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Matei Vinatoru
Abstract: In hydro power plants from Romania, there is a major interest for the
implementation of digital systems for monitoring and control replacing the conventional
control systems for power, frequency and voltage. Therefore is necessary to develop
mathematical models capable to accurately describe both dynamic and stationary
behaviour of the hydro units, in order to be able to implement digital control algorithms.
Moreover, it is necessary to implement systems for monitoring and control of hydro
power plants in a cascade system along a river, in order to optimize the use of the river
resources. This paper presents the possibilities of modelling and simulation of the hydro
power plants and performs an analysis of different control structures and algorithms.
-44-
order to maximize the water level in the reservoir for Where v is the water speed in the equivalent pipe,
a maximum efficiency of water use. Next, we will and vi is the speed in each segment of the real pipe.
determine the mathematical model for each From the mass conservation law it results:
component of the hydropower system. Q Q ∑l ∑ li .Q
v= = i i = (7)
A. Hydraulic turbine. The hydraulic turbine can be A ∑ li . Ai ∑ li . Ai
considered as an element without memory since the The dynamic pressure loss can be computed
time constants of the turbine are less smaller than the considering the inertia force of the water exerted on
time constants of the reservoir, penstock, and surge the cross-section of the pipe:
chamber, if exists, which are series connected L.γ dv
Fi = − m.a = − L. A.ρ .a = − A . (8)
elements in the system. g dt
As parameters describing the mass transfer and Where L is the length of the penstock or the feed
energy transfer in the turbine we will consider the canal, A is the cross-section of the penstock, γ is the
water flow through the turbine Q and the moment M specific gravity of water (1000Kgf/m3), a is the water
generated by the turbine and that is transmitted to the acceleration in the equivalent pipe, and g=9,81 m/s2
electrical generator. These variables can be is the gravitational acceleration.
expressed as non-linear functions of the turbine The dynamic pressure loss can be expressed as:
rotational speed N, the turbine gate position Z, and
the net head H of the hydro system. F γ .L dv γ .L ∑ li dQ
Hd = i = − =− (9)
Q = Q(H, N, Z) (1) A g dt g ∑ li . Ai dt
-45-
Where η is the turbine efficiency, and γ, Q, and H 2.3. Simulation results
were defined previously.
Example. Let consider a hydroelectric power system
On the other hand, the mechanical power can be
with the following parameters:
determined using the relation P=M.ω=2π.M.N,
-Water flow (turbines): Q∈(500÷1000) m3/s, QN=725
which can be used to obtain the linearized relations
m3/s;
for variations of these values around the steady state
-Water level in the reservoir: H∈(17÷38) m, HN=30
values:
m;
n =
2π N o
p−
(2π N o )2 m (18) -The equivalent cross-section of the penstock
Po Po A=60m2;
Where P0=M0.ω0 is the steady state power generated -Nominal power of the turbine
by the turbine for a given steady state flow Q0 and a PN=178MW=178.000kW;
steady state head H0, and N0 is the steady state -Turbine efficiency η=0,94;
rotational speed. -Nominal rotational speed of the turbine N=71,43
Using these relations, the block diagram of the rot/min;
hydraulic turbine, for small variation operation -The length of the penstock l=Σli=20m;
around the steady state point, can be determined and
It shall be determined the variation of the time
is presented in figure 1, where the transfer functions
constant TW for the hydro power system.
for different modules are given by the following
For the nominal regime, using relation (12), where
relation:
Σli=20m, the time constant of the system is:
725 20
Hqn(s) =
a12 a a Ts
, Hqz(s) = 13 , Hhn(s) =− 12 w , Tw = ⋅ = 0,82 s (47)
1+a11Tws 1+a11Tws 1+a11Tws 30 9,81 ⋅ 60
⎛
Next we will study the variation of the time constant
a Ts a Ts ⎞ ⎛ a Ts ⎞
Hhz =− 13 w , Hmn(s) =⎜⎜a21− 12 w ⎟⎟, Hmz(s) =⎜⎜a23− 13 w ⎟⎟ due to the variation of the water flow through the
1+a11Tws ⎝ 1+a11Tws⎠ ⎝ 1+a11Tws ⎠
turbine for a constant water level in the reservoir,
(19) H=30m, as well as the variation due to the variable
water level in the reservoir for a constant flow
For an ideal turbine, without losses, the coefficients Q=725 m3/s.
