A MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS TO DEVELOP UNIQUE PERSPECTIVE

DRAWING OF VIRTUAL REALITY

[Journal No. AR-84, Oct.2003, Published by Institution of Engineers (India), Kolkata]

Ara. Kalai Maran, Head, CCM- Dept., Central Food Technological Research Institute- Mysore,
Karnataka, INDIA
ABSTRACT
Perspective drawing refers to the visual image of a solid object. Two methods are (i) Visual ray method
and (ii) Vanishing point method, which inherently possess geometrical concepts. These methods have
few defects. The author has attempted to develop a new method i.e., Maran’s method to draw
perspective view of virtual reality. Unlike the existing methods, the new method requires perspective co-
ordinates for every nodal point of the object. The formulae, which are necessary for calculating the
perspective co-ordinates, have been derived mathematically. This method gives perfect results for
irregular and complicated objects. The formula is also very useful for software developers in Engineering
drawings, animations, cartoon pictures and mathematical modeling.

Key words: Perspective; Visual ray; Vanishing point; Transformation; Translation; Rotation;
Maran’s method.
Notations
AHR (𝛼°) - Angle of horizontal rotation
AOE - Axis of ears
AOH - Axis of head
AOL - Axis of lens/ line of sight
ATR (𝛽°) - Angle of twist
AVR (𝛾°) - Angle of vertical rotation
d - Picture co-efficient
u - The horizontal perspective co-ordinate of (P´)
v - The vertical perspective co-ordinate of (P´)
𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 - The Engineering co-ordinates of nodal point P
𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 - The co-ordinates of Camera point/ eye point (E)

INTRODUCTION
Existing methods
The Perspective drawing/ view of an object is usually obtained by the existing two methods namely (i)
Visual ray method1 and (ii) Vanishing point method2. These two methods are mainly based on graphic-
statics, which is simply a geometrical construction. In visual ray method the perspective view is obtained
by projecting the top view and either the front view or the side view of the object. In vanishing point
method, in addition to the top view of the visual rays and use of vanishing points of straight lines are
also made.
Defects in existing methods
(i) The diagonal angles are not absolutely correct in result figure.
(ii) Sometimes, it requires more space of drawing sheet.
(iii) It is not suitable for irregular objects.
(iv) Not possible to draw perspective view without perfect plan, elevation or side view.
(v) Various systems are adopted to draw perspective view for different objects.
(vi) The result does not define the virtual reality.

New method (Maran’s method)

A new method, which is based on the graphical concept, has been introduced to develop perspective
drawing perfectly. In this method, nodes/ nodal points can be located conveniently on the object
depending upon the shape. However, accuracy can be achieved, if the nodal points are considered at
close intervals. The perspective co-ordinates of such nodal points should be known. These co-ordinates
are used to plot the perspective points of an object on graph with appropriate scale. Connecting these
perspective points appropriately, gives the perspective view of an object.

MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS AND DERIVATION

Basic consideration for formulation
The intersecting points of imaginary grids assumed on the surface of an object are called “Node” or
“Nodal points”. One of the nodes (say point P) of a rectangular prism is taken into consideration for
analysis. According to the location of Camera point 𝐸 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ), angles of rotation (𝛼°, 𝛽°, 𝛾°),
location of nodal point 𝑃 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) and picture coefficient d, the formulae to calculate perspective
coordinates u and v are derived. It is necessary to find the co-ordinates (𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘) of point P, when AOL of
camera (line of sight) is at most probable position. 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘 are the co-ordinates of nodal point P with
respect to AOL, AOE and AOH respectively, when Camera point (E) is at the origin.

Let it be consider, three co-ordinate axes viz (i) Reference axes (3-dimensional) x, y, z with respect to O
is as an origin, which is based on existing data available. (ii) Axes of camera (3-dimensional) i, j, k with
respect to E is as an origin, which are to describe the position of camera. (iii) Axes of picture plane (2-
dimensional) u, v, with respect to E´ is as an origin, which are the axes of photo print sheet.

