global {filter-detector} system.
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On the other hand, when “Energy absorption” option is selected, the deposited energy is bal-
anced by σabs / σtot factor, where σtot corresponds to the total attenuation coefficient and σabs
the energy absorption coefficient coming from Strom Israel tables. This ratio takes into account
the loss of energy in the detecting material.
If the user wants to simulate the effect of the Energy absorption (very thin detector) the ab-
sorbed energy is:
3.2.3.2.2. Photonic noise
The photonic noise is the number of photons stopped in the sensitive part of the detector. The
different models implemented in the software are the following:
• Poissonian: this model comes directly from the physics. This model is applied if the number
of photons is < 20.
• Poissonian-Gaussian: In the main cases (above few photons per pixels) it is equivalent to
apply a Poissonian noise or a Gaussian noise. The standard deviation in this case is the
square root of the expectation value. Note that with a Poissonian-Gaussian model the time
computation is considerably reduced. This model is applied if the number of photons is >20.
The parameter Detector noise (associated tab) and the photonic noise are the two types of
noise which can be taken into account in the radiographic image. The photonic noise has to
be defined by the user only for the analytic computation model (the Monte-Carlo computation
model generates automatically the photonic noise). The mathematical formulas used to simu-
late the noise are accurately described in the detector specifications.
3.2.3.3. Monte-Carlo computation
Concerning the modeling of the physics, the simulation of scattering effects is done with a
Monte-Carlo method which is the most accurate method (see RT Modeling - Theory chapter).
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Figure 4.93. Definition of a Monte-Carlo computation
3.2.3.3.1. Photons count
It is the number of photons simulated during a Monte-Carlo computation. Note that it is not
always easy to know how many events need to be simulated to converge towards a correct
result. Typical values start at 10 million for small wall thicknesses and little scattering, and can
exceed 10 billion for thick components.
The “Estimation” button can help the user to choose an adapted number of photons. A click on
the “Estimation” button launches a quick Monte Carlo simulation. At the end of this simulation,
CIVA proposes in the GUI a photon number to perform a correct simulation. After that the user
can still change the photon number.
3.2.3.3.2. Accelerated mode
An accelerated method has been implemented into CIVA. During a simulation with a thin de-
tector with low absorption most of the photons go through the detector and are not stopped. The
accelerated method stops all the photons arriving on the detector. Thanks to this method the
convergence of the result is faster than with the non accelerated method (for a same configu-
ration about 30000 times more photons are needed if this accelerated method is not selected).
The non absorption of the detector is balanced by σabs / σtot of the detector.
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this option mustn’t be set if back filters are present. As this option stop all the photons
to the detector, the influence of the back filters on the scatter beam will not be taken
into account if this option is selected.
3.2.3.3.3. Use full physics
CIVA simulates the probability for each photon simulated to interact into the matter. From the
cross section data, the type of interaction (photo electric absorption, Compton or Rayleigh
collision, pair creation) is determined.
• Compton interaction is an inelastic collision of a photon with an electron. During this inter-
action the photon loses a part of its energy and is deviated. In classical simulation or “sim-
ple physics” the hypothesis of having a free electron is made. Compton scattering generally
refers to scattering of photons by electrons initially free and at rest and is described accu-
rately by the Klein-Nishina formula. The scattering electron of an atom can be considered
free and stationary if its atomic binding energy is much less than the kinetic energy trans-
ferred to it during the process of scattering; in such conditions the Klein-Nishina differential
cross section can be written:
Where r0 is the classical radius of the electron and
E0 is the energy of the incident photon, mec² the electron rest mass energy (511 keV).
For low energy (< 100 keV) the impact of the electron binding energy cannot be negligible
anymore. The impact on this binding energy on the angular distribution is taken into account by
a correcting factor called incoherent scattering function S(x,Z). This correction on the angular
distribution takes into account the atomic number expressing the main difference between the
Klein-Nishina differential cross section and the so called total incoherent (or Compton) scatter-
ing differential cross section (“full physics simulation”).
• Rayleigh interaction: a connection can be made between Compton interaction and Rayleigh
interaction. Rayleigh collision is an elastic interaction in which the photon is deviated without
losing its energy. This interaction mostly occurs at energy ranges lower than 200 keV. In this
case the theoretical angular distribution for such interaction is described by the differential
Thomson scattering cross section law:
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Thomson formula does not take into account the energy of the incident photon and the matter
in which the photons pass through. This approximation is often admitted because of the poor
probability of elastic collision. In “Full physic” the electron binding energy is once again modelled
by taking into account the atomic form factor F(x,Z).
The coherent (Rayleigh) scattering differential cross section with the correction can be written:
On this specific computation performed with a monochromatic source at 100 keV we can mea-
sure a difference of 10% of the scattered contribution of the energy deposits on the detector
between a full physics computation and simple physic computation.
3.2.3.3.4. Cut energy

The user can decide to not simulate Monte-Carlo photons with incident energy lower than a
given value. If, after one or several interactions, the photon reaches energy lower than the one
entered on the panel the photon is automatically “killed”. A significant time computation will
be saved.
3.2.3.3.5. Cut according to order scattering

The user can decide to not simulate Monte Carlo photons after one or several interactions.
With this option, if the user indicates an order of 2, CIVA automatically “killed” photons with a
scattered order strictly upper to 2.
3.2.3.3.6. Import Monte-Carlo computation.

To import an already computed Monte-Carlo result, the user must launch a first global compu-
tation simulating scattering effects and save the result. Once this result saved, one can use the
already Monte-Carlo results to launch a new computation with modifications on the configura-
tion. To do so, the user just has to select"Import Monte-Carlo" option and select the previous
saved file.
CIVA is only going to compute the analytic and combination steps. The user will spare a very
significant time computation avoiding a new Monte-Carlo computation (which is often high com-
puting cost).
Note: Care must be done with this option: there is no warning yet and errors can be easily
done. If one uses the import Monte-Carlo option, the two configurations must be quite similar.
In particular, the detector MUST have the same size and resolution. If one changes the source
energy range, the scattering effect will not be the same between the two configurations and
the result will be wrong....
3.2.3.4. Combination
A combination model has been developed to associate both analytical and Monte-Carlo results
As the computation time of Monte-Carlo simulation is often long, both images are not computed
with equivalent doses. Combination of both images comes after images level upgrade and
noise upgrade.
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This mode is only available if both analytical and Monte-Carlo modes have been selected.
The accessible parameters in « Expert mode » contain upgrade functionalities of direct and
scattered images. The upgrade of the images is done by a variance image computation by
convolution.
Here you have a description of those parameters:
• The type of filtration applied to scattered Monte-Carlo image for its upgrade to the real dose.
Two types of filtration are available:
• a HANNING filtration given by the formula :
• a BUTTERWORTH filtration given by the formula :
• The power factor of the applied filter. For the HANNING or BUTTERWORTH filter, it is an
order of filter factor (see above, "exapo" factor). This factor corresponds to the slope factor
of the filter in frequency domain.
• By default, the upgrade factor is automatically calculated in function of the doses respectively
used for analytic computation (real doses), the Monte-Carlo calculation and also absorption
factors average of the detector, when Monte-Carlo image computed is the radiant image.
The user can add an additional upgrade factor, at the same time for the average scattered
image and for the noisy variance image of the scattered. This option can be used to reset the
scattered layer simulated with measured values. However, this option must be used by expert
users who really well know the upgrade Monte-Carlo image method. It is recommended to
keep this value to 1.
• About filtration, the user has two possibilities: choose an automatic calculation of the cut-
off frequency by clicking on « automatic cut frequency » bottom, or define manually this
-1
frequency (in mm ).
• The band width (in pixels) of edges average used for the growing of the image. This para-
meter is used in order to manage the border effects dues to the filtration. The value must not
be bigger than the detector size. For non expert users it is recommended to enter a default
value of approximately 5.
• The convolution window width (in pixels) used for variance cartography computation of
Monte-Carlo noise. If the number of photons captured by the detector is not enough, the
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user can increase this value to homogenize the final noise on the image. This value must not
be bigger than the detector size. For non expert user, it is recommended to enter a default
value of 30.
3.2.3.5. Storage
The option “Keep only the detector response data” allows the user to limit the number of images
stored in the civa file. With this option, only the response data is stored. With this option Monte-
Carlo results are lost.
Important: The option “Simulate images without flaws” allows the user to compute Beer-Lam-
bert and detector response or optical density images without flaws. With this option, the user
can extract detectability criteria.
3.3. RT Computation sequencing
3.3.1. Analytical simulation: Ray tracing

From each source point to each detector pixel, CIVA computes the photon travel through the
objet, the flaws and the detector filter. The exponential attenuation law is then applied along
the straight line between source and detector.
3.3.2. Monte-Carlo simulation

The Monte-Carlo method interprets the cross section tables as probabilities, and computes the
path of an individual photon as a random walk, determining both the distance between two
interactions (the so called free path length) as well as the type of interaction after having trav-
elled the free path according to random numbers obeying these probabilities laws. Individually,
each photon path is completely random, but if carried out for a very large number of photons,
the proportions of photons contributing to direct or scattered radiation converge towards the
values calculated by the straight line attenuation method.
3.3.3. Fusion process

The purpose of the fusion process model is to provide a total synthetic radiograph by combin-
ing images obtained from two simulations, one performed with the analytical model for the un-
collided photon flux and the other one with the Monte-Carlo model for the scattered radiation.
As presented in the following schema, the simulated image of the energy absorbed from the
scattered flux, estimated for a low emitted fluence (fluence means here the total emitted photon
number) is scaled up to the analytical fluence level, and then combined with the uncollided
flux image. A last stage consists of converting the total absorbed energy image into the signal
delivered by the detector. The image combination process is detailed in further paragraphs.
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Figure 4.94. Image combination schema

CIVA first performs an analytical simulation with a realistic number Nbanal of emitted photons.
It computes the absorbed energy image Uanal of the uncollided flux, taking into account the
Poisson photon noise. Secondly, two uncorrelated Monte Carlo simulations are performed with
a smaller fluence of (1/2)Nbmc photons. We sum the two resulting scattered flux images (ab-
sorbed energy) noted Sa and Sb to obtain the scattered flux image denoted Smc, then estimat-
ed with the small number Nbmc of emitted photons. Note that the photon noise is intrinsically
generated by the Monte Carlo simulation.
We define the normalization factor N as the ratio of Nbanal to Nbmc . The scattered flux image Smc
must be scaled up to the analytical fluence before being combined to the analytically computed
uncollided flux image Uanal. For that, we assume that the initial scattered flux image can be
decomposed :
Where Sideal is the ideal scattered flux image (without noise) and Snoise the noise component.
We perform the scaling of by separately analyzing the noise component and the ideal one.
The total absorbed energy image Tene is obtained by summing the analytically computed un-
collided flux image Uanal with both normalized noise and ideal components and of the Monte
Carlo computed scattered flux image. Finally, the image Tene is used as input in the detector
response box to compute the synthetic image Tsyn.
3.4. RT imaging
3.4.1. Introduction
This document specifies the different images available from the RT module, differences ac-
cording to the inspection settings (launching an analytical computation, a Monte-Carlo…) and
dedicated tools for the different images.
CIVA RT/CT provides different images depending on whether the user has computed an ana-
lytical computation, a Monte-Carlo computation or a combination of both. Once the computa-
tion finished an analysis page appears with a given layout.
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3.4.2. Images display
Figure 4.95. Interface of CIVA: Images display
3.4.3. Images from analytical computation

The images available after a Beer-Lambert analytic computation are the following:
• Dose in Air Direct: It may be interesting to have an estimate of the dose observed at a given
location, produced by the radiographic source. To that end, CIVA provides an image of the
dose in mGy. The value depends on the chosen exposure time.
• Dose in Air Direct noise: This image is similar to the previous one but takes into account
the detector noise. If there is no noise defined, the image "Dose in Air Direct noise" is not
available.
• BL Energy direct: it corresponds to the deposited energy after a straight line computation on
each pixel of the detector. The value is given in keV.
• BL Energy Direct Noise: similar to the previous one but takes into account the detector noise.
• Attenuation: corresponds to the attenuation of the photon flux on the specimen. The value
that can be read is the (-µx) where x is the thickness of the material and µ is the product of
the cross section value by the density (log (I/I0) value on each pixel of the detector).
• Attenuation Noise: corresponds to the attenuation of the photon flux on the specimen as
previously defined but with noise. If no noise is defined the image "Attenuation Noise" is not
available.
• According to the type of detector the last image is different. If the detector is a film (NF EN
ISO 11699-1 film or tape-film) the images available is "Optical density" and "Optical density
noise". For others detectors, the final image is named "Response Detector" and "Response
detector noise". The values displayed in these images take into account all the detector
settings with the different applied gain…
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The CEA Layout for a Beer-Lambert simulation displays the 3D view, the image of response
detector, response detector noise and BL energy noise.
3.4.4. Images from Monte-Carlo computation

The images available after an M-C computation are:
• Monte-Carlo direct energy: It represents the impacts of the photons that have interacted with
the detector without interaction in the component.
• Monte-Carlo scattered Energy: impacts of the photons which have suffered one or several
interaction before arriving on the detector.
Figure 4.96. Monte-Carlo direct Energy and Monte-Carlo scattered Energy images
3.4.5. Images from combination

Once a complete radiographic simulation is done, other images are available and displayed
in the graphical view.
Figure 4.97. Scan explorer: list of all the images available
All the images described above are available.

The other ones are:
• Combined Energy total and Combined Energy total noise: they represent the total energy
arriving on each pixel of the detector (in keV) and the summation of direct energy and scat-
tered energy.
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• Combined Energy Total attenuation

• Combined Energy scattered and Combined Energy scattered noise: They correspond to an
up-grade of images level and the noise come before the combination of both images.
• Build-Up: This image is a map representing the ratio between scattered and direct radiation.
This equation illustrates not only why the build-up factor is a very handy definition, but also hints
at how the straight line attenuation method and the Monte-Carlo method need to be combined
to obtain the desired result: the straight line attenuation method is a very fast procedure to
obtain the direct radiation intensity, while the Monte-Carlo method only needs to produce the
build-up factor, which when multiplied with the direct radiation intensity yields the total radiation
intensity.
Of course the "Response detector" or "Optical density" images provide from the total compu-
tation of analytical + MC.
3.5. RT Analysis
3.5.1. RT Analysis ToolBar
The RT Analysis ToolBar is the entry point of the main features available.
Figure 4.98. RT Analysis toolbar


tion)
Any image with scales

Measure a distance Measure
in mm
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Optimize a parameter in post-process- Any result image (all

Post-processing
ing except 3D view)
Display the photons path 3D view Photons path

Any result image Cursors
two, none)
Extract the profile along an axis Any result image 1D curve
Toggle between orthonormal and full Any 2D image with

view for a compatible image (same unit same unit for both ax- Orthonormal mode
for axis) es
rect rotation)

Any image Export
values)

board
Open a new and empty tab for analysis Always Add analysis page
Other tools are also available from the toolboxes at the bottom of the window, such as:
• Image representation
• Colormap Gain
• Materials
• Amplitude value
• Export in TIFF or raw format
• Mask and light box
• Detectability
Toolboxes contain some options already described in the common toolboxes section.
3.5.2. Measure
The "measure" tool is available from the tool box by clicking on the following icon:
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From any image, by activating this option, one can draw a ruler. To draw it, you just need
to click on the left button of your mouse one time on the image to define the starting point
of the measurement. Then click again to define the ending point. A ruler with the distance
measurement in mm appears in the image.
One can add as many measurements as wanted in the same image.

