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6. AUTHOR(S)
Michael Fineberg
Kenneth Boff
Alphonse Chapanis
William Rouse
7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION
REPORT NUMBER
Human Systems IAC
2261 Monahan Way, Bldg. 196 GWXI3
WPAFB, OH 45433-7022
This special issue features classic gateway articles and some observations from the Human
Systems IAC chief scientist. The classic articles include: 1.Integrating Ergonomics into
Systems Design; 2.Making Human Factors Truly Human Factors; 3.Human-Centered Design:
Creating Successful Products, Systems, and Organizations; 4.Naturalistic Decision Making
20010105 114
14. SUBJECT TERMS 15. NUMBER OF PAGES
Ergonomics Human Factors Systems Design System Development 20
Naturalistic Decision Making Human-Centered Design 16. PRICE CODE
17. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 18. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 19. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 20. LIMITATION OF ABSTRACT
OF REPORT OF THIS PAGE OF ABSTRACT UNLIMITED
UNCLASSIFIED UNCLASSIFIED UNCLASSIFIED
NSN 7540-01-280-5500 Standard Form 298 (Rev. 2-89)
Prescribed by ANSI Std. Z39-18
298-102
»»«W«LIWUUaM5D4
Volume XI: Number 3 (2000)
...design decision makers must be per- If we don't do this, our end-users will never be
suaded or motivated to overcome their served.
ingrained biases against ergonomics. Finally we have included an article entitled
Congratulations to the "Naturalistic Decision Making" by Gary Klein and
winners of the The second article, one that appeared David Klinger that appeared in the Winter 1991 edi-
Engineering Data Com- in our Summer 1991 issue, "Making tion. This article also addresses complex decision
pendium. These folks visited the Human Factors Truly Human Factors," making, but from the perspective of the decision
Human Systems IAC booth at the was written by Alphonse Chapanis. This process itself. Klein and Klinger recognized that
recent Human Factors and article takes the field of human factors to decisions are made in the real world (not in the lab)
Ergonomics Society/ task because under dynamic and continually changing condi-
International Ergonomics tions and severe time pressure, and with ill-defined
Association combined meeting, ...we have not clearly established in our tasks and significant personal consequences of mis-
July 29 through August 4, 2000, minds what human factors is and what it takes. Therefore, a new decision-making model was
and won copies of the is not. required to accommodate these real-world issues. It
Compendium— was determined that
His basic position is that—
Ian Milburn ...under operational conditions, decision makers
Brian Peacock We are all...ultimately concerned with rarely use analytical methods....
Ken Waugh trying to shape the technological world
in which we live so that it will better suit Rather, real-world decision makers saw
us and our needs.
...themselves as acting and reacting on the basis
Michael Fineberg, Ph.D., is the Thus all the research we do in the of prior experience; they were generating, monitor-
Chief Scientist for the HSIAC name of human factors must be oriented ing, and modifying plans to meet the needs of the
Program Office. to the design of something. If there are situations.
no design implications in our work, or if
we fail to make those implications clear These decision-makers were
to our readers/listeners, then that work
...more interested in finding an action that was
...doesn't belong in the human factors 'workable,' 'timely' and 'cost-effective.'
literature.
This article is more technical in nature than the first
It dilutes the body of knowledge and three and it may have profound implications on
worse, our technical jargon confuses how we might better influence the users of human
practitioners from other disciplines who factors information.
read our publications looking for help. The theme I see emerging from these articles is
The third article is "Human-Centered not the one I first observed when reading them
Design" by William Rouse and casually. At that point I thought it would be the
appeared in our Fall 1991 edition. It classic struggle between research and practice.
o also addresses our role in the design However, upon further reflection, I saw something
"GO process, starting with the insightful possibly deeper. The first three are all pieces writ-
observation that we who preach the ten to motivate us to enhance the impact of our
value of including the user in design, work on the design of everyday tools and process-
fail to serve our own customers and es. The common theme among them is that all
o users. Rather, we set our sights on bet- human factors endeavors must be aimed at influ-
"-1—'
tering the lot of the system end-user encing design, or it is simply not human factors
ci alone. This approach, while virtuous work by definition. If we are to have an impact on
and necessary, is not sufficient to mak- the betterment of our society, we must depend on
ing our recommendations acceptable others to take our efforts and apply them in the
Q. "natural" world of socio-technical systems design.
This situation reflects all the characteristics that
Name
Address.