Let any one of the nodal points of an object is P. Let co-ordinates of P with respect to reference axes are
(x,y,z) which data are already known. Let the position of camera with respect to reference axes are
𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 and position of axes of camera with respect to reference axes are ∝0 , 𝛽 0 , 𝛾 0
where, ∝0 is the horizontal angle measured in between x-z plane and axis of lens.
𝛽 0 is the vertical angle measured in between x-y plane and axis of lens.
𝛾 0 is the rotational angle of axis of lens.
Now from the available data of (x, y, z), (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ), (∝0 , 𝛽 0 , 𝛾 0 ), co-ordinate of node point P
 Fig.1: A camera defines Axis of Head, Axis of Ears and Axis of Lens

with respect to axes of camera (i, j, k) are calculated by following four transformations:
(i) Linear transformation / translation
(ii) ∝0 −rotation
(iii) 𝛽 0 −rotation
(iv) 𝛾 0 −rotation
Therefore, the coordinates nodal point (P) with respect to reference axes x, y, z have now been
converted to camera axes i, j, k.
The changes in magnitude of co-ordinates at every stage of transformations are tabulated in table-1.
The co-ordinates of nodal point P are 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘 with respect to AOL, AOE, AOH respectively with respect to
Camera point E at most probable position of camera.

Initial stage
Let, any one of the nodal points 𝑃 of the object which is to be taken photograph is (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) with respect
to reference origin 𝑂 (0, 0, 0) . Let the location of camera with respect to 𝑋, 𝑌, 𝑍 is 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0
respectively. Let, 𝑋, 𝑌, 𝑍 is reference Cartesian co-ordinate axes. Let us assume, the initial position of
the camera is such that the axes of camera 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘 are coincided with the reference axes 𝑋, 𝑌, 𝑍
respectively, i.e., the angles of Axis of head, Axis of ear and Axis of lens (𝛼°, 𝛽°, 𝛾°) = (0°, 0°, 0°).
(i) First transformation (linear transformation/ translation)
If the camera is shifted from 𝑂(0, 0, 0) to 𝐸 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) the coordinate of the nodal point (𝑃) with
respect to axes of camera (𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘) is changed from
𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
to
𝑥 − 𝑥0
𝑦 − 𝑦0
𝑧 − 𝑧0 respectively.

Fig.2: Translation of axes

(ii) Second transformation ( ∝𝟎 −rotation)

If the camera is rotated (∝0 ) about its axis of head (k), the coordinate of the node point (𝑃) with respect
to axes of camera (𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘) is changed from
𝑖 = 𝑥 − 𝑥0
𝑗 = 𝑦 − 𝑦0
𝑘 = 𝑧 − 𝑧0
to
 𝑖 = (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼° + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼°
𝑗 = (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼° − (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼°
𝑘 = 𝑧 − 𝑧0
respectively and there is no any change in 𝑘 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
(iii) Third transformation (𝜷° −rotation)
If the camera is rotated (𝛽 0 ) about its axis of ear (j), the coordinates of the nodal point (𝑃) with respect
to axes of camera (𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘) is changed from
𝑖 = (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼° + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼°
𝑗 = (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼° − (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼°
𝑘 = 𝑧 − 𝑧0
to
𝑖 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽°[(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼° + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼°] + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽°(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )
𝑗 = (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼° − (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼°
𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽°(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽°[(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼° + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼°] respectively and there is no any
change in 𝑗 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
(iv) Final transformation (𝜸° −rotation)
If the camera is rotated (𝛾°) about its axis of lens (i), the coordinates of the nodal point (𝑃) with respect
to axes of camera (𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘) is changed from
𝑖 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽°[(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼° + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼°] + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽°(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )
𝑗 = (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼° − (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼°
𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽°(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽°[(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼° + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼°]
to
𝑖 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽°[(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼° + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼°] + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽°(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) … … … … … … … … . . [1]
𝑗 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾°[(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼° − (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼°]
+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾°{𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽°(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽°[(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼° + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼°]} … … . [2]
{
𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾° 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽°(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽°[(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼° + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼°]}
−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾°[(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼° − (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼°] … … … … … … … … . [3]
respectively and there is no any change in 𝑖 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
Transformation