By default the ruler along with the measurement are displayed
in white color. It is possible to change the color by right clicking
on the ruler (in the 2D image) and select "Measure color" option.
It is also possible (also by a right click on the ruler) to change the number of decimal.
Figure 4.99. Visualization of the measurement tool in the 2D image
3.5.3. Post processing parameter optimization

This icon allows accessing to the post processing parameter optimization and is available
for images of "Optical density" and "Response detector" with or without noise.
Then the user can choose the data to optimize:
• Optical density or detector response

• Activity (gamma-ray source) or Intensity (X-ray source)
• Exposition time
Figure 4.100. Choice of the data that can be

optimized (example for a gamma-ray source)
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When the user selects “Optical density or detector response”, he can change the exposition
time and / or activity (gamma-ray source) or intensity (X-ray tube).
Figure 4.101. Optical density selected: Activity and Exposure time can be modified
By clicking on the “Apply” button, CIVA recomputes a new image based on the new exposition
time or intensity / activity value. Then, with a click on the “New” button, a new configuration is
created in the civa manager files tree.
Figure 4.102. Post-processing configuration created in the CIVA manager

- When the user selects “Activity / Intensity”, he can change manually the exposition time and
the detector response / optical density value. When the user clicks on the “Apply” button, CIVA
computes the good activity to obtain the detector response / optical density desired by the user
with the exposition time desired by the user. Then, with a click on the “New” button, a new
configuration is created in the CIVA manager files tree.
- When the user selects “Exposition time”, he can change manually Activity /Intensity and the
detector response / optical density value. When the user clicks on the “Apply” button, CIVA
computes the good exposition time to obtain the detector response / optical density desired by
the user with the activity/intensity desired by the user. Then, with a click on the “New” button,
a new configuration is created in the CIVA manager files tree.
Note: by a click on the “Replace” button the new configuration replaces the previous one.
3.5.4. Photons path display

This icon allows activating the photon path display.
You may already have noticed that CIVA traces the paths of 50 photons emitted from the
source. If you know about the physics of scattered radiation, these photon paths give you a
first rough idea about the amount of scattering to be expected, and whether scattering can
be neglected altogether or not: if none of the 50 photons traced reach the detector, scattering
beam is very dominant, and a direct radiation calculation will not be sufficient. The activation
of this tool is available in the toolbox in the model page and also in the 3D view of the analyze
page after a computation.
The parameters of this interactive simulation can be modified in the photon path menu by
defining the number of photons to be displayed.
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Figure 4.103. Photons path option activated for two configurations
One can also activate the option “samples provider”. In this case only the first interactions will
be marked by a red point.
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Figure 4.105.
3.5.6. Cursors
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Figure 4.106. Response detector image and 1D oriented profile line
the selected view.
3.5.10. Export
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3.5.11. Export images and profiles
By clicking on these icons , it is possible to export the results to TIFF or RAW format
images for further processing Those images can be read using "Image J" software for instance.
By clicking on this icon, the X or Y profiles of the images can be exported in TXT format
for further processing.
3.5.12. Copy
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3.5.14. Global tools
3.5.14.1. Image representation

Once a computation over a default view is displayed in the analysis page of CIVA, depending
on the type of computation, different radiographic images are displayed.
By default, CIVA’s image viewer uses the entire range of 256 gray values between white and
black to map the actual values range of the simulated image. The range covered by these 256
gray levels (from white to black) is spread from 0 to maximum value of the image (maximum
optical density, energy...). In some cases the image can appear totally black.
3.5.14.2. Cursors tab - Color Map Gain

To spread the gradation from minimum value to maximum value of the image, one has to
normalize the image. The “normalization” option is available in the tool box on the bottom of
the CIVA analysis page, under the images in the tab “Color Map Gain”.
Figure 4.108. Color Map Gain: tool available at the bottom of the analysis page
It is also possible to manually spread the gradation using the drag line situated over the “nor-
malization” option (see next image).
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Under the normalisation option, one can change the palette. The user may select other palettes,
in symmetric or antisymmetric mode (positive gradation, negative gradation…).
Figure 4.109. Color Map Gain tool
3.5.14.3. Cursors tab - Material tab
Produced by the Beer-Lambert calculation, the activation of this option shows the total path
length in matter (independent of the material properties) between the source and the detector
pixel. The value read (in mm) depends on the positioning of the cursors on the image.
Figure 4.110. "Material" tool used to visualize

the material through passed for a position
3.5.14.4. Cursors tab - Amplitude and computation area position
The user can see with the cursor on the image the value (“amplitude”) of gray level or optical
density. The value read (gray level or optical density) depends on the positioning of the cursors
on the image. The positioning of the cursors on the image is given by the tab “computation
area position”.
3.5.15. Mask and light box

In the case of a simulation with a specific film based on the NF EN ISO 11699-1 film classifica-
tion standard a new item is available in the “toolboxes panel”. This item called “Tools” contains
(depending on the current image) two submenus:
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Figure 4.111. Mask and light Box tools
This option allows defining an optical density range exploitable by the human eye. To activate
this option, one has to select the option "Show mask" and then to define the minimum and
maximum values in which the user wants to exploit the film. All the values out of this range will
automatically be saturated. The “Size viable zone” defines the percentage of the film in which
the values are in the predefined interval.
Below an example of a radiographic simulation with optical density values included between
1.3 and 3. The left image is the one obtain after a simulation. The right one is modified with the
"Mask option". Only 61% of the film contains values between 2 and 4.
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Figure 4.112. Illustration of the use of the "Mask" option: a) initial

display, b) display after application of the mask, c) Mask tool
3.5.16. Detectability tool
3.5.16.1. Detectability toolbox
The “Detectability” tool is available on "Response detector" and "Optical density" images (with
noise) only when the user has selected the option “Simulate images without flaw” in the “Op-
tions” panel, "Computing" tab.
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Figure 4.113. Detectability tool option
With this tool, the user can select one or more region of interest in the “Response detector”
or “Optical density” image to extract detectability criteria available in CIVA variation or POD.
The region of interest is activated by a click on the blue cross . The region of interest can
be removed with a click on the blue cross .
When a region of interest is activated, CIVA computes by default "Rose" criterion in this region
specifically. "Ellipse" and "Fushia" criterion can be also computed via a click on the extraction
module (see following figure).
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Figure 4.114. Choice of the detectability criterion used and

display of the result in the Response detector with noise image
3.5.16.2. Ellipse criterion:

This criterion has been developed for argentic film. But this criterion could be use with the
others detectors proposed in CIVA.
The criterion defines the smallest surface interpretable by the eye. This surface is equal to
1.6 mm²
From this surface, we define an ellipse having the surface of 1.6 mm²
From this ellipse, we define a square matrix named “convolution kernel” with an odd number
of pixel along the edge. The values of the matrix are equal to 1 in the ellipse and 0 outside
Figure 4.115. Schema of the convolution kernel with the ellipse)

Then, we compute the “difference image” equal to the absolute value of the difference between
the images with flaw and without flaw.
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For every pixel of the image, we compute the visibility coefficient:
Where “imagdiff” is the “difference image” and “kernel” is the convolution kernel.
The "standardization" factor allows normalizing an argentic film to a maximal optical density of
2.3. We save the maximum of visibility computed for all image pixels.
We do the same thing for 7 other orientations of the ellipse (angular step = 22,5°).
We define the detectability criterion as the maximum of the visibility coefficients.
The detection threshold is equal to 0.011. Below this threshold the flaw is not seen. Above this
threshold the flaw is detected.
3.5.16.3. Rose criterion:

This criterion is not dedicated to a specific detector. It can be used with all the detectors pro-
posed in CIVA.
This criterion is computed in several steps:
• Step 1: we define the flaw mask, that is to say all the pixels belonging to the defect (the cal-
culation is performed on the “Beer-Lambert Energy direct” image). In this mask, we compute
the average value of the grey values and the variance.
• Step 2: we define the mask corresponding to the defect vicinity, that is to say all the pixels
in connexity with the flaw. This area is then widened to a band having a width of two pixels.
In this mask, we calculate the average value of the grey values and the variance.
Figure 4.116. Flaw and flaw vicinity

• Step 3: we calculate the flaw surface seen by a human. The surface is computed with the
images with and without flaw.
• Step 4: we compute the Rose criterion equal to:
3.5.16.4. Fushia criterion:

Fushia criterion is dedicated to radiographic films. It is based on the previous Rose criterion,
which is improved to take into account the specificities of the radiographic modelling and the
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variability of the flaw shape. In particular this criterion is better suited than Rose criterion in
the case of elongated flaws. This modification is based on the knowledge of equivalent visibil-
ity between step hole IQI and wire IQI given by standards. More particularly, by referring to
French code “Design and Construction Rules for the Mechanical Components of PWR Nuclear
Islands” (RCCM), we can determine that step hole IQI of diameter has a visibility equivalent
to wire IQI of diameter .
Fushia criterion is computed as follows:
• Steps 1 and 2: Extraction of the mask of the defect and its neighborhood according to Step
1 and Step 2 described in Rose criterion.
• Step 3: Computation of the flaw equivalent area.
Computation of the bounding box of the flaw in order to obtain its length (L) and its width (W).
If L>>W, the flaw is considered as a wire and the diameter of equivalent hole is ,
which results in the equivalent area
A threshold is also applied to this area value so as to model the fact that above a given value,
a larger area of the defect does not increase its detectability. This threshold is set to 1.6mm²,
as in Ellipse criterion.
• Step 4: Computation of the noise level.

According to detector modelling implemented in CIVA, the noise level measured in the arti-
ficial image is dependent on the pixel size used in the simulation process. To free
ourselves from simulation parameters and model the human operator ability, we express the
noise value in the case of a pixel size corresponding to eye resolution (120µm):
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• Step 5: Computation of the criterion
More details about the computation of this criterion can be found in ref [1].
Important: When computing this criterion, a warning “pixel too big” can appear. This means
that the pixel size chosen for the simulation is too big compared to the size of the simulated
flaw. A good practice is to choose a size of pixel that is not larger than one fifth of the width
of the projected flaw.
[1] “A Modified Detectability Criterion for Conventional Radiography Simulation”, D. Tisseur,

C. Vienne, P. Guérin, A. Peterzol Parmentier, V. Kaftandjian, P. Duvauchelle, A. Schumm, in
WCNDT, München, Germany, 2016.
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4. Tomographic Modeling Computation

4.1. Tomography - Active Model Setup
The tomographic model is similar to the radiographic model except a restriction of the detector
type, a tomographic scanning and some computation parameters.
4.1.1. Detector type

There are three types of detectors available in the CT module: "Standard", "Scintillator with
CCD" and "Generic detector".
Figure 4.117. List of detectors available in CIVA CT
4.1.2. Tomographic scanning

In CIVA, the source and the detector are mobile, and the object to be inspected is stationary.
Two tomographic scanning can be modeled in CIVA:
• The circular scanning mode

• and the helical one
The modeling of the tomographic scanning is defined from the "Inspection" panel.
Circular tomographic scanning:
For this mode, the user has to parameter the number of positions and the angular step.
Figure 4.118. Circular tomographic scanning mode parameters
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The tomographic scanning can be visualized in the 3D view.
Figure 4.119. 3D view of a pipe inspection

with a circular tomographic scanning modeled
The user has the possibility to visualize the positioning of the source and detector in regard to
the object for each projection by moving the cursor or the positioning id in the model page.
Figure 4.120. Cursor and positioning id to visualize the

positioning of the source and detector for each projection.
Helical tomographic scanning:
For this , the user has to define the length of the displacement, the number of rotation, the
maximal angle of rotation and the number of positions of each rotation.
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Figure 4.121. Helical tomographic displacement mode parameters
Each parameter is illustrated on the figures below.
Figure 4.122. Illustration on a 3D view of a pipe inspection of the

length of displacement for an helical tomographic displacement
Figure 4.123. Illustration on a 3D view of a pipe inspection of

the number of rotations for an helical tomographic scanning
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Figure 4.124. Illustration on a 3D view of a pipe inspection of the

number of position for each rotation for an helical tomographic scanning
4.1.3. Options for the computation

To get detail explanation about the “Option” geometry please refer to the RT Computation
Parameters chapter.
Three types of computation are possible, analytic, Monte-Carlo and a combination of these
two. The Monte Carlo computation may be very long, especially for photon counts higher than
6
10 . Therefore we recommend starting only with the direct analytical computation.
If the user wants to compute the Monte-Carlo for each position, he has to select 1 in the “re-
build” option. For a simulation with hundred positions, computation time could be very long. To
accelerate the simulation, it is possible to compute the scattered beam for regular step. If the
user enters a rebuild option of 10, the scattered beam is computed only to 1st, 10th, 20th …
positions. For positions 2 to 9, the scattered beam is considered equal to the one compute for
the 1st position and so one.
The checkbox "Keep only the Detector Response" data deletes intermediate files during the
computation. This option is checked by default and we recommend leaving it checked because
otherwise a large amount of data is saved to the hard drive.
The Full Beam tab allows to take into account a filter inserted in the setup.
4.2. Tomographic inspection

4.2.1. Installation
The hardware requirements depend mainly on the used CT configurations. For the specific
configuration with a 1920 x 1536 pixels detector, we recommend a PC with a multi-core CPU
and having at least 8 GB of RAM and 500 GB hard disk space.
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PPIXTV and FGK-GPU reconstruction algorithms isare only available with a GPU card CUDA
compatible with the compute capability 2.0 minimum and supporting CUDA 6.5. The cards
available are :
4.2.2. Running a simulation

The active model setup is launched by selecting the "CT simulation" from the RT / CT menu.
Figure 4.125. Selection of the "CT simulation" module from the RT / CT menu
As for others modules, the user shall define all parameters dedicated to the inspection from
the lower part of the active model window.
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4.3. Imaging and data processing

4.3.1. CT imaging
At the end of the projections computation, an analysis window containing the results is dis-
played, as in the next figure. Several tools are available which are described in the system help
in the section: CIVA RT > CIVA RT ANALYSIS available from a 2D image.
In the menu “Computation area Position”, each projection can be visualized by changing the
"Position" value.
Some options exist also for the display in the "Color Map Gain" section. With the two (horizon-
tal and vertical) cursors, the materials and thicknesses traversed by the ray specified by the
intersection of the two cursors are showed.
The pink lines represent the photon paths, option which can be activated in the "Photon path"
tab.
The projections export is accessible via the context menu by a right-click in CIVA manager on
a "Data simulation results" node then "Projection data export".
Figure 4.126. Analysis page obtained for a CT calculation
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4.3.2. CT Analysis ToolBar

The CT Analysis ToolBar is the entry point of the main features available.
Figure 4.127. CT Analysis toolbar


tion)
CIVA preferences Any file Global preferences
General and detailed Informations Misalignment correc-

Any image
about the file and the current gate tion
Any image with scales

Measure a distance on an image Measure
in mm
On response detector
Tomographic reconstruction using FDK
or optical density im- FDK reconstruction
algorithm
ages
On response detector
Tomographic reconstruction using
or optical density im- PixTV reconstruction
PixTV algorithm
ages
Display the photons path 3D view Photons path display
Display the colormap next to the image Any 2D image Colormap

Any image Cursors
two, none)
Extract the profile along an axis Any image 1D curve
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Any image with same
unit for both axes
for axis)
rect rotation)

Any image Export
values)

board
Open a new and empty tab for analysis Always Add analysis page
4.3.3. Misalignment correction
For the cases when the projections in a CT data set do not fulfill the necessary collinearity con-
dition (between the source, rotation axis and detector center), a specific correction procedure
is available. This feature is available from the tool bar by a click on the following option: .
This will open a new CIVA window with a panel containing two parameters, "Top point offset"
and "Bottom point offset". They represent values of the misalignment at 10% and 90% of the
image height as shown in the next figure
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Figure 4.128. Misalignment correction window:

Representation of the top and bottom point offset
These values are estimated with an algorithm which computes a correlation factor between the
elements of the line in question with respect to the same line extracted from the symmetrical
projection (+180 degrees). By using these two values, a vector containing the misalignments
for each line of the image is computed. For a fine tuning the user may specify the offsets as
floating point numbers. The projection on which the computation is performed can be modified
on the Position field. The algorithm is applied automatically at launch and it can be called again
with the Reset button.
In order to verify the correctness of the values, a fast CT reconstruction is performed. This
functionality is launched with the "Computation" button and the result window contains two
panels containing the reconstructions without and with the correction. The reconstructed slice
may be selected with the horizontal cursor and by default the central slice is taken. The user
may iterate the procedure for different slices until optimal values are found for the two offset
values.
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Figure 4.129. Window obtained after a misalignment

correction (before applying it): section without misalignment
correction (left), section with misalignment correction (right)
Once the offset values are chosen, the correction should be applied to the complete data set
by clicking the "New" button. This will create a child configuration containing the corrected data
set which should be used for CT reconstructions.
4.3.4. Measure
The "measure" tool is available from the tool box by clicking on the following icon:
4.3.5. Tomographic reconstruction

In order to launch the plug-in, the user needs to right-click anywhere on a projection of the
"Response detector" image and to choose the FDK or PixTV option.
4.3.5.1. Reconstruction with the FDK algorithm or FDK-GPU algorithm
This icon allows the user to perform a CT reconstruction using the FDK algorithm of re-
construction.
By selecting the previous icon (when a projection of the "response detector" image is selected)
the user will open a new instance called FDK with a window containing three tabs. In the first
one the reconstruction volume is specified, in the second one the user can select the projections
and in the third one the parameters specific to the FDK reconstruction algorithm are defined.
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• Mesh tab
Two modes are possible for the choice of the size and the sampling of the reconstructed vol-
ume: "Aided" or "Manual".
In the "Aided" mode, the user can only specify the number of voxels on the three directions. The
voxels are cubic with a size automatically computed to be proportional to the pixel size of the
detector. For example, if the detector pixel size is 1 x1 mm² and the geometrical magnification
3
factor of the CT setup is 2, the voxel size will be set to 0.5 x 0.5 x 0.5 mm . The two buttons
"Max zone" and "Bounding box" help the user to define two common choices. In the first case
the reconstruction is set to the maximal volume which is proportional to the detector size. In the
second case a bounding box of the object is automatically calculated and the reconstruction
volume is set to its size.
Figure 4.130. Mesh tab: Definition of the box of reconstruction

In the "Manual" mode the user can set both the number of voxels and the voxel size. The two
buttons "Max zone" and "Bounding box" have the same functionality as described previously.
The voxels may be defined as parallelepipeds but with identical vertex lengths on the XZ plane
(a constraint of the tomographic reconstruction algorithms).
Note that setting a volume larger than the "Max zone" will generate an error. The implicit and
recommended setting is "Bounding box". In the manual mode wrong settings may cause sam-
pling artefacts in the reconstructed images.
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• Projections tab
The user can choose to reconstruct the volume either by using all the projections or from only
a subset (sub sampling). If the second choice is used the sampling factor must be specified.
For example, for a sub sampling factor equal to two, only one projection over two is used for
the reconstruction.
Figure 4.131. Projections tab: Definition of the

number of projections used for the reconstruction
Note that reducing the number of projections may severely affect the quality of the reconstruc-
tion.
• Options tab
The Options tab contains the following fields:
- Cut Frequency: the value of the cut frequency for the ramp filtering. The ramp filtering process
amplifies the high frequency components in the image, which may lead to artefacts. The default
value is 100%, which corresponds to the full range. A reduction of this value acts as a low-
pass filtering and smoothes the reconstructed image. We recommend using the default value
(100%) and reduce it only if the results are not satisfactory.
- Filter (Hann, Hamming): a window function (or apodization function) is used in the filtering
step in order to reduce the bandwidth of the transformed signal. The default choice is the Hann
window.
Specificity of the GPU algorithm
The GPU algorithm allow short scan reconstruction, it is to say that a complete rotation around
the object is not mandatory, the minimum rotation angle is reduced to one half rotation plus
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the divergence angle of the source beam. While the input data respects this condition, a recon-
struction can be performed. Even if the data have been calculated or measured on a complete
rotation, the reconstruction can be forced to a half-scan reconstruction using the short-scan tab.
4.3.5.2. Reconstruction with the PixTV algorithm
This icon allows the user to perform a CT reconstruction using the PixTV algorithm of
reconstruction.
To reconstruct data using the PixTV algorithm, the user has to select a projection of the "Re-
sponse detector" image, then select the icon of reconstruction. Note that to reconstruct projec-
tions data with this algorithm, the computer must have a GPU card CUDA compatible 2.0 (see
paragraph "Installation").
While it is possible to run concurrent reconstructions we recommend launching only one per
each available GPU card. Prior to the runs, this can be set in Tools(Preferences / System :
Graphic cards).
Figure 4.132. Preferences of CIVA: System options
The PixTV reconstruction opens a new instance window with three tabs: Mesh, Projections and
Options. The first two are identical to the FDK reconstruction.
• Options tab
The parameters specific to this algorithm are split in two sub-tabs: "Normal" and "Advanced",
as shown in the next figure.
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Figure 4.133. Options tab: Normal and Advanced sub tab