CO
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Visa/MasterCard no
Exp. date Tel. no.
Total copies. Total cost.
Signature. CO
Hardcover • 256 pages * Illustrated California residents add 7.75% sales tax.
o
Integrating Ergonomics
Into System Design
Kenneth R. Boff
State-of-the-Art Cost/Performance
Technology Tradeoffs
Data/Knowledge
Resources
Management
Constraints
Time/Resources Limits
Alphonse Chapanis
Could any supplementary aids be devised to help a duty to do just that. If no design impli- Alphonse Chapanis, Ph.D.,
workers do their jobs? I realize that the research cations at all can be drawn from a study, lives near Baltimore, MD.
was not undertaken to answer those specific ques- then it doesn't belong in the human fac- Formerly, he taught at Johns
tions, but surely after all their work, the authors tors literature. Hopkins University, and
must have formed some ideas about these ques- I feel so strongly about this matter that served as President of the
tions. Even if their design recommendations were I would endorse a requirement that every Society of Engineering
tentative, they would at least call attention to manuscript submitted to Human Factors Psychologists, the Human
some possible ways of improving a stressful and or Ergonomics should have a final sec- Factors Society, and the
difficult job. As it stands, the study is merely an tion headed "Design Implications" (see International Ergonomics
interesting one on the physiology of movement Figure 2). If authors can't find any design Association.
that happens to have been done in a working implications in their work, they should
environment. There are human factors design be encouraged to submit their manu-
implications there, but the authors have made no script to other journals.
attempt to communicate them. We cannot expect To sum up—
engineers or designers to read our minds and • If we keep in mind that the only
deduce the design implications of what we have kind of research that belongs in the
done. If there are design implications in what we human factors literature is research
do, it is our responsibility to say what they are. that leads to design recommenda-
These are only a couple out of many examples I tions
could have used to make my point. To a consider- • And if we are always sure to point
able extent we have jusüy earned the criticism that out the design implications of that
we don't communicate our findings to practitioners research
and designers. This has happened because we • We can all help to make human o
sometimes fail to keep in mind the aim of our pro- factors truly human factors.«
fession. I repeat: The reason we are in this business
is to help design things. The reason we do our
research is to find out how to design things better.
Having done a study, the authors of it are best able
CO
to evaluate what it means for design, and if they CD"
claim to be human factors professionals, they have o
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William B. Rouse
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Everyone wants new products and Thus, the question shifts to the reasons why cur-
systems to be user-friendly, user- rent concepts, principles, and methods do not
centered, and economically impact design. The answer lies in understanding the
designed. Everyone endorses these human factors of design—in other words, under-
goals. However, as Illustrated in Figure 1, standing the abilities, limitations, and preferences of
o many products and systems fall far short those who are expected to employ the products of
.03
"GO of achieving them. Why? human factors research and development (R&D).