With respect to
Co- ordinates

Co-ordinates
Stage

AOL 𝑖0 = 𝑥
Initial

AOE 𝑗0 = 𝑦
-

AOH 𝑘0 = 𝑧
AOL 𝑖1 = 𝑖0 − 𝑥0
nsla
Firs
t

⇒ 𝑥 − 𝑥0
 AOE 𝑗1 = 𝑗0 − 𝑦0
⇒ 𝑦 − 𝑦0
AOH 𝑘1 = 𝑘0 − 𝑧0
⇒ 𝑧 − 𝑧0
AOL 𝑖2 = 𝑖1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼° + 𝑗1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼°
⇒ (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼° + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼°
α°-rotation
Second

AOE 𝑗2 = 𝑖1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼° − 𝑗1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼°

⇒ (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼° − (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼°
AOH 𝑘2 = 𝑘1
⇒ 𝑧 − 𝑧0
AOL 𝑖3 = 𝑖2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽° + 𝑘2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽°
⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽°[(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼° + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼°] + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽°(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )
β°-rotation

AOE 𝑗3 = 𝑖2
Third

⇒ (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼° − (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼°
AOH 𝑘3 = 𝑘2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽° − 𝑖2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽°
⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽°(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽°[(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼° + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼°]
AOL 𝑖 = 𝑖3
⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽°[(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼° + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼°] + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽°(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )
𝑗 = 𝑗3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾° + 𝑘3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾°
γ°-rotation

AOE ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾°[(𝑥 − 𝑥 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼° − (𝑦 − 𝑦 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼°]

Final

0 0
+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾° 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽°(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽°[(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼° + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼°]}
{
𝑘 = 𝑘3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾° − 𝑗3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾°
AOH ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾°{𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽°(𝑧 − 𝑧 ) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽°[(𝑥 − 𝑥 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼° + (𝑦 − 𝑦 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼°]}
0 0 0
−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾°[(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼° − (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼°]
Table-1: Changes in magnitude of coordinates at every stage of transformation

Perspective Co-ordinates (u, v)

Figure 1.3 is the isometric view of axes of camera at most probable position. E is the Camera
point as well as origin of the AOL, AOE and AOH. i, j, k are the co-ordinates of nodal point P with respect
to E as origin.
Suppose, Q is the projection of point P on i-j plane, R is the projection of point P on i-k plane and
S is the projection of Q on AOL or the projection of point R on AOL. PQ = RS, PR = QS. Assume the picture
plan is a transparent sheet/ glass placed in between Camera point and object at a distance d from
Camera point. The sheet is placed such that plane of the sheet is perpendicular to AOL. It is possible to
get the images of the points Q, R, S, F and P in the picture plane. Let it be assumed that Q′, R′, S′ F′ and
P′ are the images of points Q, R, S, and P respectively. [Note: E, S, S ′, F’ and F are collinear].
 Fig.3: Isometric view of the picture plane with respect to other planes

Let, ES = i, SQ =j, SR = k, S′Q′= u, S′R′ = v and ES′ = d. In Figure 3, triangle ESQ and triangle ES′Q′
are similar
𝑆𝑄
Therefore, �𝑆′𝑄′ = 𝑆𝐸�𝑆′𝐸
𝑗
i.e., �𝑢 = 𝑖�𝑑
𝑗
or 𝑢 = 𝑑 � �𝑖 �
By substituting eqn.[1] & [2] in above equation

𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜸°[(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 )𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶° − (𝒚 − 𝒚𝟎 )𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶°]

𝒖 = 𝒅� �
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷°[(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 )𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶° + (𝒚 − 𝒚𝟎 )𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶°] + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷°(𝒛 − 𝒛𝟎 )

𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜸°{𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷°(𝒛 − 𝒛𝟎 ) − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷°[(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 )𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶° + (𝒚 − 𝒚𝟎 )𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶°]}

+� � … . . . [4]
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷°[(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 )𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶° + (𝒚 − 𝒚𝟎 )𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶°] + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷°(𝒛 − 𝒛𝟎 )
Similarly, since triangle ESR and triangle ES′R′ are similar (Figure 3)