The most important parameters are set in the Normal sub-tab:
- Epsilon is the parameter for the choice of the reconstruction model. If Epsilon < 0, which is the
default choice with ε = - 1.0, the unconstraint TV (Total Variation) model is used. If Epsilon = 0,
the zero constraint problem is solved and if ε > 0 the positive constraint model is used (please
see the Reconstruction theory section for details).
-- Mu is a penalty coefficient and it is the main parameter to set the TV regularization. A lower
value will produce a stronger regularization which means an image with few constant areas,
while a large value will reduce the influence of the regularization. Since it is linked to the number
5
of pixels in the reconstructed image, it takes values in the order of 10 (which is the default
10
value) and the range is limited to the interval [1, 10 ]. Please note that in the interface only
the exponent can be modified.
- Max Iterations is the maximum number of iterations, with a default value of 1000. In general
several hundreds of iterations are needed for convergence and this value should be reduced
only for tests.
-4
- Stop Criterion is the stopping criterion for the iteration loop. The default value is 10 and it
should be decreased for a higher precision. Note that decreasing this value will slow down the
convergence.
- Positive Constraint is the option to use the positive constraint in the reconstructed image. This
option usually accelerates the convergence and is checked by default.
In the Advanced sub-tab several parameters are defined:

- Beta is a penalty coefficient in the computation of the gradient of the reconstructed image.
Larger values may accelerate the convergence but with the loss of precision. The default value
is set to 100.
- Inner Stop Criterion is the stop criterion used in the calculation of auxiliary variables. The
-4
default value is 10 and in general it should be of the same order as "Stop Criterion".
- TV Max Iter is the maximum number of TV iterations. The TV regularization can be applied
several times on the same image for a better individualization of the piecewise constant regions.
By default this option is not used and the value is 1.
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- TV Weight is a parameter setting the weight of the TV regularization between successive

applications. It is effective only when TV Max Iter > 1 and the default value is 1. It takes values
in the interval [0, 1] and for a strong edge detection small values should be used.
- AnisoTV sets the type of computation of the TV norm. If checked, the computation is anisotrop-
ic, otherwise isotropic. This option is unchecked by default and it should be checked only when
working with noiseless or low noise data sets.
- Optimal Area automatically sets the reconstruction area to a squared bounding box of the
sample with the center on the rotation axis. This avoids the computation of the points situated
outside the object, for which the attenuation is zero because the sample is considered to be
placed in vacuum. This option is checked by default and it accelerates the reconstruction with
an important factor.
In case of unsatisfactory results of reconstruction, the user should try other values of "Mu" and
when an optimal value is found, the "Stop Criterion" should be decreased and "Max Iterations"
should be increased. The parameters in the advanced tab are used for fine tuning the recon-
struction and they should be modified only after the previous optimization is performed.
4.3.5.3. Reconstruction with the Helical-FDK algorithm
Helical-FDK algorithm is only available for helical trajectories. It must be noted that, for long
objects, the reconstruction mesh must be defined by the user.
It must be noted that geometrical 2 constraints have to be respected to be able to run the helical
–FDK reconstruction with good resutls:
• The size of the detector in the axial direction must be higher than SO/SD*pitch, where SO is
the Source-Object, distance, SD is the Source-Detector distance and the pitch is the trans-
lation step of the system corresponding to one rotation.
• The well reconstructed area will be centered along the axial displacement and its length will
be displacement length-2*pitch.
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4.3.5.4. Running the reconstruction
After setting all the parameters, the reconstruction is started with the "Apply" button (left-side
bottom of the window). At this point, several verifications are performed and error or warning
messages may be displayed.
If the tests are successfully done, the projection data is pre-processed, loaded into memory
and reconstructed. These steps are indicated by the progress bar and all available details are
given with the help of the information button.
Figure 4.134. progress bar appearing during reconstruction
4.3.5.5. Visualization of the reconstruction result
After the computation is finished, one reconstruction slice is displayed in a new window. In order
to visualize the 3D volume, the user must open another instance of the visualization window by
clicking on the "New" button found at the bottom right corner of the main window. This operation
opens a new visualization window with the segmented volume and the three orthogonal cuts,
and the data simulation results appear in the CIVA manager.
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Figure 4.135. Display of a reconstruction result
4.3.6. Photons path display
This icon allows activating the photon path display.
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Figure 4.137.
4.3.8. Cursors
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the selected view.
4.3.12. Export
4.3.13. Copy
4.3.14. DXF Export
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4.4. Data Export

The projection data can be exported by using the data tools button locates on the top right
corner of the display window, as in the next image.
Figure 4.139. Data export option available

at the top right corner of the display window
The user selects a folder in which each projection is saved as an individual binary file with the
“.civaraw” extension. The image size and the data format are given in the associated “.header”
file.
The reconstructed image can be saved from the CIVA manager window. The standard CT
orientation (transversal) is selected by choosing the XZ plane as in the next image:
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Figure 4.140. Export of the reconstructed data from the CIVA manager
The volume data is exported in a single binary file in the folder selected by the user. An asso-
ciated "header" file is saved with the necessary information for the binary file. An example of
a header file is given below:
• Image type: 32-bits real

• Width: 61 pixels
• Height: 11 pixels
• Number of images: 31
• Offset to first image: 0 bytes
• Order: Little-Endian byte order
Where:
• Width defines the number of points along the Ox axis;

• Height defines the number of points along the Oz axis;
• Number of images defines the number of points along the Oy axis.
4.5. CT Import Wizard

The CT Import functionality allows the import of experimental data into the CIVA CT workflow.
The most important benefit is the possibility to reconstruct the CT data with any of the available
reconstruction algorithms. This functionality is launched from the RT/CT menu as indicated in
the screenshot below.
Figure 4.141. Selection of "CT import" module from the RT/CT menu
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The CT import is designed as a wizard with three dialog windows, described below.
4.5.1. Plugin choices

In the first dialog the user specifies the system used for the CT acquisition which is linked to
a specific input file format. For a given CT data set, each system creates a description file,
usually a simple text file containing the acquisition parameters. Its complete path should be
specified in the "Data description" file field and the general convention is that the projection
data is in the same folder. The last required field (CIVA project destination) is the path and the
name of the CIVA project to be created from the imported data set.
Figure 4.142. Tomo Data Import: General dialog box
The available choices are independent plugins associated to a CT system. Three plugins are
available in this version of CIVA.
4.5.2. Parameters import

The second dialog displays a table with the information extracted from the data description file.
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Figure 4.143. Tomo data import: Parameter validation
Since these parameters are generated by the acquisition machine, normally there is no need
to modify them. However, some parameters may be modified in case the user needs to adapt
the CIVA model.
4.5.3. Full beam

The third dialog displays a preview of the imported images and asks for a choice of the fullbeam
image (acquired in normal operating conditions but without the imaged object).
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Figure 4.144. Tomo data import: Fullbeam Management dialog
If a fullbeam image is not available, CIVA will estimate a fullbeam image from one of the avail-
able projections, by default the first displayed in the projection list. The fullbeam image will be
filled with the mean value computed over the extremities of the projection of choice, indicated
by the red bands. The size of these two regions can be adjusted by modifying the value of the
width field (in number of pixels). The bands should cover only non-attenuated regions, i.e. they
should not overlap the imaged sample.
4.5.4. 3D graphics user interface

At the end of these three steps by clicking the "Fnish" button, the CIVA project is created and
displayed with a specific layout.
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Figure 4.145. Display of the result of the import of tomographic data
GUIDED WAVES TESTING
Chapter 5. GUIDED WAVES TESTING
1. GW INTRODUCTION TO GUIDED WAVES MODELING

Elastic guided waves (GW) propagate at long range in parts of regular shape which thickness
is of the same order of magnitude as wavelengths. This capability to propagate at long range
with very low attenuation is very attractive for the nondestructive evaluation (NDE) of large
structures:
• It limits or even avoids transducer scanning;

• This reduces the overall duration and cost of the examination and makes its implementation
easier.
Other intrinsic properties of the physical behavior of GW tend to lessen their interest.
• They are multi-modal: at a given frequency, several modes coexist, their number growing
with frequency;
• Most GW are dispersive – the velocity of the various modes depends on the frequency,
• Modes couple when interacting with a discontinuity of the guide (defect, shape variation…);
• Since their wavelength compares with structure thickness, spatial resolution is limited.
All these characteristics make difficult the interpretation of results as well as the design of op-
timal testing configurations. Simulation tools can constitute the appropriate mean to overcome
these difficulties and are expected by industrial conceivers of GW inspections.
In proposing a new tool in CIVA, it is our objective to address these industrial needs.
The module gives to the users the possibility of computing various results of interest:
• Mode computation: at first, the knowledge of modes in the structure is fundamental to un-
derstand the way the elastic energy can propagate in it. A first tool is proposed to the user to
predict the dispersion curves (phase and energy velocities) which offer a synthetic view of the
modal behavior. This tool also allows the prediction of the modal displacement in the section
of the guiding structure; this complements the dispersion curves by giving a quantitative view
on the vibration behavior of a given mode in the section of the structure. The computation is
based on the Semi-Analytic Finite Element method, well documented in the literature.
• Ultrasonic field computation: the use of GW for NDT purposes requires the use of transduc-
ers for generating and for receiving the guided waves. Both of them operate in a given fre-
quency range in which various modes exist. The modal amplitudes depend on the transducer
characteristics (shape, size, position) and the proposed tool allows quantitative prediction of
the radiated field.The computation involves the use of modal results and surface integrals
to account for transducer shape.
• Inspection simulation: the aims of a nondestructive examination are to detect defects at least
and possibly, to locate them and to characterize them. In GW-NDT, both pitch-catch and
pulse-echo configuration can be used. Signals received are thus interpreted to get the nec-
essary knowledge. The third tool proposed in the module consists in simulating a whole ex-
periment involving one or two transducers radiating (or being sensitive to) guided waves
propagating in the structure and scattered by a defect. Defect scattering leads to variation of
modal amplitudes and these variations are what the NDT expert must interpret.
2. GW - THEORY
2.1. Guided Waves Modeling
The GWT simulation module proposes the simulation of three different kinds of results:
• the modes propagating in the guide

• the field radiated by a probe in the guide
• a NDT measurement including the radiation by a transmitter, the scattering by a flaw and
the reception by a probe.
Since most guided waves are dispersive, GW testing is operated in general in a limited fre-
quency bandwidth; excitation signals are typically in the form of a single frequency (CW) signal
modulated in amplitude (Gaussian wave packets, tone bursts etc.). It is therefore natural to
model GW in the frequency domain, typical waveforms measured being synthesized by stan-
dard Fourier transform over a limited spectrum. In what follows, models are described under
CW assumption; ω denotes the angular frequency.
A first key property of GW propagation is that at a given frequency, GW can be decomposed
as (complex-valued) linear combination of eigenmodes. The knowledge of the set of modes
and their behavior is sufficient to depict the wave behavior of any elastodynamic quantity (par-
ticle displacement or velocity, stress) relative to an arbitrary field. The nth mode of this set is
described at a given frequency by:
• its wavenumber β n, real for the finite number of propagative modes, imaginary for the finite
number of evanescent modes or includes an imaginary part for the infinite number of inho-
mogeneous modes,
n
• the corresponding particle displacement vector in the invariant section of the guide u (xs)
with xs = (x,z).
The GW displacement u associated to a wavefield is written as:
, (1)
where An denotes the nth amplitude coefficient in the decomposition. y corresponds to the guid-
ing axis of the structure. In practice, the knowledge of mode behavior and dispersion character-
istics is an essential step for understanding complex phenomena arising in a guiding structure.
Measured or simulated signals are then interpreted in reference to modes: typical questions
concern the ability of the modes to be transmitted through or reflected on a guide discontinu-
ity, to be converted into other modes in the interaction etc. If simulated results are computed
regardless of the modal nature of GW, they are very often post-processed at a considerable
computation cost to be eventually interpreted as variations of mode amplitudes.
A second key property of GW propagation – as applied to NDT, is that it can be described as
a global phenomenon in the homogeneous portions of the structure but the way GW interact is
otherwise dominated by local phenomena (probe diffraction both in radiation and in reception,
scattering by a defect).
To compute modal solutions, the semi-analytical finite element method has been implemented.
n
This method allows the computation of both wavenumbers β n, and modal displacements u (xs).
It can deal with waveguides of arbitrary section.
The computation of modal amplitudes emitted by a transducer may be performed under the
assumption that piezo-transducers can be modelled as sources of normal or tangential stresses
over their active surface. For a transducer acting from the guiding surface, a Green function
for a given mode is derived and a surface integration over the transducer performed.
The scattering problem is written in the form of a matrix of complex coefficients Rnm and Tnm,
assuming that modal solutions in guiding structures connected to the local zone of scattering
are known. Rnm (resp. Tnm ) is the reflection (resp. transmission) coefficient for the incident
th th
m mode and the reflected (resp. transmitted) n mode. They stand for the scattering by an
inhomogeneity of the guide. This matrix links an input vector constituted by the modal coeffi-
cients of the incoming wave, to output vectors constituted by those of the outgoing waves. For
planar crack-like defects of arbitrary shape in an otherwise homogeneous guide, assuming that
crack surface belongs to the guide cross-section, a mode matching method can be performed
to compute the scattering matrix (3).
2.2. Useful references to works published by researchers from CEA

This list of references is given to readers who would enter into more detailed derivations of the
various models briefly described in the present document. In these papers, many references
to literature in this domain can be also found. Some further references to modelling works not
yet included in the present version of CIVA are also given.
Papers corresponding to the GWT modules of CIVA
K. Jezzine and A. Lhémery (2007), “Simulation of non-destructive examination by ultrasonic
guided waves based on the reciprocity principle and the semi-analytical finite element method”,
in études de la propagation ultrasonore en milieux non-homogènes en vue du Contrôle Non
Destructif, eds. M Deschamps, B. Desoudin and A. Léger (INRIA, Le Chesnay), pp. 25-33.
K. Jezzine and A. Lhémery (2007), “Simulation of guided wave inspection based on the reci-
procity principle and the semi-analytical finite element method”, Rev. Prog. QNDE 26, pp.
39-46.
A. Lhémery, K. Jezzine, V. Baronian, L. Taupin et S. Mahaut (2009), “Développements
d’outils de simulation de contrôles ultrasonores par ondes élastiques guidées”, Contrôle Essais
Mesures 28, pp. 50-52.
A. Lhémery, K. Jezzine, V. Baronian and S. Mahaut (2010), “Simulation tools for optimal design
and interpretation of guided wave inspections”, in proceedings of the 10th European Confer-
ence on non-destructive testing, Moscow 2010, edited in CD-ROM, 9 pages.
B. Chapuis, K. Jezzine, V. Baronian, D. Ségur and A. Lhémery, (2012), “Simulation of ultrasonic
guided wave inspection in CIVA software platform”, to be published in the proceedings of the
18th World Conference on NDT, publiés sous forme de CD-ROM (2012).
K. Jezzine, A. Lhémery et V. Baronian (2011), “Simulation du CND par ondes guidées dans
la plate-forme logicielle CIVA”, actes publiés en CD-ROM du Congrès COFREND 2011, 10
pages.
Radiation by probes mounted on the guide section:

K. Jezzine and A. Lhémery (2006), “Diffraction effects on ultrasonic guided waves radiated
or received by transducers mounted on the section of the guide”, Rev. Prog. QNDE 25, pp.
134-141.
A. Lhémery and K. Jezzine (2008), “Two efficient methods of mode selection in a waveguide
insonified by a transducer mounted on its section”, Rev. Prog. QNDE 27, pp. 123-130.
K. Jezzine, A. Lhémery and O. Paris (2009), “Inspection of cables in concrete using guided
waves”, in Proceedings of NDTCE’09, eds. O. Abraham and X. Dérobert, (LCPC, Paris, 2009),
pp. 79-84.
Hybrid SAFE/FE modeling for scattering by arbitrary guide discontinuities
V. Baronian, A.-S. Bonnet-Ben Dhia and E. Lunéville (2010), “Transparent boundary conditions
for the harmonic diffraction problem in an elastic waveguide”, J. Comput. Appl. Math. 234, pp.
1945-1952.
V. Baronian, A. Lhémery and A.-S. Bonnet-Ben Dhia (2009), “Simulation of non-destructive
inspections and acoustic emission measurements involving guided waves”, J. Phys.: Conf.
Series. 195, 012001.
A. Lhémery, V. Baronian, K. Jezzine and A.-S. Bonnet-BenDhia (2010), “Simulation of inspec-
tions of elastic waveguides of arbitrary section containing arbitrary local discontinuities or de-
fects”, Rev. Prog. QNDE 29, pp. 145-152.
V. Baronian, A. Lhémery and K. Jezzine (2011), “Hybrid SAFE/FE simulation of inspections of
elastic waveguides containing several local discontinuities or defects”, Rev. Prog. QNDE30,
pp. 183-190.
K. Jezzine, A. Lhémery and V. Baronian (2011), “Simulation of ultrasonic guided wave inspec-
tion using semi-analytical or hybrid semi-analytical / numerical techniques”, in proceedings of
the 50th British Institute of NDT Conference, CD-ROM publication., 11 pages.
GW in viscoelastic multilayered plate / scattering in a stiffened composite plate
L. Taupin, A. Lhémery and G. Inquiété (2011), “A detailed study of guided wave propagation
in a viscoelastic multilayered anisotropic plate”, J. Phys.: Conf. Ser. 269, 012002.
L. Taupin, A. Lhémery, V. Baronian and A.-S. Bonnet-Ben Dhia (2012), “Scattering of obliquely
incident guided waves by a stiffener bonded to a plate”, J. Phys.: Conf. Ser. 353, 012011.
L. Taupin, A. Lhémery, V. Baronian, A.-S. Bonnet-BenDhia and B. Petitjean (2012), “Hybrid
SAFE/FE model for the scattering of guided waves in a stiffened multilayered anisotropic plate”,
to appear in Rev. Prog. QNDE 31.
2.3. Modes computation theoretical model