aij resulted from the partial derivatives in equations In table I, column 3 and figure 2 a) are presented the
(12 - 16) have the following values: a11=0,5; values and the graphical variation of the time
a12=a13=1; a21=1,5; a23=1. In this case, the transfer constant TW for the variation of the water flow
functions in the block diagram are given by the between 500 m3/s and 110 m3/s, for a constant water
following relation: level in the reservoir, H=30m. In table 8.12 column 4
and figure 2 b) are presented the values and the
1 Tw s graphical variation of the time constant TW for the
H qn = H qz = , H hn = − (20)
1 + 0,5.Tw s 1 + 0,5.Tw s variation of the water level in the reservoir, for a
constant water flow, Q=725m3/s.
n h
Hhn(s)
z p + n
Hhz(s)
2πNo/Po
n m
Hmn(s) (2πNo)2/Po
z Hmz(s)
-46-
Table I. Variations of the time constant of the hydro was inserted in series with the rotational speed sensor
system in order to eliminate the feedback for ±0,5%
variation of the rotational speed around the
H Q Tw(H=30m) Tw(Q=725mc/s synchronous value.
17 1135,46 1,286065 1,449101
The constants of the transfer functions had been
20 965,14 1,093155 1,231736 computed for a nominal regime TW=0,8s. The
23 839,25 0,950569 1,071075 optimal parameters for a PI controller are: KR=10,
26 742,42 0,8408882 0,947489 TI=0,02s. The results of the turbine simulation for
29 665,62 0,7538998 0,849473 different operational regimes are presented in figure
32 603,21 0,6832217 0,769835 4, for a control system using feedbacks from the
35 551,51 0,6246598 0,703849 turbine power and rotational speed, with a dead-zone
on the rotational speed channel for ±0,5% variation
38 507,97 0,5753446 0,648282
1,4 1,5 Tw
Tw
1,3
[s]
1,4 [s]
1,2 1,3
1,1 1,2
1 1,1
1
0,9
0,9
0,8
0,8
0,7
0,7
0,6
Q 0,6 H
0,5
15 20 25 30 35 [m] 40
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 b)
a) [mc/s]
Figure 2 Variation of the integral time constant TW: a) by the flow Q, b) by the water level H
In figure 3 is presented the block diagram of the of the rotational speed around the synchronous value
turbine’s power control system, using a secondary (a) Power variation with 10% around nominal value,
feedback from the rotational speed of the turbine. It b) Rotational speed variation for power control).
can be seen from this figure that a dead-zone element
n 1 q p
1+ 0,4 s 0.0389
P* ⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ z z 1
0.0016
K R ⎜⎜1+ ⎟ 1+ 0,4 s
+ ⎝ TI s ⎠
-
- n −0,8s h
1+ 0, 4 s
z −0,8 s p + n
1+ 0, 4 s 0.0025
n 1,5 − 0, 2 s m
1.1305
1+ 0, 4 s
z
1− 0,8 s
1+ 0, 4 s
-47-
0.12
t [s]
-2 3. IMPLEMENTATION OF DIGITAL SYSTEMS
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
FOR MONITORING AND CONTROL IN
CASCADE POWER PLANTS
Fig. 4. Turbine Control simulations with feedbacks
from turbine power and rotational speed a) 3.1. Introduction
0.14
A series of hydro power plant systems in Romania
P[%] are capturing the river water in a geographical area
0.12
and store it in reservoirs connected through transport
0.1 pipes. Every lake has its own hydro power plant and
0.08 the water used through the turbines of one plant is
t [s] sent to the next reservoir, thus using the entire
0.06
hydraulic potential offered by the geographical area.