Therefore, 𝑆𝑅� = 𝑆𝐸�

𝑆′𝑅′ 𝑆′𝐸
i.e., 𝑘� = 𝑖�
𝑣 𝑑
or 𝑢 = 𝑑�𝑘�𝑖 �
By substituting eqn.[1] & [3] in above equation gives

𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜸°[(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 )𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶° − (𝒚 − 𝒚𝟎 )𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶°]

𝒗 = −𝒅 � �
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷°[(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 )𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶° + (𝒚 − 𝒚𝟎 )𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶°] + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷°(𝒛 − 𝒛𝟎 )

𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜸°{𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷°(𝒛 − 𝒛𝟎 ) − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷°[(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 )𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶° + (𝒚 − 𝒚𝟎 )𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶°]}

−� � … … … [𝟓]
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷°[(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 )𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶° + (𝒚 − 𝒚𝟎 )𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶°] + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷°(𝒛 − 𝒛𝟎 )

Where, (x, y, z) are the co-ordinates of nodal point P with respect to initial reference axes,
(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) are the co-ordinates of E with respect to initial reference axes, α° is the AHR, β° is the AVR,
γ° is ATR, (u, v) are the perspective co-ordinates of nodal point P and d is the picture co-efficient.

Equation 4 & 5 are the set of formulae necessary to calculate the value of (u, v). The equation 4 & 5 can
be written in the matrix form as:
𝒋 𝟎
[𝒖 𝒗] = �𝟏�𝒊 𝟏�𝒊� × �
Where, �
𝟎 𝒌

𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
⎡ 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶° 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶° 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 ⎥
[𝒊 𝒋 𝒌] = [𝒙 𝒚 𝒛 −𝟏 −𝟏 −𝟏] × ⎢ 𝒙 𝟎 𝟎 ⎥ × � 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶° −𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶° 𝟎�
⎢ 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
⎢ 𝟎 𝒚𝟎 𝟎⎥
⎣ 𝟎 𝟎 𝒛𝟎 ⎦

𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷° 𝟎 −𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷° 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
× � 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 � × �𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜸° −𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜸°�
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷° 𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷° 𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜸° 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜸°

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION OF PERSPECTIVE VIEW

Figure 4 is the perspective view of nodal point P i.e., plane of perspective view. In this Figure, image of
focal point/ target point F′ is the origin, (u, v) are the horizontal and vertical co-ordinates of perspective
point (P′) of corresponding nodal point P, P′ (u, v) is the perspective point of the corresponding nodal
point P. Suppose F′T = u, PT = v and F′ is the origin. By plotting the point P′(u, v) in a graph and gives
perspective view of nodal point P. Substituting the numerical values of 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 , α°, β°, γ°
and d in equation 4 and 5, u and v of all the nodal points can be calculated. Then plotting all the points
and connecting them appropriately gives perspective drawing/ view of an object.
Note:
 The accuracy of the perspective view depends upon the number of nodes considered.
However, the extreme points of the edges only are sufficient for straight edges, because the
points of straight lines are collinear.
  The figure will appear to be of virtual reality, when placed at a distance d from eye and
normal to the axis of lens/ line of sight, where ‘d’ is the picture co-efficient normal to the
axis of lens/ line of sight.
 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 , α°, β°, γ° and d are constant for the entire problem but these may be varied from
one position to another position or one problem to another problem.

Fig.4: Perspective drawing represents the perspective view of point P

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Figure.6 shows perspective view using AutoCAD. ∠𝑋𝑌𝑍° as marked in the picture should be
within the range 90° and 180° with respect to level and distance of eye from the object. There is no
possibility for ∠𝑋𝑌𝑍° is less than 90°. It has been found that ∠𝑋𝑌𝑍° is 80°30′ approximately, as the
result of AutoCAD does not define virtual reality.
 Fig.5: Copy of AutoCAD drawing taken from advt. of AutoCAD release 14
The AutoCAD is widely used for all Engineering drawing including perspective drawing. The package
purely based on the concept of vanishing point method, but the result of virtual reality can be achieved
only by new method i.e., Maran’s method.
MARAN’S THEOREM OF PERSPECTIVE VIEW
The mathematical relation between perspective drawing and actual position of the object from
the camera or viewer can be written in the general form:

Suppose, a camera placed at some place is positioned for getting photograph of some
object and focused towards one of the points of the object (i.e., called focal point F. Suppose the
co-ordinates of place of camera is (i, j, k) = (0, 0, 0). The three dimensional axes i, j & k are such
that, an imaginary axis passing through axis of lens of the camera is i-axis (Axis of lens/ line of
sight), an imaginary axis passing through the sides of the camera is j-axis (Axis of ears) and an
imaginary axis passing through the apex of the camera is k-axis (Axis of head) as shown in
Figure 1.
Suppose a two-dimensional axes u (horizontal) and v (vertical) in the photograph, taken
by the camera at the same position such that, the image of focal point (F’) is as the origin is
considered.
If the co-ordinates of any point (say point P′) of the image of the object in the
photograph are represented by (u, v) as in Figure 4 then:
(i) ‘u’ is directly proportional to j and inversely proportional to i
The‘v’
(ii) co-ordinates of P are (x, y,to
is directly proportional z) kwith
andrespect to proportional
inversely Engineering axes
to i.x, y, z and origin O before
transformation (Ref: Figure 2). (i, j, k) are the co-ordinates of nodal point P with respect to AOL, AOE,
AOH andi,Camera
Where, j and point
k are(E)
theasthree
origin dimensional
after transformation (Ref: Figure
co-ordinates 3). point P (i.e., point of object)
of the
related to point of P′ (i.e., point in photograph) with respect to i, j and k axis respectively.

TYPICAL EXAMPLES
Example - 1
The co-ordinates of all necessary nodal points with respect to origin are mentioned in figure 6
and also given in Table-2. The co-ordinates of Camera point E with respect to O are (–5, -4, 2) with
respect to x, y and z-axis respectively. The AHR, AVR, ATR are α° = 45°, β° = 0°, γ° =
0° respectively. The picture co-efficient (d) of this problem is taken as 30 cm. The problem is to draw
perspective view of the building.
 Fig.6: Isometric view of example problem-1

Solution:
The nodal points are located conveniently at respective edges and corners of the object. The
numerical values of 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 , α°, β°, γ°, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 are substituted in formulae 4 & 5. The
calculated values of u and v corresponding to each nodal point are given in Table-2. Finally plotting u
and v for each nodal point and connecting the relative points gives the perspective view of the building
(Figure 7).

Table- 2: The Engg coordinates and corresponding perspective coordinates of Example-1

x0 (m) y0 (m) z0 (m) 𝜶° (Deg) 𝜷° (Deg) 𝜸° (Deg) d (cm)

-5.00 -4.00 2.00 45° 0° 0° 30.00

Node x (m) y (m) z (m) i j k u (cm) v (cm)

1 15.00 21.00 0.00 31.82 -3.54 -2.00 -3.33 -1.89

2 15.00 19.00 0.00 30.41 -2.12 -2.00 -2.09 -1.97
3 14.00 19.00 0.00 29.70 -2.83 -2.00 -2.86 -2.02
4 14.00 17.00 0.00 28.28 -1.41 -2.00 -1.50 -2.12
 5 15.00 17.00 0.00 28.99 -0.71 -2.00 -0.73 -2.07
6 15.00 15.00 0.00 27.58 0.71 -2.00 0.77 -2.18
7 18.00 15.00 0.00 29.70 2.83 -2.00 2.86 -2.02
8 18.00 19.00 1.00 32.53 0.00 -1.00 0.00 -0.92
9 14.00 19.00 1.00 29.70 -2.83 -1.00 -2.86 -1.01
10 14.00 17.00 1.00 28.28 -1.41 -1.00 -1.50 -1.06
11 18.00 17.00 1.00 31.11 1.41 -1.00 1.36 -0.96
12 15.00 21.00 4.00 31.82 -3.54 2.00 -3.33 1.89
13 15.00 19.00 4.00 30.41 -2.12 2.00 -2.09 1.97
14 18.00 19.00 4.00 32.53 0.00 2.00 0.00 1.84
15 15.00 17.00 5.00 28.99 -0.71 3.00 -0.73 3.10
16 15.00 15.00 5.00 27.58 0.71 3.00 0.77 3.26
17 18.00 15.00 5.00 29.70 2.83 3.00 2.86 3.03