Horace Lamb published his paper on the calculation of waves propagating in a homogeneous
isotropic plate in 1917 (“On Waves in an Elastic Plate”, Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A 93 (1917), pp.
114-128). In about a century of scientific literature after this publication, many methods have
been proposed to fully understand the guided wave propagation in such a plate and to gen-
eralize this pioneering work to more complex guiding structures: this includes more complex
constitutive materials such as multilayered or anisotropic materials, and more complex geom-
etry such as generalized cylinders of arbitrary cross-section.
It is out of purpose to review this literature here. However, a bibliographic work has been done
at CEA to choose a computation method adapted to our goals; one method among the various
existing ones appeared to fulfill our main objectives. This method is now known in the literature
as the SAFE method (for Semi-Analytical Finite Element) but before being widely spread in the
community in recent years under this acronym, it has been already described in the literature
under various denominations from the early 70’s.
The SAFE method main facts:
The SAFE method is a numerical method, relying on a finite element computation for solving
the harmonic elastic wave equation in a given piece (harmonic ≡ in the frequency domain).
It further assumes that along a given direction of the space, the elastic properties and the
geometry of the piece do not vary. Waves are therefore assumed to be guided in this direction
and the section perpendicular to this direction is nothing but the guide section.
In the method, the guide section is meshed by finite elements for solving the wave equation
(thus, arbitrary geometry and elastic properties can be introduced at this stage) while the prop-
agation in the guiding direction is dealt with an analytical propagator exp( -i β n y) (depending
on the wave number β n and on a propagation distance y).
The solution is actually given as a series of eigenvalues (the modal wave numbers β n) and
of associated eigenvectors, describing the various components of the particle displacement at
every node of the meshed section.
Once the solution is obtained in the section at a reference position, the solution at any position
y along the guiding direction is obtained analytically by a simple phase-shift through the prop-
agator depending on the distance of propagation (but can be further varied in amplitude if the
wave number β n possesses a non-zero imaginary part).
Therefore, the SAFE method:
• can handle arbitrary guide description (in terms of geometry and in terms of constitutive
materials),
• is very efficient numerically since the computation is restricted to the guide section (2D mesh
in general) while analytic propagators allow to compute fields at an arbitrary distance along
the guide axis,
• can be obtained for certain guide symmetries with a 1D mesh leading to even higher perfor-
mances;
• it is intrinsically adapted to the physics of guided propagation,
• and is intrinsically adapted to the mathematical description of guided waves as modal solu-
tions of the wave equation.
Implementing the SAFE method:

The guide section is meshed either by 1D linear element for plates, cylinders or tubes, or
th
triangles otherwise. In the latter case, the displacement field u at a point belonging to the i
element is approximated by
, (2)
i
where N(x,z) is a matrix of interpolation functions, d is the unknown vector of nodal displace-
ments and β the unknown wavenumber. The application of the virtual work principle leads to
th
the following quadratic eigenvalue system in k for the i element:
, (3)
where the various K are matrices of rigidity and M the mass matrix, not detailed here. After as-
sembling the element matrices into global matrices and solving the resulting quadratic eigen-
system of 3M equations, one obtains 6M eigenvalues and eigenvectors (M being the number
of nodes) which correspond to the modal solution of the structure. Stress fields (and consistent
nodal forces), power flow and energy velocity associated with each mode can be easily derived
from the displacement eigenvectors.
In the restricted present version, both the plate or tube thickness and the cylinder radius are
meshed by 1D finite elements, due to the specific symmetries taken into account.
Typical results
Examples are given in the user guide.
Here, we simply list the kind of results that can be computed.
Dispersion curves: these curves show the variation of the phase velocity of propagative modes
over a frequency bandwidth defined by the user.
Energy velocity curves: these curves show the variation of the energy velocity of propagative
modes over the same frequency bandwidth (which is identical to the group velocity in a lossless
medium).
Attenuation curve: these curves show the variation of the mode attenuation as a function of the
frequency over the same bandwidth.
Displacement and stress components: these results show, at a given frequency, the various
components of the particle displacement and stress associated to a given mode.
2.4. Field computation theoretical model

The knowledge of modes is of primary importance to understand how the various guided waves
propagate, how they depend on the frequency, to know the value of their cut-off frequency
etc. It allows selecting a frequency bandwidth adapted to the kind of examination one wants
to conceive.
However, this knowledge is not sufficient in practice as soon as one wants to know the field ac-
tually radiated by a probe. Due to the finite size of actual sources, diffraction effects occur, both
in radiation and in reception. The various modes that exist in a chosen frequency bandwidth are
radiated with a frequency-dependent amplitude that must be accurately known. By reciprocity,
the sensitivity of a probe working as a receiver to the various modes is also dependent upon
the frequency, due to the same diffraction effects resulting from their finite aperture.
The field computation aims at predicting the wave field radiated at a given set of points in the
guide defined at given distances from the source.
There are various possibilities offered to the user to define the probe (shape, size, position,
excitation signal), as explained in the part of the user guide describing the probe. Through an
integral over the contact surface of the probe with the guiding surface, the amplitude of each
propagative mode is computed.
Restrictions: in the present version, only piezoelectric and EMAT probes are considered. They
are moreover assumed to radiate from the guiding surface, i.e., from the surface defined by
the contour of the guide section translated along the guiding direction. The modelling of EMAT
probes is detailed in Model of ultrasonic generation by an Electro-Magnetic Acoustic Transduc-
er. Body forces close to the surface are converted into equivalent surface stress. The surface
stress is subsequently integrated similarly to the piezoelectric case to compute the amplitude
of each propagative mode. Besides, non contact transducers are not currently taken into ac-
count in CIVA.
2.5. Defect interaction theoretical model

Introducing a new NDT method in CIVA means that simulated results must be comparable
to measurements. In the practice of NDT using elastic guided waves, two configurations are
generally considered:
• pitch-catch configuration: two probes (one transmitter, one receiver) are positioned at two
different positions.
– If there is no flaw in between, the transmission from the former to the latter may only be
affected by intrinsic losses and mode amplitudes principally depend on probe diffraction
effects in radiation and in reception
– If there is a flaw in between, scattering occurs which generally affects the various modes
specifically and is frequency-dependent. The amplitude of the modes transmitted from the
emitter to the receiver is therefore dependent on both the probe diffraction effects and
on the scattering by the flaw. New modes that may exist but which may have not been
radiated by the emitter can be generated in the process (mode conversion).
• Pulse-echo configuration: one single probe works both as an emitter and a receiver.
– If there is no flaw in the guide, waves are radiated away from the probe and will not give
rise to echoes.
– If there is a flaw in the guide, radiated waves interact with it. Part of the incident energy
is reflected onto the flaw, the other being transmitted through it. In the scattering process,
the modal amplitudes are affected and mode conversion can also occur.
Deriving an overall modal formulation:
The overall problem of radiation, propagation, scattering by a defect and reception of GWs is
handled using reciprocity relations. In 1979, Auld introduced a formulation [B. A. Auld, Wave
Motion 1, pp. 3-10 (1979)] that relates the difference in the electrical signal received by a probe
in absence (state 1) and in presence of a flaw (state 2) to the elastodynamic field taken in both
states integrated on a surface surrounding the flaw.
A similar approach can be applied to GWs.
The ultrasonic fields v (particle velocity) and σ (stress) at coordinates (x,y,z) in a waveguide can
be expressed as a linear combination of the eigenmodes vn and σ n at a given frequency, as
(4)
th
where β n and An are the wave number and amplitude associated with the n mode, and
being the particle velocity and stress fields in the section irrespective of the phase. The
elastodynamic field at any position in the guide is thus fully determined by the knowledge of
both the modal solution (β n , , ) and mode amplitudes An.
For the sake of simplification, we assume a pulse echo configuration with stress free boundary
conditions on the guiding surface . The same approach applies to pitch-catch configurations
and embedded guides without loss of generality. Auld’s formula can be written as:
, (5)
where δ Γ is the difference between the electrical transmission coefficient of the probe in state
2 and in state 1. The electrical transmission coefficient is defined as the ratio of the amplitude
of the electromagnetic wave transmitted into the coaxial line in reception to the amplitude of
the electromagnetic wave incident in the coaxial line in emission. v(i) and σ (i) are the particle
velocity and stress field obtained in state i in response to an incident electrical signal carrying
power P in the coaxial line of the probe. n is the unit vector normal to the surface SF surrounding
the flaw.
Figure 5.1. Definition of state 1 and 2 in the formulation of Auld's reciprocity

theorem applied to pulse echo configuration in a bidimensional guide.
Eq. (5) applies to arbitrary piezoelectric probes. In the case of phased array probes, different
time delays and amplitudes can be applied for the transmit and receive modes, leading to a
different behavior of the probe in emission and reception.
The elastodynamic field in the guide is written as a modal expansion. Mode indices are allowed
to assume positive and negative values. Mode indices are allowed to take negative values with
β -N = - β N. A positive subscript N (uppercase indices are assumed to be strictly positive)
depicts a wave carrying energy or decaying in the +y direction, whereas a negative index -N
depicts a wave carrying energy or decaying in the –y direction.
In state 1, in the absence of the defect, we express the field radiated by the probe considering
the phase and amplitude law (for a phased array probe) that would be applied for reception.
r
It is
ω
decomposed over the modal solution with amplitude coefficients denoted by A N. Omitting
j t
e in the following expressions, one has:
on Sl, (6)
on Sr, (7)
where zl and zr are the axial coordinates of the left (Sl) and right (Sr) boundary of SF. The
sums involved are defined over positive integers N. Eqs. (6-7) differ by a simple phase shift.
In state 2, the elastodynamic field is expressed using S- (scattering) parameters that relate the
scattered wave amplitude to the incident wave amplitude at the left and right boundary of SF.
The incident field is decomposed over the modal solution with amplitude coefficients denoted
e
by A N. SMl,Nl is the amplitude of the reflected mode M at Sl for an incident mode N of unit
amplitude on SI. SMr,Nl is the amplitude of the transmitted mode M taken on Sr for an incident
mode N of unit amplitude on Sl. Auld’s scattering formalism results in two different expressions
for the field on surfaces Sl and Sr. On the former, it can be written as a superimposition of
incident and reflected contributions.
on Sl, (8)
On the latter, the expression is that of the transmitted field
on Sr, (9)
The sums involved are defined over positive integers M and N. Most of the terms vanish due
to the bi-orthogonality of eigenmodes which can be expressed as:
(10)
Further, the use of power flow normalized modes implies Qn -n = 1. Combining previous ex-
pressions leads to the following formula:
. (11)
If we consider that nothing is received by the transducer in state 1, δ Γ is the echo arising from
the scatterer measured by the transducer in the receive mode. P is the electrical power provided
e r
to the emitter. A M is the amplitude of mode M radiated by the transducer. A N is the amplitude
of sensitivity to mode N of the transducer in reception. SNI,MI is the reflection coefficient for an
incident mode M and a reflected mode N accounting for the scattering by the flaw. The various
terms can be calculated independently and then combined to get the received electrical signal
due to the presence of the flaw.
Scattering by a Normal Crack
In the case of a crack normal to the guide axis (next figure), it is possible to compute the
scattering parameters SNl,Ml appearing in Eq. (11) by post-processing the SAFE results. In order
to apply the virtual work principle in the section containing the crack, the displacement field
associated to an incident mode can be decomposed into a symmetric part and an antisymmetric
one with respect to the plane of the crack.
th
Figure 5.2. Scattering of M mode incident from the left of a
normal crack in a waveguide. Relevant boundary conditions
applied at y=yck allow obtaining of the scattering parameters.
Basically, the solution is obtained by combining the scattered mode amplitudes obtained for
the relevant symmetric and antisymmetric sub-problems.
Scattering by an arbitrary flaw or guide inhomogeneity

To deal with arbitrary flaw shapes, guide inhomogeneities or junctions between several guides,
a finite element (FE) scheme has been developed with the further goal to limit the computation
zone to a minimal size for efficiency. The computation relies on the use of artificial boundary
conditions endowing transparency. Radiation conditions at infinity are brought back to the ar-
tificial boundaries by building an operator coupling the finite elements inside the FE zone to
modal solutions in guides. An original mixed formulation has been derived whose unknowns
are the displacement field in the bounded domain and the normal component of the normal
stresses on the artificial boundaries. The scattered field is then projected on modal solutions
in guides through the use of bi-orthogonality relations. This method has been established for
2D and 3D waveguides in Cartesian coordinates. It can deal with the scattering by a junction
made up of an arbitrary number of waveguide. In this release, only the 2D (dealing with the
scattering of Lamb wave) and axisymmetric version are implemented.
3. GW - ACTIVE MODEL SETUP

3.1. Specimen
The "Specimen" window, available in all the GW modules, enables definition of the specimen
geometry and material.
3.1.1. Available specimens depending on the module and computation options

The availability of the different specimen geometries, depending on different parameters, is
summarized in the table below:
Beam
Inspection
Extru- Computa- Modes compu- compu-
simulation
sion tion option tation module tation
module
module
Lamb and SH
2D OK OK
modes
Planar
Modes of a rectan-
3D OK Not available
gular section guide
2D CAD 3D OK OK OK
2D (axisymmet- Torsional and longi-
OK OK
ric) tudinal modes
Cylindrical Torsional, longitu-
3D dinal and flexural OK OK
modes
Junction 2D
CAD, Sec- Not avail-
Planar 2D Not available OK
tion transition, able
Groove, Weld
Junction 2D
CAD, Sec- 2D (axisymmet- Not avail-
Circular Not available OK
tion transition, ric) able
Groove, Weld
Table 5.1. Available specimen
3.1.2. Planar specimen, geometry tab

A planar specimen is defined by its dimensions (along the x and y axis) and its height (thickness)
(z axis).
The reference frame origin is on the corner of the specimen as illustrated below.
Figure 5.3. Reference frame in planar specimen

The structure of the planar specimen can be homogeneous (1 layer) or multilayered. This
choice is made at the bottom of the “Geometry”tab.
If multilayered is chosen, the user defines the desired number of layers (“layers number”) and
the thickness of each individual layer. The selected layer appears in green in the 3D model view.
Figure 5.4. Layers visualization

The material of the specimen is defined in the “material” tab. In the case of a multilayered
specimen, a different material can be assigned to each layer.
3.1.3. 2D CAD specimen, geometry tab

The 2D CAD specimen is obtained from a 2D CAD profile to which a planar extrusion is applied.
The propagation direction is perpendicular to the CAD drawing.
The length of the extrusion is defined in the “Geometry” tab.
The 2D CAD profile is drawn in the CIVA CAD editor (opened by clicking on “edit”).
In the CIVA CAD editor, the profile is drawn with the following conventions:
• Border lines of the profile are red

• Comments are black
An example of 2D CAD specimen is represented on the figure below. The length of the extrusion
is defined in the “Geometry” tab. The extrusion follows the Y axis of the specimen reference
frame, the waves propagation axis.
The material of the specimen is defined in the “material” tab.
3.1.4. Cylinder, geometry tab

and thickness (all in mm).
The associated reference frame axes are shown in the figure below.
Figure 5.5. Reference frame in cylindrical specimen
As in the case of the planar specimen, the structure of a cylinder can be homogeneous (1
layer) or multilayered.
The material of the specimen is defined in the “material” tab. In the case of a multilayered
specimen, the materials of each layer can be different.
To consider a fluid filled cylinder, its inner layer may be defined as a fluid (defining another
layer as a fluid is forbidden).
3.1.5. Section transition, geometry and Waveguides tabs

The Section transition separates two waveguides of different sections.
Figure 5.6. Section transition overview
The user determines the extrusion type which can be:
• planar, the parameters of this kind of section transition are described on the corresponding
schematic
• or cylindrical, the parameters of this kind of section transition are described on the corre-
sponding schematic
The associated reference frame axes are also shown on the figures below.
Figure 5.7. Planar section transition definition
Figure 5.8. Cylindrical section transition definition

The length of each waveguide is chosen in the “waveguides” tab, the selected waveguide
appears in blue on the 3D view
Figure 5.9. Waveguide visualization

The materials of the two waveguides and of the section transition are the same and are defined
in the “material” tab.
3.1.6. Groove, geometry and Waveguides tabs

A groove can be defined between two waveguides situated on each side of the groove (figure
below).
Figure 5.10. Groove overview

The profile of the groove can be “Rectangular”, “Triangular”, “Circular”, or “Trapezoidal”.
• planar
• or cylindrical
In each case, a schematic of the chosen groove geometry helps the user to define its para-
meters.
The groove can be positioned at the upper or at the lower face of the specimen.
Figure 5.11. Groove definition

The associated reference frame axes are shown in the figure below for a planar and a circular
extension.
Figure 5.12. Reference frame for a groove

appears in blue on the 3D view.
Figure 5.13. Waveguide visualization
The materials of the two waveguides and of the groove are the same and are defined in the
“material” tab.
3.1.7. Weld, geometry and Waveguides tabs
3.1.7.1. Definition
A weld is defined in four steps:
Figure 5.14. Weld steps
Step1) Weld configuration:
• planar
• cylindrical
Figure 5.15. Planar and cylindrical extrusions
The parameters of the extrusion are described on schematics displayed in the geometry tab
and depending on the type of extrusion.
Step2) Thickness, counterbore:
The user can choose to define:
• identical thickness for the two waveguides on each side of the weld.
• different thicknesses for the two waveguides on each side of the weld. The two thicknesses
are defined by the user. A tapering has also to be defined by its length “Lt” (in mm) and
angle (in °). The height “Ht” of tapering is deduced from these parameters. This tapering is
symmetrical (same dimensions on the top and the bottom of the weld).
Figure 5.16. Weld visualization :Left: identical, Right: different
Figure 5.17. Thickness and counterbore definition
Step3) Bevel symmetry:
The user can choose between:
• a symmetric bevel
• a non symmetric bevel
Figure 5.18. Symmetric and non-symmetric bevels
Step4) Bevel type:
When a bevel type is chosen, a schematic of the chosen bevel geometry helps the user to
define its parameters:
Figure 5.19. Bevel type

the parameter h
• X-UV: defined by the gap, the root face
, the top angle, the bottom angle, the parameter h and the radius of U bevel
radius of U root
Figure 5.20. Available bevel types
able:
parameter h
angles
Figure 5.21. Available non-symmetric bevels
modified. Furthermore, it is important to respect some conditions on these dimensions. By
example:
The length of each waveguide is chosen in the “waveguides” tab and, depending on the wave-
guides lengths, the corresponding “length left” and “length right” of the whole weld are given
in the geometry tab.
Figure 5.22. Weld waveguides
The materials of the two waveguides and of the weld can be different and are defined in the
“material” tab.
3.1.7.2. Preview
To help the user choose the most suitable frequency for an inspection, the estimation of the re-
flection coefficient of the first torsional mode on the weld is deplayed as a function of frequency
(in MHz). The maximum displayed frequency corresponds to the cut-off of the second torsional
mode. The estimation of this coefficient is based on a simple transmission line model and is
proposed only for a homogeneous weld (same material properties for both waveguides and
the weld). The ‘disable’ toggle button allows the user to prevent the display from automatically
refreshing whenever a computation parameter is modified.
Figure 5.23. Weld reflection coefficient preview
3.1.8. Junction 2D CAD, geometry and Waveguides tabs