One answer is that human factors
concepts, principles, and methods are The Nature Of Design
not sufficiently advanced to meet this To understand the human factors of design, we
o need. However, this is only a partial must focus on the engineering functions within indus-
H—'
explanation. The fact is that most cur- trial and governmental enterprises responsible for
Ö rently available concepts, principles, developing products and systems. The necessary
CO and methods have relatively little understanding cannot be found within aircraft cock-
impact on product and system design. pits or maintenance depots. The people who should
Q- be studied are designers and managers, not pilots and
Clearly, therefore, more unused results
will not improve the situation. maintainers. Several studies of the human factors of
continued from previous page 3, technology development will usually basis. Traditionally, the three pillars of management
have been pursued prior to and in paral- are planning, organization, and control. Thus, the
lel with the naturalist and marketing human factors of management must address human
phases. In the engineering phase, one abilities, limitations, and preferences in these activ-
becomes very specific about how desired ities.
functionality is to be provided, what per- Studies of management of design in particular,
formance is possible, and the time and and technology-based enterprises in general, led
dollars necessary to provide it. In this to the concept of human-centered planning,
process, evaluation, demonstration, veri- organization, and control (Rouse, 1992). More
fication, and testing are pursued. specifically, the concern was with how enterpris-
es should be designed to best support develop-
ment, marketing, and service of human-centered
products and systems.
The resulting approach to management includes a
,' Technology * variety of elements. For example, methods of plan-
Naturalist
\ Feasibility / ning, organization, and control are simplified and
streamlined to emphasize usability and usefulness.
As another illustration, explicit models of the enter-
prise's functioning are developed. Training is pro-
{ Technology \ vided to ensure that these models are shared by all
Marketing
\ Development^ stakeholders within the enterprise.
The concept of a human-centered enterprise is
important in that it enables, perhaps even empow-
ers, designers to pursue human-centered design of
{ Technology \ products and systems. Consequently, it is not a mat-
"*" \ Refinement /' ter of management simply allowing human-cen-
TRW tered design; it is important for management to
extol this approach.
Summary
Human factors professionals often view them-
selves as advocates of end users—for example, air-
craft pilots. They research pilots' abilities, limitations,
and preferences and develop end user-centered con-
Figure 3. A framework for design. cepts, principles, and methods. Unfortunately, how-
ever, they typically ignore their own customers and
William B. Rouse, Ph.D., is In the sales and service phase, one fol- their own users. They concern themselves little with
President and CEO of lows the product system into service to the usefulness and usability of the products of
Enterprise Support Systems, gain closure on viability, acceptability, and human factors R&D. Consequently, human factors
Norcross, GA. validity. Implementation problems are often fails to have an impact. However, by consider-
solved during this phase. Further, relation- ing the human factors of design, as well as the
ships are maintained and new opportuni- human factors of management, it is quite possible to
ties recognized. This typically expedites provide concepts, principles, and methods that will
the next naturalist and marketing phases. be embraced and, subsequently, provide the intend-
The human-centered design methodol- ed benefits to end users.«
ogy tersely outlined in this section poten-
o tially enables creation of products and References
CO
"GO systems that are user friendly, user cen- Rouse, W. B. (1991). Design for success: A human-centered
tered, ergonomically designed, and approach to designing successful products and systems. New
much more. For this potential to be fully York: Wiley.
Rouse, W. B. (1992). Strategies for innovation: Creating successful
realized, the human-centered concept
CO products, systems, and organizations. New York: Wiley.
must be expanded.
Rouse, W. B., & Boff, K. R. (1987). System design: Behavioral
perspectives on designers, took, and organizations. New York:
o The Human-Centered Enterprise North Holland
The methodology discussed in the last Rouse, W. B., Cody, W. J., & Boff, K. R. (1991). The human favors
section provides the technical basis for of system design: Understanding and enhancing the role of
human-centered design. Also required, human factors engineering. International Journal of Human
however, is an appropriate managerial Factors in Manufacturing, 1, 87-104.