Fig.7: Perspective view of example problem-1

Example - 2
The co-ordinates of all necessary nodal points of a tower with respect to origin O are mentioned
in Figure 8 and also given in Table 3. The co-ordinates of Camera point E with respect to O are (-2, -3, 2)
in z, y, and z-axis respectively. The AHR, AVR, ATR are α° = 45°, β° = 60° (elevated angle) and γ° =
0° respectively. The picture co-efficient (d) of this problem is taken as 30 cm. If a camera clicked for
photo in this position, How would be get printed.

Fig.8: Isometric view of example problem-2

Solution:
The nodal points are located conveniently at respective edges and corners of the object. The
numerical values of 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 , α°, β°, γ° , 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 are substituted in formula 4 & 5. For the
convenience, the nodal points 10 and 11 are considered at z = 14 m, above from the ground level. The
calculated values of u and v corresponding to each nodal point are given in Table – 3. Finally plotting u
and v for each nodal point and connecting the relative points gives the perspective view of the tower
(Figure 9).

Table. 3: The Engg coordinates and corresponding perspective coordinates of Example-2

x0 (m) y0 (m) z0 (m) 𝜶° (Deg) 𝜷° (Deg) 𝜸° (Deg) d (cm)

-2.00 -3.00 2.00 45° 60° 0° 30.00

Node x (m) y (m) z (m) i j k u (cm) v (cm)

1 4.00 5.00 20.00 20.54 -1.41 0.43 -2.07 0.62

2 4.00 3.00 20.00 19.83 0.00 1.65 0.00 2.50
3 6.00 3.00 20.00 20.54 1.41 0.43 2.07 0.62
4 4.00 5.00 18.00 18.81 -1.41 -0.57 -2.26 -0.91
5 4.00 3.00 18.00 18.10 0.00 0.65 0.00 1.08
6 6.00 3.00 18.00 18.81 1.41 -0.57 2.26 -0.91
7 4.50 4.50 18.00 18.81 -0.71 -0.57 -1.13 -0.91
8 4.50 3.50 18.00 18.45 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.06
9 5.50 3.50 18.00 18.81 0.71 -0.57 1.13 -0.91
10 4.50 4.50 14.00 15.34 -0.71 -2.57 -1.38 -5.03
11 5.50 3.50 14.00 15.34 0.71 -2.57 1.38 -5.03
12 6.00 5.00 18.00 19.51 0.00 -1.80 0.00 -2.76
13 4.50 3.50 14.00 14.99 0.00 -1.96 0.00 -3.92
 Fig.9: Perspective view of example problem-2

Example - 3
The co-ordinates of all necessary nodal points of a tower with respect to origin O are mentioned
in Figure 1.8 and also given in Table 4. The co-ordinates of Camera point E with respect to O are (-2, -3,
2) in z, y, and z-axis respectively. The AHR, AVR, ATR are α° = 45°,
β° = 60° (elevated angle) and γ° = −30° respectively. The picture co-efficient (d) of this problem is
taken as 30 cm. If a camera clicked for photo in this position, How would be get printed.

Solution:
The nodal points are located conveniently at respective edges and corners of the object. The
numerical values of 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 , α°, β°, γ° , 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 are substituted in formula 4 & 5. For the
convenience, the nodal points 10 and 11 are considered at z = 14 m, above from the ground level. The
calculated values of u and v corresponding to each nodal point are given in Table – 4. Finally plotting u
and v for each nodal point and connecting the relative points gives the perspective view of the tower
(Figure 1.10).

x0 (m) y0 (m) z0 (m) 𝜶° (Deg) 𝜷° (Deg) 𝜸° (Deg) d (cm)

-2.00 -3.00 2.00 45° 60° -30° 30.00

Node x (m) y (m) z (m) i j k u (cm) v (cm)