The junction 2D CAD specimen is obtained from a 2D CAD profile to which an extrusion is
applied. The propagation direction is along the CAD drawing from the emitter to the junction
through a waveguide.
The Junction 2D CAD is defined between two or more waveguides situated on each side of
the junction.
Figure 5.24. Junction 2D CAD overview with 4 waveguides
To create a Junction 2D CAD, the user has to draw its profile in the CIVA CAD editor opened
by clicking on “edit”.
Figure 5.25.
In the CIVA CAD editor, the profile of the Junction 2D CAD is drawn with the following con-
ventions:
• Border lines are red

• Waveguide connections lines are grey (one waveguide will start from each junction line as
shown on the figure below)
• Comments are black
Figure 5.26. 2D CAD editor
Interfaces in the junction are defined in orange. The prolongations of the different areas defined
by the interfaces are automatically performed, leading to waveguides composed of several
“volumes” (see figure below)
Figure 5.27. 2D CAD with interfaces
In the CIVA CAD editor, after the drawing of the profile of the Junction 2D CAD, the user
determines the extrusion type (at the bottom of the CIVA CAD editor window) which can be:
• a Translation defined by the 3D extrusion length defined at the bottom of the CAD editor
window
Figure 5.28. 2D CAD in translation
• or a Revolution defined by an Angle and a Radius defined at the bottom of the CAD editor
window
Figure 5.29. 2D CAD in revolution
The length of a planar extrusion and the angle and radius of a Revolution extrusion can also
be defined in the Specimen/geometry panel.
Figure 5.30. Extrusion parameters
Note that if the « junction segments » of the Junction 2D CAD profile are not perpendicular to
the revolution axis, it is not possible to create the specimen from such a drawing, and a warning
message informs the user of the needed correction:
Figure 5.31. Not valid junction 2D CAD
appears in blue on the 3D view.
Figure 5.32. Waveguides visualization, case of 4 waveguides
The material of each volume is chosen in the “material” tab, the selected volume appears with
a green outline on the 3D view.
Figure 5.33. Materials visualization, case of 5 volumes defined in the 4 waveguides
3.1.9. Material and attenuation

The material defined in the “Material” tab can be an isotropic viscoelastic material. The user
must define its density, longitudinal and transverse wave velocities.
The attenuation laws must also be defined for each bulk wave in every layer. Only an expo-
nential attenuation law is possible, which is defined by the attenuation α0 at the frequency f0.
With the exponential law the attenuation α at the frequency f is calculated by the formula:
with p = 1.
It corresponds to a linear variation of the attenuation over the frequency.
The attenuation curve can be displayed by selecting the “Curve” parameter.
This attenuation α is then used in the computation only if the option “Attenuation” is
selected in the “Computation parameters” tab.
3.2. Probe
The "Probe" window, available in the GW beam computation and inspection simulation mod-
ules, enables definition of the probe.
3.2.1. Available probes depending on the type of specimen

The different types of probes available according to the specimen geometries are described
in the following table.
3.2.2. Choice of an inspection with one or two probes

One or two probes appear at the top the Probe panel depending on the choice of the “inspection
system”, made in the Inspection panel.
In the case of an inspection mode dealing with one probe, this probe is considered both for
transmitter and receiver, which corresponds to Pulse Echo inspection mode (see figure below).
In the case of an inspection mode dealing with two probes, one is being used as a transmit-
ter, the second is being used as a receiver. This corresponds to a Pitch-catch transmission
inspection mode (opposite wedge orientations for both probes) or Pitch-catch reflection in-
spection mode (same wedge orientations for both probes).
If one selects Pitch-catch transmission or Pitch-catch reflection inspection mode, then a

second probe is defined (see figure below), with the same parameters as the first probe. The
characteristics of both probes are reported in the Probe panel. One may switch the operating
mode (Transmitter or Receiver) of both probes by selecting them in the probe’s list table.
As those probes are, by default, considered as identical, any modification of one probe will be
set to the other one.
But it is also possible to use two probes with different characteristics. To do so, it is necessary
to modify the default option concerning the Pitch-catch transmission or Pitch-catch reflection
inspection mode settings in the Inspection panel/tab Positioning, which is set to “symmetric
configuration”. The “symmetric” term stands for identical probes characteristics, which corre-
sponds to the most usual applications. If the “Non symmetric configuration” is selected, then
identical or different probes may be defined in the Probe panel (see bottom of the figure
below). The probe that one wants to be modified has to be selected from the list (see top of
the figure below).
3.2.3. Contact probes

The choice of this probe will be done by selection in the “Probe type” list. Depending on the
specimen this type of probe may not be available.
3.2.3.1. Crystal shape
3.2.3.1.1. Types of sollicitation

If the crystal is directly in contact with the specimen, the user has to choose the solicitation type.
If a wedge is defined, there is no solicitation to be defined, a normal solicitation being considered
by default.
Four types of solicitation are available.
• The option “Normal (along Z)” corresponds to a solicitation normal to the surface of the
specimen, all along the length of the crystal:
• The option “Shear vibration (along Y)” corresponds to a solicitation tangential to the surface
of the specimen, all along the length of the crystal, in the propagation direction Y:
• The option “Shear vibration (along X)”, corresponds to a solicitation tangential to the surface
of the specimen, all along the length of the crystal, normal to the propagation direction Y:
• The option “Longitudinal vibration (along Y)”, corresponds to a dipole solicitation for which
the application of the forces are at the periphery of the crystal, tangential to the surface of
the specimen.
3.2.3.1.2. Pattern (single or linear phased array)
The only available patterns are single element and linear phased array.
A single probe is of rectangular shape and the user has to define its width and length.
For a linear phased array pattern, the user has to define:
• the whole aperture dimensions (“Incident dimension” in the Incidence plane, which corre-
sponds to the splitting direction, and “Orthogonal dimension” in the Orthogonal plane)
• the number of elements
• the element width.
those latest parameters are linked: if one modifies the number of elements or the
element width, for instance, the aperture is changed.
At the bottom of the “Crystal shape” panel, the number of each element is reported. Clicking on
"Ordering" allows to modify this numbering, regroup different elements to the same channels,
remove some elements (they would not be considered for computation).
The way to regroup for example 2 elements is described below:
NB: In the main visualization window, element number 1 is always displayed in a "light" color
with respect to the other elements (see figure below).
3.2.3.2. Focusing
The probe surface type is forced to “flat”.
3.2.3.3. Wedge definition
The geometry of the wedge is linked with the specimen geometry.
For a plate, the wedge is necessarily flat and the wedge parameters to be defined are explained
on a shematic.
For a cylindrical specimen the radius of curvature of the bottom surface of the wedge should
match the curvature of the specimen. The computation is not allowed if this is not the case. If the
probe is placed outside the cylinder, the bottom surface of the wedge has a concave cylindrical
surface and if the probe is placed inside the cylinder, the bottom surface of the wedge has a
convex cylindrical surface (the wedge parameters to be defined in each case are explained on
the corresponding shematic figure below left and right).
NB: The position of the probe inside/outside a cylinder is determined by the wedge
geometry: a contact probe with a cylindrical convex (concave) wedge is positioned
inside (outside) the cylinder.
The incidence angle of the crystal can be directly entered in degrees in the corresponding
box. The other possibility is to enter the phase velocity of the mode that we want to gener-
ate/detect preferentially (see figure above). In that case the corresponding incident angle is
calculated using the material parameters of the wedge defined in the “Material” menu of the
“Wedge” panel.
If the incidence angle is entered directly, the corresponding preferential phase speed
is calculated using the material parameters of the wedge. When this angle is defined
at 0°, the corresponding phase speed is infinite.
3.2.4. Surrounding and surrounded probes

The choice of this probe will be done by selection in the “Probe type” list. Depending on the
specimen this type of probe may not be available.
3.2.4.1. Number of array
Surrounding and surrounded probes are composed of one or more arrays (see figure below,
example of one and three arrays).
Figure 5.34. Example of one and three arrays
In the case of several arrays, the arrays are identical, separated in space by a constant gap
and in time by a constant delay, both defined in the”probe” tab (see figure below). The shift and
the time delay are repeated if there are more than two arrays.
A "Surrounding array" is assumed to be lying outside of the tube, while a "Surrounded array" is
assumed to be located inside the tube. The definition and display of these probes are identical.
3.2.4.2. Focusing
The radius of curvature of the array should match the curvature of the specimen. The compu-
tation is not allowed if this is not the case.
3.2.4.2.1. Types of solicitation
Four types of solicitation are available.
• The option “Normal (Along R)” corresponds to a solicitation normal to the surface of the
cylinder, all along the length of the crystal:
• The option “Axial shear vibration (along Y)” corresponds to a solicitation tangential to the
surface of the cylinder, all along the length of the crystal, in the propagation direction Y:
• The option “Orthoradial shear vibration (along θ)” corresponds to a solicitation tangential
to the surface of the cylinder, all along the length of the crystal, normal to the propagation
direction Y:
• The option “Axial longitudinal vibration (along Y)” corresponds to a dipole solicitation for
which the application of the forces are at the periphery of the crystal, tangential to the surface
of the cylinder:
3.2.4.2.2. Patterns (single or linear phased array)
The available patterns are single element and linear phased array.
The dimensions of a probe single probe are expressed in ° (Angular sector of the probe) and
in mm (dimension in the orthogonal direction (Width)).
For a linear phased array pattern, the user has to define:
• the whole aperture dimensions in the Incidence plane (“Angular sector” which is expressed
in °) and in the Orthogonal plane (in mm)
• the number of elements
• the element width in mm.
NB: those latest parameters are linked: if one modifies the number of elements or
the Element width, for instance, the aperture is changed.
At the bottom of the “Crystal shape” panel, the number of each element is reported (see figure
below).
If a linear phased array pattern is applied, the curvilinear dimension of the element is also
displayed.
At the bottom of the “Crystal shape” panel, the number of each element is reported (see figure
below). Clicking on "Ordering" allows to modify this numbering, regroup different elements to
the same channels, remove some elements (they would not be considered for computation).
NB: In the main visualization window, element number 1 is always displayed in a

"light" color with respect to the other elements.
3.2.5. EMAT transducers

EMAT modeling is introduced as an expert user feature in CIVA 11. There is no dedicated
EMAT module, thus modeling is done in two steps combining the two existing ET and GWT
modules. The way to define an EMAT model in the ET module is described in EMAT trans-
ducers.
We will assume that you have just saved a simulation result in the ET module as described in
the preceding section. The next step is to set up the CIVA GWT module for an EMAT ultrasonic
simulation. Two simulation types are available:
1.Field computation lets you calculate the generated ultrasonic field in the inspection sample.
2.Inspection simulation lets you use the EMAT probe designed in the ET module to simulate
inspection testing results.
As an expert feature, we will not describe the standard way of handling the GWT module here.
It is assumed that the user is familiar with the workflow of the CIVA GWT module. We will
however explain how to define an EMAT probe in the CIVA GWT module as well as explain
what kind of restrictions apply to the use of EMAT simulation.
*Defining an EMAT probe in the CIVA GWT module
In the scope of the GWT module, an EMAT probe is a category of ultrasonic probes, just like
standard probe types. Therefore, to define an EMAT simulation you will have to select this type
of probe in the corresponding panel.
1.To access the Probe definition panel, please use the
button.
2. Once displayed, select EMAT as probe type from the drop down menu.
3.The panel displayed following the last action is the one that lets you select the previously
simulated configuration (with the CIVA ET module) and use it as the current EMAT probe. To
load a configuration, click on the
button. Use the following window to select the previously saved configuration:
4.The selected file is loaded. The previously used settings are shown in the Signal tab.
This concludes the EMAT specific part of running an EMAT simulation in the GWT module.
Please proceed with the workflow as you would with a standard probe type.
*Restrictions on using EMAT probes in the CIVA GWT module
Restrictions apply to the types of specimens that can be used in the case of EMAT simulation.
EMAT simulations need a plane surface to position the probe. The following specimens can
be used for EMAT simulation:
• Plane
• Weld, section transition, groove and 2D CAD junction of planar extrusion.
EMAT simulations are also restricted to 2D computations and only one coil is allowed.
3.2.6. Signal
The signal tab is to specify the excitation signal of the probe. In an inspection mode with two
probes, the same signal is used for each probe.
Figure 5.35.
Signal type
Two types of input signals are proposed (“Signal choice”):
• Parametric wave form (Hanning or Gaussian windowing): the signal is defined by

•
• Center frequency, in MHz.

• Bandwidth (relative) at -3, -6 or -12 dB. The bandwidth cursor ranges from 0 to 100%, but a
value greater than 100% can be typed in the edit field.
• Phase, in degrees, between 0 and 360°.
For the same parameters specification (center frequency and bandwidth), “Gaussian” provides
signal with heavier tails on the frequency content as compared to “Hanning” whose frequency
content decreases faster to 0.
• Imported waveform: the user can load a .csv file (Excel) containing the waveform he wants
to be used as excitation signal. The file format is very explicit. It can be obtained by saving
any parametric signal and then modifying the signal by the desired waveform. For imported
signals, the center frequency and bandwidth are calculated and displayed on the basis of
the information provided in the .csv file. They are then non-modifiable.
Figure 5.36.
Notice: The center frequency (fc) and relative bandwidth (Df) are calculated according to the
standard formulas:
Sampling
• Sampling frequency:
• For parametric signals (Hanning or Gaussian), the sampling frequency can be set to “Auto”,
which calculates the sampling frequency so that it satisfies the sampling criterion for a reliable
computation (25*fc at -6dB). The user can choose to modify this value by unchecking the
“Auto” box.
• For imported signals, the sample frequency is read in the .csv file header.
• Number of points: indicates the number of samples in the signal waveform.
• For parametric signals (Hanning or Gaussian), the number of samples is linked to the length
of the signal (at fixed sampling frequency).
• For imported signals, the number of samples is linked to the sampling frequency (at fixed
signal waveform). Changing the number of points oversamples or decimates the imported
signal and does not change the main characteristics of the signal (center frequency and
relative bandwidth).
3.3. Inspection
The "Inspection" window, available in all the GW modules, enables the user to define the probe
positioning.
At the top of this panel the user chooses the “inspection system” that can be:
• a single probe (pulse echo mode)

• or a system dealing with two probes, one being used as a transmitter, the second being used
as a receiver:
• a Pitch-catch transmission system (the direction of both probes are opposite)

• or a Pitch-catch reflection system (the direction of both probes lie in the same direction).
The positioning options depend on the inspection system selected and on the specimen.
3.3.1. Positioning of a single probe

For a single probe the user has to define
• the direction of the inspection in the “Configuration” tab

• the coordinates for the wedge center of gravity of the probe in the specimen reference frame
in the “Positioning” tab. These coordinates are X and Y in mm in a planar specimen or in a
specimen with a planar extrusion, or Y and θ in mm and degrees in a cylinder or in a specimen
with a circular extrusion. The "elevation" of the wedge center, i.e. the third coordinate “Z” or
“R” of wedge center is in read-only mode. (Figure below).
The coordinates of the impact point on the bottom of the wedge (the point at which the probe
axis intersects with the wedge bottom surface) are deduced from the wedge center coordinates
and indicated in read-only mode (Figure below).
In specimens with several waveguides, the user has to choose among the options given by the
dropdown list of the “Choice impact point” zone (see figure below).
For example, in the 2D Junction represented below the probe position is modified depending
on the chosen Impact Point:
NB: if a single point is identified (case of a planar specimen for example), the number 1 is
displayed in the dropdown list, which then appears dimmed. If no point is found, the message
"No impact point" is displayed in the dropdown list. In such cases, probe position is not modified.
Note that if the probe is positioned on the meshed zone of a specimen, the calculation is not
allowed and a message appears after the user launches the computation (see an example
figure below):
3.3.2. Positioning of two probes pitch-catch configurations

If the option ‘symmetric’ is selected, the user has to define two parameters available when
selecting the “Probe n°1” (see figure below, left):
• the position of the wedge centre of the Probe n°1

• and the distance between the probes n°1 and n°2 (“Impact points distance (PCS)”) (see
Figure below).
The position of the Probe n°2 is deduced from these 2 parameters of Probe n°1 and indicated
in read-only mode when the “Probe n°2” is selected (see figure below, right).
If the option non-symmetric is selected, the user has to enter the position of the two probes
independently.
3.4. Array settings

The Settings window allows the user to define the parameters of the transmission and reception
modes of the phased array probe channels.
3.4.1. Sequencing
The array setting is made of one sequence, then involving the use of one transmission pattern
together with one reception pattern. The active patterns have to be defined in the “Sequencing”
tab with the “Sequences editor”.
If transmission and reception patterns are identical, then only one pattern has to be defined
(see figure below, left). If Transmission and Reception patterns are not identical then each
pattern has to be defined separately by selecting Transmission and Reception in the “Show
Pattern” field (see figure below, right).
Pattern selection is made with the mouse:
• Ctrl+click allows multiple elements selection

• Ctrl+mouse glide allows multiple selection of adjacent elements
3.4.2. Delay laws

The available delay laws are “Null delay law” and “single point focusing” (available for sur-
rounding and surrounded array only). It is also possible to use manually defined laws for all
types of array.
3.4.2.1. Null delay law