^OVATlVtSOV^ Noldus
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WPAFB OH 45433-7022
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You'll experience hands-on instruction in over 40 dimensions in
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ANTHROTECH
PROVIDING HUMAN DIMENSIONS FOR DESIGN SOLUTIONS
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NaturaTislic Decision
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Figure 1. Four-aiarm fire in St. Joseph Hall at the University of Dayton, Dayton, Ohio, on December 22,1987. Gary Klein and
David Kiinyer
The past five years have seen the identify criteria for evaluating them, assign
development of a new model for weights to the evaluation criteria, rate each option
understanding how people make on each criterion, and tabulate the scores to find
decisions in real-world settings. the best option. Decision Analysis is a technique
Naturalistic decision making is an for constructing various branches of responses and
attempt to understand how humans actu- counter-responses and postulating the probability
ally make decisions in complex and utility of each possible future state, to calcu-
real-world settings, such as fire fighting late maximum and minimum outcomes.
(see Figure 1). This work has focused on On the surface these strategies may seem ade-
situations marked by key features as seen quate, yet they fail to consider some important fac-
in Table 1. These include dynamic and tors inherent in real-world decisions. Classical
continually changing conditions, strategies deteriorate when confronted with time
real-time reactions to these changes, pressure. They simply take too long. Under low time
ill-defined tasks, time pressure, signifi- pressure, they still require extensive work and they
cant personal consequences for mistakes, lack flexibility for handling rapidly changing condi-
and experienced decision makers. These tions. It is difficult to factor in ambiguity, vagueness,
task conditions exist in operational envi- and inaccuracies when applying analytical meth-
ronments associated with crew systems, ods. Another problem is that the classical methods
so it is essential to determine how people have primarily been developed and evaluated using
o handle these conditions. inexperienced subjects, typically college students.
.£33
"GO Previous models of decision making A group of decision researchers is trying to derive
were limited in their ability to encom- models that describe how experienced decision
pass these operational features. makers actually function. Rasmussen (1985) used
Classical approaches to decision mak- protocols and critical incident interviews to study
o ing, such as Multi-Attribute Utility nuclear power plant operators. He has a three-stage
Analysis (MAUA) and Decision typology of skills (sensorimotor, rule-based, and
o Analysis, prescribe analytical and sys- knowledge-based) which highlights how differential
as tematic methods to weigh evidence and expertise creates differences in decision strategy.
select an optimal course of action. Hammond, Hamm. Grassia, and Pearson (1987)
MAUA decision makers are encouraged studied highway engineers and found that intuitive
to generate a wide range of options, decision strategies were more effective for tasks
i Goals i • Goals
1
Recognize Critical Cues Recognize | • Critical Cues
1
Typicality ■ Expectancies Typicality Expectancies
■ Typical Action • Typical Action
Evaluation via
Mental Simulation
Implement
implement
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Modify "*^~Cwill it workT)-
Situational recognition allows the
decision maker to classify the task Y
as familiar or prototypical.
Implement
The recognition as familiar carries
with it recognition of the following
types of information: plausible
goals, cues to monitor, expectancies
about the unfolding of the situa- that recognitional and analytical decision strategies
tion, and typical reactions. occupy opposite ends of a decision continuum sim-
Options are generated serially, with ilar to the cognitive continuum described by
a very typical course of action as Hammond et al. (1987). At one extreme are the con-
the first one considered. scious, deliberated, highly analytic strategies such
o Option evaluation is also performed as MAUA and Decision Analysis. Slightly less ana-
C/3 serially to test the adequacy of the lytic are noncompensatory strategies such as elimi-
option, and to identify weaknesses nation-by-aspects. At the alternate end of the con-
and find ways to overcome them. tinuum are Recognition-Primed Decisions (RPD),
£ The RPD model includes aspects of which involve non-optimizing and non-compensa-
o problem solving and judgment tory strategies and require little conscious delibera-
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along with decision making. tion. RPDs are marked by an absence of comparison
Ö Experienced decision makers are among options. They are induced by a starting point
able to respond quickly, by using that involves recognitional matches that in turn
experience to identify a plausible evoke generation of the most likely action.
Q_ course of action as the first one We have tested applications of the model in a
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considered rather than having to variety of tasks and domains, including fireground
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