1 4.0 5.0 20.0 20.54 -1.44 -0.34 -2.10 -0.49

2 4.0 3.0 20.0 19.83 -0.83 1.43 -1.25 2.16
3 6.0 3.0 20.0 20.54 1.01 1.08 1.48 1.57
4 4.0 5.0 18.0 18.81 -0.94 -1.20 -1.50 -1.92
5 4.0 3.0 18.0 18.10 -0.33 0.56 -0.54 0.94
6 6.0 3.0 18.0 18.81 1.51 0.21 2.41 0.34
7 4.5 4.5 18.0 18.81 -0.33 -0.85 -0.52 -1.36
8 4.5 3.5 18.0 18.45 -0.02 0.03 -0.03 0.06
9 5.5 3.5 18.0 18.81 0.90 -0.14 1.43 -0.23
10 4.5 4.5 14.0 15.34 0.67 -2.58 1.32 -5.05
11 5.5 3.5 14.0 15.34 1.90 -1.87 3.71 -3.67
12 6.0 5.0 18.0 19.51 0.90 -1.56 1.38 -2.39
13 4.5 3.5 14.0 14.99 0.98 -1.70 1.96 -3.40
Table. 4: The Engg coordinates and corresponding perspective coordinates of Example-3
 Fig.10: Perspective view of example problem-3

CONCLUSION
It is apparent that the perspective view of an object, where is drawn with respect to angle of
horizontal rotation, angle of vertical rotation, angle of twist, but there is no such consideration of angles
in the existing methods. Taking this into account, the new method i.e., Maran’s method discussed in this
report derived two formulae to determine the value of u and v to draw the perspective view of an
object. The equations 4 and 5 are the necessary formulae to calculate the values of u and v respectively.
The examples prove the advantages of Maran’s method.
 Gives accurate perspective view with respect to angles of line of sight;
 It is much simpler and easier to draw perspective view for irregular objects; and
  The result defines virtual reality.

LIST OF REFERENCES
1 Page No. 501 - Elementary Engineering Drawing - N. D. Bhatt
(Charotar Publishing House. Anand, India – 1981)

2 Page No. 507 - Elementary Engineering Drawing - N. D. Bhatt

(Charotar Publishing House. Anand, India – 1981)

APPENDIX: Glossary of terms

 The Angle of horizontal rotation (α°) is the horizontal angle between x-axis and axis of lens i.e., line
of sight. It is measured (anti-clockwise) in plan and denoted as AHR.
 The Angle of twisting rotation / angle of twist (γ°) is the angle of rotation of viewer’s head about the
axis of lens/ line of sight (anti-clockwise) and denoted as ATR.
 The Angle of vertical rotation (β°) is the angle between horizon plane and the axis of lens i.e., line of
sight. It is measured (anti-clockwise) in vertical section along axis of eyes and denoted as AVR.
 The Axis of ears (AOE) is an imaginary line passing through both the ears of the viewer.
 The Axis of head (AOH) is an imaginary line passing through the apex of the head and the throat that
of the viewer.
 The Axis of lens/ line of sight (AOL) is an imaginary line passing through the Camera point and the
focal point.
 The Engineering co-ordinates (x, y, z) are nothing but ordinary Cartesian co-ordinates before
transformation (i.e., these are initial reference axes).
 The Focal point/ Target point (F) is the point where the focus rays of eyes touching the object.
 The Horizon plane is an imaginary horizontal plane passing though the eye and parallel to ground.
 The Nodes/ Nodal point (P) is the intersecting points of imaginary grids assumed on the surface of an
object.
 The Perspective co-ordinates (u, v) are co-ordinates used to locate the perspective point P´ of node
P.
 The Perspective point (P´) is the point of image of the object in perspective drawing related to nodal
point P.
 The Picture co-efficient (d) is the distance between the Camera point and the picture plane. The
magnitude of the perspective view (i.e., enlargement or reduction) is proportional to the picture
coefficient.
 The Picture plane is that in which the perspective view of an object is drawn.
 The Camera point/ Eye point/ View point (E) is the junction of the right and left eyebrows and the
upper end of the nose of the viewer.