By choosing this law, the user applies a null delay to all probe elements.
Note: While no settings are made for this option, the user must nevertheless click "com-
pute". to update the law. The law appears then as “consistent with parameters” (Figure
below).
3.4.2.2. Single point focusing (case of surrounding or surrounded arrays in pulse echo modes)
This algorithm is available for surrounding and surrounded array only.
It enables the ultrasonic beam to be focused at a given point. It calls a panel in which the user
specifies the coordinates (Y, θ ) of the focusing point selected in the piece (see figure below).
The focal point is depicted in the test scene display (it is red for the transmission and blue for
the reception).
The user must click "compute" to update the law. The computation of delay laws is only avail-
able for a single array. It is also only available for a frequency lower than the cut-off frequency of
T(0,3) for an “orthoradial shear vibration (along θ )” type of solicitation or lower than the cut-off
frequency of L(0,3) for “Axial shear vibration (along Y)” or “Normal (Along R)” type of solicitation.
3.4.2.3. Delays and amplitudes manually modified

See the paragraph “Edit law option” below the way to modify the values.
Note: after a modification the law is not “consistent with parameters” (Figure below)
3.4.3. Edit laws option

With the Edit laws option, the user can:
• view the current numerical values of the laws,
• modify the delay laws manually or by computation

• modify amplitude laws manually
• read/write a computed law (in xml format).
NB: if the table of the current numerical values of the laws are not displayed, the user has to
click "compute" so that the table appears.
3.4.4. Reception
Under this tab, the user selects settings for the delay laws or sequences of delay laws applied
in reception mode.
Choice between Reception = Transmission or Reception # Transmission is available.
If the user selects Reception = Transmission, the same type of focusing and settings are used
in T and R. If the same sequences are used in both, delay laws and amplitude laws are also
identical.
If the user selects Reception # Transmission a zone appears in which delay laws are defined
for Reception mode (same definition as Transmission laws). A button “copy transmission pa-
rameters” serves to copy all Transmission law settings
3.5. Flaw
The "Flaw" button, available in the GW inspection simulation module only, enables the user
to define the flaw.
3.5.1. Available flaws depending on the type of specimen

The available flaws depending on the specimen geometry are listed in the table below:
3.5.2. Flaw in Plate geometry

For plate geometry, the flaw is necessarily a rectangular crack normal to the surface plate.
Since the computational model is a 2D model, the length of the flaw is necessarily the width of
the plate and only the height of the defect can be modified (figure below).
The position of the defect can be modified. Surface breaking or embedded cracks may be
defined.
3.5.3. Flaw in cylindrical geometry

The defect is necessarly a sectoral ring normal to the surface. The user defines the thickness
(height) of the crack and its angular extension (angle) (figure below). If the angle is less than
360°, the computation must be a 3D computation, taking into account the non axisymmetric
modes.
The position of the defect can be modified. Surface breaking or embedded cracks may be
defined. The radius of curvature of the flaw is automatically calculated from the geometry of
the cylinder and the positioning option of the sectoral ring.
3.5.4. Flaw in Section Transition, groove, weld and Junction 2D CAD
3.5.4.1. Planar extrusion
The defect length of the flaw is necessarily the width of the specimen.
The user chooses the section type of the defect which can be Rectangular or Semi-elliptical .
The rectangular section is defined by its length and height.
The semi-elliptical section is defined by its length, height and angle.
3.5.4.2. Circular extrusion
The defect is necessarly a sectorial ring with a 360° angular extension.
The user chooses the section type of the defect which can be Rectangular or Semi-elliptical.
The rectangular section is defined by its length and thickness. The radius of curvature of the
flaw is automatically calculated from the geometry of the cylinder and the positioning option
of the sectorial ring.
The semi-elliptical section is defined by its length, height and angle. The curvature of the flaw
is automatically adjusted from the geometry of the specimen and the flaw location.
3.5.5. Flaw in 2D CAD specimen

For 2D CAD specimens, both surface and volume flaw types are available. Surface flaws in-
clude Rectangular, Semi-elliptical, CAD-contoured planar, Multi-faceted defect and Branched
flaws. Volume flaws include Rectangular Block, 3D CAD, Flat bottom hole, Hemispherical bot-
tom hole, Spherical and Ellipsoidal solid flaws.
Several flaws surface and volume types can be added, and surface and volume flaws can be
mixed. The flaws can be freely positioned in the specimen. They can intersect with the speci-
men boundaries, and the meshing procedure will automatically adapt. However, intersection
between flaws will result in a failure of the meshing procedure.
Given flaw positions, a mesh will be automatically computed. The resulting mesh will be adjust-
ed so that the flaws are surrounded by the computation domain, as shown in the following fig-
ure. Volume flaws result in hole in the mesh while surface flaws result in disconnected triangles.
3.5.6. Flaw positioning

The position of the flaw can be modified as long as it belongs to the waveguide cross section
and to the sampled area of the specimen.
A flaw is positioned by defining the coordinates of its center or by defining the the ligament.
In this last case, the user has to choose the impact point (n°1 or n°2 in the “Choice of impact”
coordinates) from which the ligament is measured. It can be at the upper or at the lower surface
of the specimen. The ligament is then measured from this impact point to the closer extremity
of the defect (figure below).
4. GW - SIMULATION SETTINGS
In this chapter, the different simulations settings and options, depending on the GWT module,
are described.
4.1. Modes Computation

The Modes Computation function of the Civa_GW module is intended to simulate the modes
of a guiding structure.
4.1.1. Computation Options: 2D/3D computation

The user chooses either a two-dimensional (2D) or a three-dimensional (3D) computation
mode. Propagative modes are then computed.
• In the case of a plate:

– if a 2D computation is chosen, Lamb modes are computed
– if a 3D computation is chosen, modes of a guide of rectangular section are computed.
• In the case of a cylindrical geometry:
• if a 2D computation is chosen, only the axisymmetric modes are computed. Other modes
are ignored.
• if a 3D computation is chosen, all modes are computed.
• In the case of a CAD specimen, all modes are computed.
4.1.2. Computation Options: Frequency range

The user has to define the frequency range in which the modes computation will be performed
and the number of frequencies. An excessive number of frequencies may lead to long compu-
tation times and memory problems.
4.1.3. Computation Options: Attenuation

When this option is checked, the computed result takes attenuation into account in the compu-
tation. Otherwise, the different attenuation coefficients entered via the material of the specimen
panels are ignored.
4.1.4. Computation Options: Fineness and display mesh

In the case of a CAD 2D specimen, the user can select the Fineness: increasing this parameter
allows the user to refine the mesh of the cross section of the specimen (Figure below).
4.1.5. Results and Imaging

There are typically three kinds of images after a guided modes computation:
• Dispersion curves that presents different modes properties (phase velocity, energy velocity,
wavelength, wavenumber) as a function of the frequency
• Displacement and stress field of the mode selected at a given frequency on a dispersion
curve.
• 3D view of the specimen
4.1.5.1. Dispersion curves
An example of dispersion curves (energy velocity, phase velocity, wavenumber and wave-
length) is represented on the figure below:
It is possible to display the dispersion curves restricted to a particular family of guided modes
by selecting the corresponding family in the toolbox panel (see example figure below).
The following section describes possible images that can be displayed in the GW Modes imag-
ing.
4.1.5.2. Displacement and stress mode profiles
• For a plate (Figure below, left) the displacement and stress profiles are displayed as a curve
representing the profile along the thickness of the plate. The different colors correspond to
the different components of displacement and stress.
• In a cylinder (Figure below, middle) the different components are presented in different 2D
images, one for each component of the displacement or stress.
• For a CAD 2D specimen (Figure below, right) the different components are presented in
different 2D images, one for each component of the displacement or stress.
The value of the displacement or stress at the cursor position in the image is given in the CIVA
toolbox (figure below).
4.2. Field Computation

The Field Computation function of the Civa_GW module is intended to simulate the ultrasonic
field.
The Simulation settings window allows the user to select the Computation Options and Com-
putation Zone (containing all the points for which a Field computation is performed).

The user chooses either a two-dimensional (2D) or a three-dimensional (3D) computation
mode.
• In the case of a plate (plane geometry)

– if a 2D computation is chosen, the ultrasonic field resulting from the contribution of Lamb
modes is displayed.
– if a 3D computation is chosen, the ultrasonic field resulting from the contribution of modes
of a guide of rectangular section is displayed.
• In the case of a cylindrical geometry:
• if a 2D computation is chosen, the ultrasonic field resulting from the contribution of axisym-
metric modes only is displayed. The contribution of other modes is ignored. Note that the
axisymmetric modes are correctly computed even if the probe is not axially symmetric.
• if a 3D computation is chosen, the ultrasonic field resulting from the contribution of all modes
is displayed.
• In the case of a CAD specimen, the 3D computation takes place.
4.2.2. Computation Options: Attenuation

When this option is checked, the computed results take into account the attenuation in the
specimen. Damping laws for longitudinal and shear waves are supposed to be linear with fre-
quency. However, each guided wave mode is composed of a combination of longitudinal and
shear waves so that damping law calculated by the system for a given guided wave mode is
nonlinear with frequency.
4.2.3. Computation Options: Computation frequency

The checkbox ‘one frequency computation’ allows the user to perform a computation in the
frequency domain. The result is faster than for a time domain computation even if it is not
representative of a real NDT experiment.
4.2.4. Computation Options: Fineness

In the case of a CAD 2D specimen, the user can choose the Fineness: an increasing of this
parameter prompts a refinement of the mesh of the cross section of the specimen (Figure
below).
4.2.5. Computation zone

The computation area is defined by selecting “slices” of the waveguide at which computation
will take place. To do this, the user must:
• define the "number of slices" in the zone (whose geometries depend on the type of speci-
men).
• define the beginning and the end location of the given number of slices along the wave guide
axis.

There are two kinds of images after a field computation (figure below):
• Dispersion curves that present different modes properties as function of the frequency. They
are grouped under “guide 1” (see figure below).
• Displacement and stress fields.

In the field calculation, in addition to the dispersion curves available after a mode computation
(for details about these dispersion curves, refer to chapter GWT Modes Computation - results
and Imaging), user can also access to the energy emission for each generated mode. The
emitted energy for a given mode of index I is given by:
where is the amplitude of mode M radiated by the probe.
The following section describes possible field images that can be displayed in the GW Field
imaging.
4.2.6.2. Displacement and stress field
4.2.6.2.1. 1D and 2D images
• For a plate (Figure below, left) the displacement (stress) profiles are given as three “1D im-
ages” representing the profile of each displacement (stress) component along the thickness
of the plate, i.e. the maximum amplitude of the displacement or stress field for each point
set along the thickness of the plate.
• In a cylinder (Figure below, middle) the different components are presented in different “2D
images” corresponding to the maximum amplitude of the displacement or stress field for each
point of the 2D computation zone (normal cross section of the waveguide), one for each
component of the displacement or stress.
• For a CAD 2D specimen (Figure below, right) the different components are presented in
different 2D images, one for each component of the displacement or stress.
The value of the displacement or stress at the cursor position in the image is given in the CIVA
toolbox (figure below).
4.2.6.2.2. Ascan representation
A-scan (waveform obtained at the given point of the computation erea) can be extracted at the
cursor location at a given position of the computation area. The time is given in microsecond
(µs)
4.3. Inspection simulation

The GW Inspection simulation module is used to simulate the results of an inspection.
Echoes from specimen boundaries are not simulated in the current version.
Some parameters that have to be specified by the user in the different tabs of the Simulation
settings panel depend on the specimen geometries.

Depending on the specimen, 2D or 3D computation is possible.
In the case of a plane specimen, only 2D computation is available (figure below), Lamb modes
and SH modes are computed.
In the case of a cylinder, the options “2D” or “3D” are available depending on the flaw extension
(see figure below).
In a 2D computation, only axially symmetric modes are computed (torsional and longitudinal)
whereas a 3D computation allows the flexural modes to be computed in addition. If the defect
is not axially symmetric, the computation has to be 3D. If the probe is not axially symmetric and
a 2D computation is selected, flexural modes won’t be taken into account.
In a Section Transition, Groove, weld or Junction 2D CAD specimen, only the 2D computation
in possible (Figure below).
For a 2D CAD specimen, the simulation will be carried out in 3D
4.3.2. Computation Options: Anti-aliasing precision

Anti-aliasing precision increases the time span to avoid aliasing effects in the time domain. The
default time-span computed from the configuration parameters may sometimes prove insuffi-
cient, due to resonance effects linked to the geometry and/or the presence of modes excited
near their cut-off frequency. In this case, spurious echos at the beginning of the signal may be
observed. To overcome this problem, the computation may be relaunched with an antialiasing
precision greater that 1. The new time-span will be equal to the default one multiplied by the
anti-aliasing precision.
4.3.3. FE field display
If the specimen is a Section Transition, Groove, weld or Junction 2D CAD, a 2D Finite Element
computation is performed in the perturbation zone. After the computation, it is possible to vi-
sualize the wavefield in this zone. The radiobutton ‘field storage’ can be set to ‘none’, ‘Amax’
or ‘Snapshot’. ‘Amax’ means that only the maximum of amplitude of the time signal at each
node of the FE mesh will be stored. If ‘Snapshots’ is selected, the time samples will be stored.
If needed, a decimation factor may be applied (only one out of n samples are kept). The max-
imum time until which the field will be displayed may also be set, otherwise a default value
will be computed.
4.3.4. Gate
The gate used for the computation is automatic (“Auto”) or the user specifies the Start, Width
and End of the gate.

There are three kinds of images after a field computation (figure below):
• Dispersion curves that presents different modes properties among the frequency. They are
grouped under “guide 1” (see figure below).
• Ascan
• 3D view of the specimen
If the specimen is a Section Transition, Groove, weld or Junction 2D CAD and the ‘field stor-
age’ radiobutton has been set to ‘Amax’ or ‘Snapshots’, the wavefield in the FE zone can be
visualized.

Several dispersion curves are displayed. They are defined on the frequency bandwidth of the
probe. They are grouped under “guide n°x” (see figure below).
• For a plate and a cylinder, they are computed in the unique waveguide (Figure below).
• For a Section transition, Groove, Weld or Junction 2D CAD specimen they are computed
in each waveguide.
The different curves are described below:

Phased velocity, group velocity and possibly attenuation are displayed as in the Mode compu-
tation module (for details about these dispersion curves, refer to chapter GWT Modes Compu-
tation - results and Imaging).
Energy emission dispersion curve is also displayed as described in in the Field computation
(for details about these dispersion curves, refer to chapter field Computation – Results and
Imaging).
Two other dispersion curves, diffracted energy and sensitivity in reception, are displayed:
As the signal received on the probe in the frequency domain is defined by (see chapter GWT
defect interaction theory):
is the echo arising from the crack measured by the receiver. P is the electrical power pro-
vided to the emitter. is the wave number of the nth mode. is the amplitude of mode M
radiated by the probe. is the amplitude of sensitivity to mode N of the probe in reception. de
denotes the distance between the emitter and the crack. SN,M is the reflection coefficient for
an incident mode M and a diffracted mode N accounting for flaw scattering.
The diffracted energy for a given mode of index I is given by:
It represents the ratio between the energy of the scattered mode and the incident energy on
the crak or the FE zone.
The sensitivity in reception is defined by:
It represents the ratio between the sensitivity of the receiver to a given mode and the sum of
the sensitivities. dr is the distance between the crack (or the boundary of the FE zone) and
the receiver.
4.3.5.2. Tools associated with the display of the FE data based on the results of the hybrid modal/FE code
If the radiobutton ‘field storage’ is set to ‘Amax’ or ‘Snapshot’, the FE field can be accessed by
selecting the ‘Simulation’. icon in the toolbar.
Selecting this option opens a new set of data in CIVA manager. Right clicking on ‘default result’
in CIVA manager and selecting ‘display the default page’ allows a new analysis page to open.
The associated images are:
• The amplitude map of the fields propagated/diffracted during the FE computation.This map
can be viewed in static mode (the maximum value over time of the FE field is shown at each
point of the FE box), or in dynamic mode (the value of the FE field is shown at each point of the
FE box for a given propagation time). The dynamic mode is available only if the radiobutton
‘field storage’ has been set to ‘Snapshot’. This map can be exported into the 3D scene. The
static or dynamic representation is selected in the “Data Tools” menu of the image by clicking
on /Amax or /A(t). When the dynamic view is selected, it is also possible to generate a video
file by clicking on /video in the “image tools” menu. The display of the FE data at a given
propagation time is also updated in the 3D view, if the map was previously exported.
• The vertical and horizontal cross-sections associated with the amplitude map in the FE
box.These views show the maximum amplitude measured in the vertical or horizontal axis,
at a value X or Z set by the user with the cursors. These graphs indicate the maximum am-
plitude at a given altitude or abscissa, for the complete propagation time. Therefore, they
represent a cross-section of the static map.
• Ascan image: This view corresponds to the time signal at a given point (X,Z) of the FE
box. Like all the images, the value represented corresponds to the particle velocity modulus.
Therefore the Ascan signal is positive. The time cursor on this image can be used to change
the propagation time associated with the dynamic view of the field.
The figure below shows an example of an analysis page associated with the representations
of FE data (with a dynamic view).
For 2D CAD specimens, the simulation is carried out in 3D and this FE view is not available.
However, the snapshots result in VTK files that are included in the .civa directory and can be
visualized with a viewer supporting VTK files.
4.3.5.3. Ascan representation
The Ascan gives the amplitude of the signal received on the probe as a function of time. In the
case of a phased array, the signal corresponds to the sum on all the active channels.
5. GW - IMAGING
In this chapter, the different analysis features, depending on the GWT module, are described.
Some cursors or display tools from the bottom toolboxes are already described in the common
toolboxes section.
5.1. GWT Modes Analysis ToolBar

The GWT Modes Analysis ToolBar is the entry point of the main features available.
Figure 5.37. GWT Modes Analysis toolbar


tion)
Images with scales in Distance measure-

mm ment
Display the colormap next to the image On a 2D image Colormap
Display 0, 1 or 2 cursors One image is selected Cursors

view for a compatible image (same unit One image is selected Orthonormal mode
for axis)
age (Flip Vertically, Flip Horizontally, Di- One image is selected Mirror and rotation
rect rotation)

One image is selected Export
values)

One image is selected Copy
board

format (the user has the choice to export One image is selected DXF export
Open a new and empty tab for analysis One image is selected Add analysis page
5.1.1. Measure
Figure 5.39.
5.1.3. Cursors
the selected view.
5.1.6. Export
5.1.7. Copy
5.1.8. DXF Export
5.2. GWT Field Analysis ToolBar

The GWT Field Analysis ToolBar is the entry point of the main features available for GWT
FieldAnalysis.
Figure 5.41. GWT Field Analysis toolbar


Open home panel Always
tion)
Set the CIVA preferences Always Global preferences
General and detailed Informations Information about the

One image is selected
about the file and the current gate data
Beam data display One image is selected Beam data

dressed/Envelope representation. This One image is selected Signal display mode
Images with scales in Distance measure-

mm ment
On pipe or CAD pro-

Display the colormap next to the image Colormap
files

One image is selected Cursor connection

On 2D image (Pipe or
2D CAD)
for axis)
age (Flip Vertically, Flip Horizontally, Di- One image is selected Mirror and rotation
rect rotation)
On 2D image (Pipe or
Smoothing a result Smoothing
2D CAD)

One image is selected Export
values)

One image is selected Copy
board

format (the user has the choice to export One image is selected DXF export

5.2.2. Beam Data
This option allows to display different kind of results.
5.2.4. Measure
Figure 5.43.
5.2.6. Cursors
sis page.
the selected view.
the selected view.
5.2.11. Export
5.2.12. Copy
5.2.13. DXF Export
5.3. GWT Inspection Simulation Analysis ToolBar

The GWT Inspection SimulationAnalysis ToolBar is the entry point of the main features avail-
able.
Figure 5.45. GWT Inspection Simulation Analysis toolbar


tion)
CIVA Preferences Always Global preferences
General and detailed Informations Information about the

One image is selected
about the file and the current gate data
Create a limitation defined by cursors One image is selected Limitation
Create a limitation defined by the cur-

One image is selected Limitation
rent zoom

dressed/Envelope representation. This One image is selected Signal display mode
Open the signal processing tool to cre-
ate a new data set or to edit the para- One image is selected Signal processing
meters of a processed data set
After a computation
Finite Element data Finite Elements data
on a 2D CAD
Display the colormap next to the image Colored image Colormap

view for a compatible image (same unit 2D image Orthonormal display
for axis)

age (Flip Vertically, Flip Horizontally, Di- One image is selected Mirror tools
rect rotation)

One image is selected Export tools
values)

One image is selected Picture to clipboard
board

format (the user has the choice to export One image is selected Export DXF profile

5.3.2. Limitations
The limitation is an imaging tool allowing to isolate a part of data views. The purpose of limita-
tions is to reduce the volume of data to be processed. Indeed, this feature affords views with
smaller volumes of data (unlike zooming, such reductions also affect "daughter" images) and
therefore ensures shorter processing times.
5.3.4. Signal processing
This paragraph describes the available signal processing tools, together with the procedures
for their use.
All processing operations are applied to A-scan type representations of the imaging system.
By extension, they can be applied to representations obtained from A-scans, and thus also
to B-scan and C-scan type representations. This means that all data of any given file can be
processed.
Depending on the context, the objectives of the various processing operations include improv-
ing the signal-to-noise ratio and time resolution, reshaping the signal using a reference echo,
or extracting a specific echo from the signal.
5.3.5. FEM Data

If the user ticked the option to save the FE data in the computation options, it is also possible to
represent the computed FE data in an imaging system coupled to the box and in the 3D scene
with the icon. In this way, the field propagated in the meshed area and the interaction with
the defect(s) in the area can be viewed.
The value represented is the particle velocity modulus.
These views help to understand the interaction phenomena, but they can also be used to check
that the duration is sufficient to properly capture the various echoes.
Selecting this button opens a new analysis page and the new set of data associated with the
CIVA model. The associated images are:
• The amplitude map of the fields propagated/diffracted during the FE computation.
This map can be viewed in static mode (the absolute value of the FE field is shown at each
point of the FE box throughout the duration), or in dynamic mode (the value of the FE field
is shown at each point of the FE box for a given propagation time). The switch between the
displayed data is available by successive clicks on the Beam Data icon . This
map can be exported into the 3D scene.
The static or dynamic representation is selected in the "Tools" menu / of the image
by clicking on / (static view) or / (dynamic view). When the dynamic view is selected,
it is also possible to write a video file by clicking on . The display of the FE data at
a given moment is also updated in the 3D view, if the map was previously exported.
The vertical and horizontal cross-sections associated with the amplitude map in the FE box.
These views show the maximum amplitude measured in the vertical or horizontal axis, at a
value X or Z set by the user with the cursors. These graphs indicate the maximum amplitude
at a given altitude or abscissa, for the complete propagation time. Therefore, they represent
a cross-section of the static map.
• Ascan image
This view corresponds to the time signal at a given point (X,Z) of the FE box. Like all the images,
the value represented corresponds to the particle velocity modulus. Therefore the Ascan signal
is positive. The time cursor on this image can be used to change the moment of propagation
associated with the dynamic view of the field.
Figure 5.47.
5.3.7. Cursors
the selected view.
5.3.10. Export
5.3.11. Copy
5.3.12. DXF Export
Multi-technique features
Chapter 6. Multi-technique features
1. Batch manager
1.1. Purpose
The Batch function initiates computation sequences, using predefined configuration files, with-
out use of the Civa graphical user interface.
A batch-type file is usually made up of several configuration files in .civa, .var, .pod or .xml
format. These can be CT, ET, GWT, RT and UT files.
The results of computations associated with each such file can be read offline by the corre-
sponding Civa module.
1.2. Initiating the Batch function

Batch mode computations are initiated in the CIVA start window, using "Tools" menu, "Batch
Manager" submenu.
1.3. Batch mode operation

Once the Batch editor window is open, the first step is to select the successive configuration
files (at least one file is necessary) for which computations have to be performed.
Batch computation is then initiated by clicking on the "Run" button.
A new window shows the list of files to be computed and starts the first computation. When the
progress bar reaches 100% the file is saved and the next file is computed.
The Batch list can be saved if necessary from the "Files" menu.
1.4. Description of the Batch Editor window

The open Batch Editor window contains:
• two drop-down menus Files and Actions

• an empty entry field named "Current batch"
• the list of files going to be computed
• buttons to add, to delete and to organize the order of the computation files
• one button "run" to launch the computation
• one button "clean before run" allowing to suppress the eventual results contained in the .civa
files to be computed as soon as the "run" button is clicked.
Figure 6.1. Batch Editor interface as it looks when ready to be run.
•
Add file: This button permits to add files in the batch file. It can be any CIVA files. The
user can also use the "Actions/Add files" menu.
•
Delete file: To delete a file from the batch file, the user has to use the button.
• Ordering files: The configuration files are computed from top to bottom. To change the order
of the files, use the and buttons.
• Inserting files: The button allows inserting files in the batch list.
• Run: This button initiates the Batch computation run. A new box replaces the Batch Editor
window.
1.4.1. Drop-down Files menu

This menu gives access to seven submenus. The first five are related to handling of Batch files
which format is *.CivaBatch. The entry field "Current batch" contains the name of the Batch
file. The batch file helps storing the list of files that needs to be computed. It is not necesary
to save a batch file for running the listed civa files.
• New: This submenu creates a new Batch list. The next operation consists in clearing the
configuration files which then appear at the bottom of the window.
• Load: This submenu loads an existing Batch file. The characteristics of the configuration files
contained in the Batch file (order, name and directory) are displayed at the bottom of the box.
• Merge: This submenu allows association of the configuration files of two or more Batch files.
• Save: This submenu saves the Batch file. If this file has not yet been named, the "Save"
command is not available.
• Save as: This command saves the Batch file with a new name. A box opens to specify the
directory and name of the saved file.
• Recent files: This command reloads one of the last files loaded.
• Close: This command allows the user to exit the application by closing the Batch Editor
window.
1.4.2. Drop-down Action menu

This menu gives access to five sub-menus (described below).
• Select all: With this option, the user selects the all the files placed in the Batch file. All the
cases "selection" are checked and the computation will be done for all the files. The selection
can be done manually by checking the cases "selection".
• Select none: With this option, the user unselects the all the files placed in the Batch file. All
the cases "selection" are not checked and the computation will be done for any files.
• Inverse: With this button, the user inverses the selection previously done of the files placed
in the batch file.
• Add file: This button permits to add files in the batch file. It can be *.civa, *.pod, *.var or *.xml
format files. The user can also use the button on the right of the batch manager.
• Run: It is possible to run the batch either with this button or with the "Run" button at the
bottom of the window.
1.4.3. Running the batch

This box shows the progress of computation for each Batch file.
Figure 6.2. Batch computation box at the start of computation

In the course of computation, supplementary information appears in the box for each file. This
includes:
• date and time of computation start

• its status (or progress)
• date and time at which it is completed with the corresponding computation time.
Figure 6.3. Batch computation box at the end of computation
The computation status bar shows the progress of the various steps in a computation (this
display covers all calculations and may switch, for example, from "90% of computation" to "12%
of post-processing" as these operations take place).
When all these operations have been completed, the [Cancel] button becomes an [Exit] button.
Result files can then be read via the Civa Graphic User Interface.
Note that each file is saved at the end of the computation and overwrites the initial file,
therefore already existing results are lost. If the file is open in CIVA User Interface,
the results cannot be saved and are lost.
2. Parametric variation study

The Variation tool is available for all techniques in order to perform similar computation with
just a few differences between the configurations:
• UT: Beam Computation, Inspection Simulation and CIVA-ATHENA

• ET: Field Computation, Inspection Simulation 3D and 2D cylindrical
• RT-CT: RT Simulation and CT simulation
• GWT: Inspection Simulation only
To define a Variation scenario, the steps to follow are the same for all techniques. The user:
• selects the parameter(s) that will vary

• defines the variations
The different stages to define a Variation project will be detailed through a UT inspection ex-
ample. But the approach in the case of other techniques is the same as that described in this
UT Inspection Simulation case. The main differences involve the choice of the extraction that
will be described separately for each technique after the example.
2.1. Define Variation scenario

The UT inspection example (a ".civa" configuration without varying parameters) from which the
Variation scenario will be defined is represented below. It is an inspection of a side drilled hole
(SDH) with a contact probe.
When selecting the parametric variation study tile from the desk panel, it is possible to start
from the current file or from a previously defined file.
The consequent “.var” configuration is built on the basis of the .civa configuration and appears
in the CIVA manager. An additional tab labeled “Variation” appears on the left of the “Run”
button:
2.1.1. Select variable parameters

Selection of parameters to vary is made directly on the parameters editboxes by right-click and
choice “VAR: Add to variation”.
The selected parameter editbox is now surrounded in blue indicating that the parameter is a
varying parameter with minimum and maximum values.
Repeat this operation to add other parameters to the varying parameters list.
The next step is the definition of the variations and combinations. This is made in the Variation
panel.
2.1.2. Variation definition panel

This panel is divided in different tabs.
• Variables: defining the values of the variation as described in the Variables tab explanations,
• Monitored parameters: defining some parameters to be extracted as described in the Mon-
itored parameters explanations,
• Extraction: defining the physical quantity to be extracted to plot the output curves as de-
scribed in the Extractions tab explanations,
• Option: selecting some computation options.
2.2. Variables tab

CIVA allows defining several varying parameters at the same time. When you open the Vari-
ables tab of the Variation panel, on the top of the panel, you can choose between 2 construction
types in order to combine the values of multiple varying parameters:
• the construction type “Matrix” (by default)

• the construction type “Couple”
2.2.1. Definition of the values of the varying parameters

In the Variation/variables panel, the varying parameters appears in the list and the selection of
a parameter in the list allows the definition of its variation in the “parameter” field at the panel
bottom. For the parameter currently selected in the list, you can choose to define its values
through different types of distributions. Generally, the steps are regular and "Linear spacing"
should be selected, or user defined with the "Manual distribution".
Figure 6.4. Selecting the distribution type
When using the linear spacing, the values of the varying parameter are determined by defining
3 of the 4 following parameters depending of the chosen type “Start and Stop and N” or “Start
and Step and N” or “Start and Stop and step”:
• N (number of possible values of the current varying parameter)

• Start (first value of the varying parameter)
• Stop (last value)
• Step (between 2 successive values),
When using the manual list, the user enters the values of the selected parameter in the list one
by one, the total number of values is chosen entered in the field “Number of values”.
Figure 6.5. Manual distribution
Once the variation of a parameter is defined, the Min, Max and Number of values of this para-
meter are then updated in the list of parameters.
It is also possible to visualize the evolutions of the values, the exact values and their distribution
at the bottom of the panel.
Figure 6.6. Display of values, for a logarithmic spacing
2.2.2. Varying parameters: modification and information

You can change a parameter previously defined as « varying » to a fixed parameter by right
clicking in its editbox and choosing « VAR : remove from variation ».
Figure 6.7. Removing a parameter from a variation
You can get information concerning the variations by just passing the mouse over the field of
a varying parameter.
Figure 6.8. Information about the varying parameter
2.2.3. Case of the Matrix construction type

In this case, the values of the varying parameters are first defined by the user and then, all their
possible combinations are automatically created by CIVA (full factorial design of experiment).
Let's consider 3 parameters that are varying:
• SDH diameter: 1, 2 and 3 mm
• SDH length: 5 and 10 mm

• Probe angle: 44, 45 and 46°
In the current example (3 (diameter) x 2 (lenght) x 3 (refraction angle)) = 18 combinations are

created as follows.
Figure 6.9. Example combination
2.2.4. Case of the Couple construction type

The idea of the couple construction type is to determine set of values. For example, with the
previous parameters it is possible to set:
• a SDH diameter of 2 mm with a SDH length of 5 mm and a probe angle of 46°

• a SDH diameter of 3 mm with a SDH length of 5 mm and a probe angle of 46° and finally
When switching from "Matrix" to "Couple" :
• If there are different number of values for each parameters, the full matrix is created below.
• If the parameters have the same number of values, the "diagonal" matrix is created below:
first value of each parameter, then
Then, the user can
•
remove some cases using the button
• reorder the list using the and buttons
• add some cases by increasing the number of values

• modify the values by clicking on a cell and keying the new value.
Once the combinations are completed, the “Min” and “Max” of each varying parameter are
displayed in the list of varying parameters.
Figure 6.10. List of values of a couple construction type

It is also possible to export and import values in txt files.
The “txt” file contains a line per combination of values, each line has “n” column, where “n”
is the number of varying parameters. For example, on the following figure, the first column
corresponds to the values of the first varying parameter of the list (SDH diameter (mm)), the
second column corresponds to the values of the second varying parameter of the list (SDH
lenght (mm)), and the third column corresponds to the values of the probe refraction angle
(deg).
Figure 6.11. Example of txt file

After loading this “txt” file, the combinations are displayed in the variation panel.
2.3. Monitored parameters

CIVA allows selecting by right-click the varying parameters. It is possible to extract the value
of different parameters depending on the variation cases.
Generally the parameters that are not selected for the variation keep the same value, but some-
times they are linked to a varying parameter:
• Flaw position with varying specimen radius,

• Depth with varying distance,
• Automatic sampling frequency with varying probe frequency...
2.4. Variations - Extractions

The extraction consists in extracting from a calculation result a scalar quantity as indicated in
the Extraction tab (of the Variation panel).
The "Extraction" tab gives the possibility to:
• select the scalar that is to be extracted

• indicate how you want to extract it from the calculation result
This depends on the techniques.
2.4.1. UT - Extractions
It is possible to select which data will be extracted and displayed. For example the parametric
variation feature may be used in order to prepare a DAC with SDH or FBH at different depths:
the time of flight can be extracted as well as the amplitude calibrated in dB regarding the re-
flector of maximum amplitude.
2.4.1.1. Extracted data

The default extracted quantities are the maximum value obtained for each configuration “Amax”
and the corresponding time of flight.
The “type of Amax” is an absolute, positive or negative value depending on the user’s choice.
The corresponding time of flight can also be extracted.
Figure 6.12. Type of UT extraction

The quantities are extracted after possibly having applied a signal processing (DAC for exam-
ple) and/or a calibration, both possibilities available in the “Extraction” tab.
2.4.1.2. Signal processing

If you choose “With signal processing”, the panel displayed and its use are the same as those
described in the chapter Signal processing (figure below).
Figure 6.13. Processing UT extraction
2.4.1.3. Calibration
To calibrate the extracted values one needs:
• a reference amplitude
• a corresponding physical value allowing to give a physical dimension to the point values (a
screen height, a number of graduation, a voltage) in linear scale.
Example:
• reference value = 0.25 pts, corresponding to the CIVA response of a flat bottom hole Ø3mm
• corresponding physical value: 80 (screen height) corresponding to the experimental calibra-
tion made on a TFP Ø 3 mm.
The calibration is then applied in linear scale (rule of three): 0.25 pts = 80% => 40% = 0.125 pts.
Figure 6.14. Calibrating UT extraction
2.4.2. ET - Extractions
First, the user has to specify the number of the channel on which the extraction had to be done.
Note that if there is only one channel, the choice is not available.
Figure 6.15. ET extraction - channel number
Then, the user can make an extraction on the complete signal (by checking the complete signal
option), or on the signal associated to the inspection simulation.
Figure 6.16. ET extraction - complete signal
The user has to specify the component on which the extraction has to be done and the type
of extraction according to the following pictures.
Figure 6.17. ET extraction - Exported quantity
Abs refers to the module of the complex ET signal, Real and Imag to the real and imaginary
part of the complex ET signal.
Max(ABS) means that we consider the maximum value of the absolute value of the chosen
component. Max and Min refer to the maximum and minimum values of the chosen component.
Note that these two values can be negative if the chosen component is Real or Imag.
Figure 6.18. Result curve
At last, the user can apply a calibration, named Calibration ET, which is applied on the ET
signal before the extraction, according to the following picture.
Figure 6.19. Calibrating ET extraction
2.4.3. RT - Extractions
Different detectability criteria are available in the POD RT module of CIVA:
• Ellipse criterion
• Rose criterion
• Fuschia criterion
for the extraction of the RT criterion the user has to select in the “Computing Para-
meters” panel, the option “Simulate images without flaw”
The selected criterion should be selected as well as the image used for the criterion calculation.
Figure 6.20. Selecting the RT extraction
At the end of the computation, the variation results appear on the CIVA manager files tree. It
is possible to reextract with another criterion with a right click on the “Data VAR ” field in the
CIVA manager files tree and then "Edit VAR parameters".
Figure 6.21. Editing the variation parameters
The user can choose the criterion. Depending on the case, it may be possible to select addi-
tional parameters such as the image to use for the Rose criterion. Then, a click on the “New”
button launches a new extraction in the CIVA manager files tree.
Figure 6.22. New RT extraction
A click on the “replace” button launches an extraction, the new variation results replace the
old ones.
2.4.4. GWT Extractions

The quantities extracted are the maximum value obtained for each configuration “Amax”.
Figure 6.23. Type of GWT extraction
ple) and/or a calibration, both possibilities available in the “Extraction” tab as for UT.
Calibration:
To calibrate the extracted values one needs, as for UT:
• a reference amplitude
• a corresponding physical value allowing to give a physical dimension to the point values (a
screen height, a number of graduation, a voltage) in linear scale.
2.5. UT Computation options

Some options may be available depending on the configuration.
In the case of a phased array inspection using CIVA UT, when CIVA will compute all the config-
urations the delay laws can be recomputed before each computation. The scanning positions
may also be recomputed.
2.6. Results of a variation scenario

The computation of the full variation study is launched by clicking “Run”. The run generates
as many « .civa » configurations as the number of defined parameters combinations and au-
tomatically extracts the defined scalar quantity. A “Parametric analysis” appears in the Civa
manager and the variation curve (“Data VAR”) is displayed in the analysis window. The para-
meters (“VAR parameters”) used to compute the variations (extractions, signal processing and
calibration) can be edited and modified without relaunching the full computations.
A variation curve of the extracted quantity (Amax in our example) as a function of one of the
varying parameter is displayed. Among the extracted quantities, it is possible to select the
extractions but also the monitored values previously selected.
By default, the first varying parameter in the list of the “Variables” tab is proposed as abscissa
(see Figure below: analysis window displayed after the “.var” computation of our UT example).
The user can choose the values of the other varying parameters using their edit box below
the graph.
The user can change the abscissa.
The variation parameters can be edited: a “parameter” window is opened in which the extraction
parameters, the signal processing (if applied) and the calibration (if applied) are indicated (see
Figure below: case of the UT example where no signal processing and no calibration were
applied):
The variation parameters can be modified: in the “parameter” window, the user can define for
example a calibration.
To apply the modifications, the user can choose:
• New: a new Parametric analysis called “Amax” will be created with the post processed results
• Replace: replaces the current “Parametric analysis” with the post processed results.
Thus, one can have several variation studies in the same “.var” file (for example figure below
the 2 studies are named “parametric analysis” and “Amax”); all are based on the same data
(detailed results).
The calibration parameters are displayed in the “parameters” window associated to this new
variation analysis.
With a right click on the « Parametric analysis » or « Amax » in the Civa manager
the user can change their name or remove them.
The variation data can be stored in different formats.
Export curve : a “.txt” file is created.
Export matrix : a “.txt” file is created
Detailed results:
All the generated « .civa » configurations are stored with their results. They appear under
« Detailed results » in the Civa manager. It is possible to load them one by one and edit the
particular model or result.
Figure 6.24. Detailed results
the detailed results do not take into account the calibration if applied
3. Probability of detection
POD features in CIVA allow to compute Probability of Detection (POD) curves with the help
of simulation.
These features are available for CIVA for UT, ET and RT inspection simulation modules.
The simulation-POD approach implemented in CIVA follows the uncertainty propagation
method [refs 1,2] which consists in:
1. Defining a characteristic parameter for the POD computation (typically the flaw size),
2. Defining parameters liable to vary within the range of the studied procedure,
3. Describing uncertainty distributions for each of the variable parameters – thus called uncer-
tain parameters,
4. Launch computations corresponding to the Monte-Carlo sampling on the uncertain parame-
ters,
5. Analyze the resulting set of data and compute the POD curves.
The POD curves are estimated using the Maximum Likelihood Estimation methods recom-
mended in the MIL-HDBK 1823A, for Hit-Miss and Signal Response data, with some estimation
options which are described below.
The different steps to define a POD project will be detailed through a UT inspection example
but the approach in the case of ET and RT techniques is the same as that described in this UT
case. The main differences involve the choice of the extraction that will be described separately
for each techniques after the UT example.
References:
1. F. Jenson, E. Iakovleva, N. Dominguez, “Simulation supported POD: methodology and HFET
validation case”, in Review of Progress in QNDE, 30, 2010.
2 N. Dominguez, V. Feuillard, P. Willaume, F. Jenson, “Simulation assisted POD of a Phased
Array Ultrasonic Inspection in Manufacturing”, in Review of Progress in QNDE, 31B, 2011.
3 USA Department of Defense Handbook, MIL-HDBK-1823, NDE system reliability assess-

ment, April 2009.
3.1. Define POD scenario

The UT inspection example (a ".civa" configuration without uncertain parameters) from which
the POD scenario will be defined is represented below. It is an inspection of an alumina inclu-
sion with an immersion probe.
When selecting the PoD study tile from the desk panel, it is possible to start from the current
file or from a previously defined file.
The consequent “.pod” configuration is built on the basis of the .civa configuration and appears
in the CIVA manager. An additional tab labeled “POD” appears on the left of the “Run” tab.
3.1.1. Select POD parameters

Selection of the characteristic variable is made directly on the parameter edit-box by right click
and choose “define as a characteristic”.
Selection of the parameters identified as source of uncertainty directly is made directly on the
parameters edit-boxes by right click and choose “POD: add to uncertain parameters”. Repeat
this operation for each uncertain parameters.
The distribution law chosen for the different uncertain parameters is indicated in blue. You
can get more information concerning distribution by just passing the mouse over the field of
a uncertain parameter.
You can change a parameter previously defined as « uncertain » to a fixed parameter by right
clicking in its editbox and choosing « POD : remove from uncertain parameters ».
Now that the uncertain parameters are chosen, the next steps are :
• the definition of the values of the characteristic variables

• the characterization of the uncertainties
This is done in the POD panel.
3.1.2. POD panel

• Variables: description of the characteristic variable and the uncertain parameters
• Extraction: definition the physical quantity to be extracted to plot the output curves
• Option: select some computation options
3.2. POD - Variables Tab
3.2.1. Characteristic variable

To choose the values of the characteristic variable, open the “POD” panel and the “variables”
tab:
3.2.2. Uncertain parameters

In the POD process, for each characteristic value, it is necessary to consider a large number
of cases in order to describe the different uncertainties. The number of shot per characteris-
tic value has also to be defined in the POD/Variables panel. In the following case, for each
characteristic value, 20 cases are computed combining the uncertainties of all the uncertain
parameters at the same time:
To characterize the uncertainties, see the example of the « probe incidence » uncertain para-
meter:
The choice of “Equation” in the list of distribution, allows to link uncertain parameters one to
another. To write the equations the literal expressions to be used are written below each dis-
tribution.
For example the Z position of the flaw can be linked to its X and Y positions in equation (see
figure below). The condition to fill for the linked variables are:
• if Z is expressed from X and Y then X and Y have to appear before Z in the list of uncertain
parameters
• the User Tag names (see column 2) used in the equation must be written with no space
3.2.3. Random values of the uncertainties

A Monte Carlo sampling method is used to generate the random values of these parameters
according to their statistical distributions. The random values can be displayed in a table when
selecting "table of samples".
In the following screenshot it can be seen that all uncertain parameters are varying at the same
time for a given value of the characteristic parameter:
3.3. Extraction Tab

The extraction consists in extracting from a calculation result a scalar quantity as indicated in
the Extraction tab.
The "Extraction" tab gives the possibility to:
• select the scalar that is to be extracted

• indicate how you want to extract it from the calculation result
This depends on the techniques (UT, ET or RT).
3.3.1. UT - Extractions
It is possible to select which data will be extracted and displayed. For example the parametric
variation feature may be used in order to prepare a DAC with SDH or FBH at different depths:
the time of flight can be extracted as well as the amplitude calibrated in dB regarding the re-
flector of maximum amplitude.
3.3.1.1. Extracted data

The default extracted quantities are the maximum value obtained for each configuration “Amax”
and the corresponding time of flight.
Figure 6.25. Type of UT extraction

ple) and/or a calibration, both possibilities available in the “Extraction” tab.
3.3.1.2. Signal processing

If you choose “With signal processing”, the panel displayed and its use are the same as those
described in the chapter Signal processing (figure below).
Figure 6.26. Processing UT extraction
3.3.2. ET - Extractions
First, the user has to specify the number of the channel on which the extraction had to be done.
Note that if there is only one channel, the choice is not available.
Figure 6.27. ET extraction - channel number

Then, the user can make an extraction on the complete signal (by checking the complete signal
option), or on the signal associated to the inspection simulation.
Figure 6.28. ET extraction - complete signal

The user has to specify the component on which the extraction has to be done and the type
of extraction according to the following pictures.
Figure 6.29. ET extraction - Exported quantity

Abs refers to the module of the complex ET signal, Real and Imag to the real and imaginary
part of the complex ET signal.
Max(ABS) means that we consider the maximum value of the absolute value of the chosen
component. Max and Min refer to the maximum and minimum values of the chosen component.
Note that these two values can be negative if the chosen component is Real or Imag.
Figure 6.30. Result curve

At last, the user can apply a calibration, named Calibration ET, which is applied on the ET
signal before the extraction, according to the following picture.
Figure 6.31. Calibrating ET extraction
3.3.3. RT - Extractions
Different detectability criteria are available in the POD RT module of CIVA:
• Ellipse criterion
• Rose criterion
• Fuschia criterion
for the extraction of the RT criterion the user has to select in the “Computing Para-
meters” panel, the option “Simulate images without flaw”
The selected criterion should be selected as well as the image used for the criterion calculation.
Figure 6.32. Selecting the RT extraction

At the end of the computation, the variation results appear on the CIVA manager files tree. It
is possible to reextract with another criterion with a right click on the “Data VAR ” field in the
CIVA manager files tree and then "Edit VAR parameters".
3.4. UT Computation options

Some options may be available depending on the configuration.
In the case of a phased array inspection using CIVA UT, when CIVA will compute all the config-
urations the delay laws can be recomputed before each computation. The scanning positions
may also be recomputed.
3.5. Results of a POD scenario

The full set of computations of the POD project is launched by clicking “Run” or in batch mode.
The run generates all the « .civa » configurations with the fixed and uncertain inputs and auto-
matically extracts the defined scalar quantity and computes the POD curve.
At the computation end, in the CIVA manager, “Detailed results” and “POD analysis” (containing
“POD parameters” and “Data POD”).
The "detailed results" are all the « .civa » configurations generated with the fixed and uncertain
inputs. It is possible to load them one by one and edit the particular model or result. The detailed
results do not take into account the calibration if applied.
The "POD parameters" used to compute the POD curve (extractions, signal processing and
calibration) can be edited and modified. The corresponding post processed results are obtained
without launching again the full computation by clicking on “new” or “replace”:
• New: a new Parametric analysis called “Amax” will be created with the post processed results
• Replace: replaces the current “Parametric analysis” with the post processed results.
Thus, one can have several "Study POD" in the same “.pod” file, but all are based on the same
data (detailed results, meta-model or imported data)
Figure 6.33. 2 studies named “POD analysis” and “Amax”
The "Data POD" displayed in the POD analysis panel.
3.5.1. POD analysis panel

An example of the POD analysis panel is displayed on the figure below (case of the “Signal
Response” algorithm). It contains : a Table of data, a Graph of the data, a graph of residuals;
the POD curve and a Tool box at the bottom.
Figure 6.34. POD analysis panel, case of the “Signal Response” option.
Table and graph of data:
The data used for the POD curve computation are displayed:
• in the “table of data” (purple box on the two previous figures): the left column for the char-
acteristic values, the next columns for the random values of the uncertainty parameters, the
right column for the extracted scalar quantity
• and in the “graph of data” (red box), the data are displayed in a lin-lin mode (i.e. in a lin-
ear-linear scale) or in a log-log mode (i.e. in a logarithm-logarithm scale. In both cases, the
table of random values and Amax are the same.
A selected Amax in the table is displayed in red in the Data plot graph and it is possible to
remove a point from the graph (it will not be taken into account for the POD curve computation)
(see figure below).
The POD curves and confidence bounds are calculated using the Berens formulation whose
hypothesis are:
• a linear relationship between the signal responses and the characteristic values, either in
lin-lin or log_log mode.
• a constant normal distribution of residuals.
The random Amax graph (data plot) allows to check if the first hypothesis is filled.
Tool box:
The chosen noise (black cursor), detection (red cursor) and saturation (black cursor) thresholds
are entered in the “thresholds” zone of the Toolbox or defined with the corresponding cursors
in the Data plot graph.
The quadratic residuals given in the Tool box is:
• the average distance between the points and the regression line in the case of the Signal
Response algorithm.
• the average distance between the empirical POD and the estimated one in the case of the
Hit/Miss algorithm..
Ideally, the quadratic residuals value is 0.
The choice between “Signal response” and “Hit/Miss” is made at the bottom of the POD analysis
panel (“Signal response” is the default case when “Hit/Miss is not chosen).
The values of “a” and “aconf”, “POD” and “PODconf” are given also in the tool box.
Plot of the residuals:
This graph (available only in the Signal Response case) depends on the choice of the lin-lin
or log-log mode. In this graph also, a selected Amax is displayed in red in the Plot of residuals
graph.
The residuals graph allows to check if the second hypothesis of the Berens formulation is filled.
POD curve:
Signal response algorithm:
The POD curve is automatically computed using a model based on the approach of Berens
as described previously. The POD curve and the confidence bound are displayed on the two
Figures below in the case of the Signal Response algorithm and in the case of the Hit/Miss
algorithm.
In each case, the probability of 0.9 with a 90 % confide nce (a90/90) is indicated by default in
the Tool box with the corresponding value of the confidence bound. The value « 90% » can
be modified by the user.
Figure 6.35. Plot of the POD curve and the lower confidence
bound against de characteristic value. Signal Response algorithm.
Hit / Miss algorithm:
In this case, the user can choose the fitting model which can be “cumulative-normal” or “cu-
mulative-log normal.
The empirical POD points (point cloud) which are, for a given characteristic value, the ratio of
the detections over the sum of the detections and non-detections are displayed with the POD
curve.
Figure 6.36. Plot of the POD curve and the lower confidence
bound against de characteristic value. Hit/Miss algorithm.
3.5.2. Possibility to load experimental results in CIVA and use them to compute POD
curves
To load these results in CIVA fromthe "File/POD: Import *.XLS file" menu.
In the case of a signal response algorithm, an excel ® file with 2 columns of “NxM” lines each
(N=number of shots and M=number of characteristic values) can be loaded in CIVA. It is pos-
sible to load a file with or without a header.
The first column corresponds to the “NxM” characteristic values and the other one to the cor-
responding random values. The POD curve will be calculated from this results.
In the case of “hit-miss” algorithm, the excel file consists of N lines (N=number of characteristic
values) with, in each line:
• a characteristic value
• a succession of “0” and “1” indicating if the defect is detected or not by different operators.
In the case of imported data, there is no associated POD model but just an array of data
included in the POD study.
3.5.3. POD data storage

The POD curve can be stored in a text file. The file contains the (flaw radius, %) values of the
PoD and of the confidence curve.
Figure 6.37. Exporting PoD curve
The data POD can be stored in a text file. The file contains the parameters values and the
AMax for each case.
Figure 6.38. Exporting PoD Data

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CIVA 2016

CIVA 2016: User Manual

4.4.Results and Imaging ..................................................................................... 524

2.RT Modeling ............................................................................................................ 895

2.Parametric variation study ..................................................................................... 1113

1. General introduction to CIVA

• Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

2. Starting with CIVA

2.2. Examples to begin with

Figure 1.1. Configuration wizard

• Last configuration: reload the last saved or computed configuration.

Figure 1.2. Defining user configuration

2.3. Using CIVA

Figure 1.3. Areas of the main window

Figure 1.4. Civa manager

Figure 1.5. Selecting data

Figure 1.6. Display an image

Figure 1.7. Drag & Drop

Figure 1.8. Load the model in the model page

3.1. Default toolbar

3.1.1. Home menu

• Open: opens a file type supported by CIVA

Supported file types are:

• *.xml for compatibility with CIVA version anterior to CIVA 10

See further details in the paragraph titled "Files Tree".

• Historic shall be used to get access to a previously loaded file.

• Closing all files and quiting CIVA are available

Figure 1.9. selection of "Home" icon from the toolbar

Figure 1.10. selection of "Home" icon from

3.1.2.1. General preferences

Figure 1.11. Complementarity of delay laws for phased array reception

Figure 1.12. Inch values display

3.1.2.2. System preferences

Figure 1.13. System preferences

3.1.2.3. Colors preferences

Figure 1.14. Colors preferences

3.1.2.4. Measuring Tools

Figure 1.15. Measuring tools

3.1.2.5. Data preferences

Figure 1.16. Data preferences

3.1.2.6. X-ray preferences

Figure 1.17. X-ray preferences

3.1.2.7. Eddy currents preferences

Figure 1.18. Eddy currents preferences

3.1.2.8. Preferences – Indication Statements

Figure 1.19. Preferences – Indication Statements

3.1.2.8.1. Operators preferences

Several operators can be included in this tab.

Four (4) operators are available as shown below:

For each operator, the following options are available:

The result window is shown below:

Three choices are possible:

3.1.2.8.2. Indications table columns

The definition of the different possible fields is given below:

measures Count By After segmentation, number of points in the group.

Fields at -XdB Explanation

the end of the group at -X dB of the maximum amplitude of

3.1.2.8.3. Indications Types

3.1.2.8.5. Filters (since CIVA 2016)

Two ways to use profiles:

3.2. Common menus

• Video and Extende

• Parametric Variation study