0.04 A similar hydro power system is built in the north-
b)
0.02 west part of Oltenia region, in the south-west part of
Romania. The hydraulic profile of this cascade
0
system is presented in figure 6.
-0.02
t [s] As it can be seen in this figure, there are two hydro
-0.04
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
power plants, CH1 and CH2, with reservoirs and
surge tanks and one run-of-the-river power plant, CH
12 3, with a reservoir providing only a net head.
n[%]
10
In this type of hydropower systems, provided with
8 small power units connected to the grid, the dynamic
of the hydraulic system has a great importance in the
6
stability of the system. The dynamics of the turbine
4 and electric generator have a very small influence
2
since the power grid has a great influence and will
maintain the generator rotational speed at a value
0 synchronized with the electrical frequency of the grid
-2
and the generated power is dependent of the existing
unbalance. Therefore, this paper will try to study the
-4 stability of the hydraulic system of the hydropower
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
system and the achievement of a maximum
efficiency of the water usage in the system.
Fig. 5 Control structure with only power feedback,
a) Power variation with 10% around nominal value,
b) Rotational speed variation for power control
-48-
3.2. The design of control systems for hydro power system, has a certain variation profile and is a
plants with reservoir and surge tank. function of the required power:
Level
transducer Overspill Surge Tank
Qr
QB
Qt Qc
HL
Echivalent Lt Turbine
reservoir Water tunnel Qcf Controller HB
Hn * HC
Penstok Generator
Qe
Gate
Turbine
Figure 7. Simplified model of the hydropower plant
-49-
Lt dQt e) The equation of the controller
⋅ + Ct Qt Qt + C c Qc Qc = H B − H c (28) The control system structure for the water level in the
gAt dt
reservoir is presented in figure 7. It is recommended
to use a PI controller if the gate servomotor is a
Where: -Lt is the length of the tunnel between the system with its own position controller (proportional
reservoir and the surge tank, At is the cross-section actuator) or a PD controller if the actuator is of the
of the tunnel, Qt is the water flow in the tunnel, Qc is integrating type (without its own position controller).
the water flow entering the surge tank, HB is the In our case we will use a PI controller.
water height in the reservoir, HC is the water height In this control system, the water level in the reservoir
in the surge tank, is compared with a set-point determined by the
Lt dQt Lt d (Qt / At ) Lt dvt operational conditions. If the level is different than
⋅ = ⋅ = ⋅ is the
gAt dt g dt g dt the set-point, the error is processed by the turbine
inertial force of the water mass in the tunnel controller which will open or close the gates in order
expressed in hydrostatic units (meters of water to maintain the water level at the prescribed value.
column), Ct/Qt/Qt is the hydraulic pressure loss due The equation of the PI controller can be written in
to friction with the tunnel walls; the flow Qt is differential form:
considered positive if the water flows from the dx K R d ( H f − H ref )
reservoir to the surge tank and the loss coefficient Ct = ( H f − H ref ) + K R (31)
dt Ti dt
will be positive in this case, Ct/Qc/Qc is the hydraulic
Where: Href is the set-point level, Hf is the water level
pressure loss due to the cross-section reduction at the
in the reservoir, KR, Ti are the proportional constant
entrance in the surge tank installed to avoid the
and the integral constant of the PI controller.
pressure shocks, -HB-HC is the driving force that
This equation is not considering some factors such
moves the water in the tunnel and the surge tank.
as: delays due to the servomotor and the controller,
and minimum and maximum variation rates for the
c) The continuity equation for the surge tank
gates.
dHc
Ac ⋅ = Qc = Qt − Qcf (29)
dt
Where: AC is the cross-section of the surge tank, QC 3.2.2 Stability analysis
is the water flow at the entrance of the surge tank
(we assume that there is no water flow through the The equations (27)-(31), which describe the dynamic
top of the surge tank), Qcf is the water flow through behaviour of the control system for the hydropower
the penstock. unit, are strongly non-linear. Moreover, some
parameters such as loss coefficients Ct and Cc can
d) The energy balance equation for the penstock and change due to different flow regimes and due to
the turbine building parameters of the feeding system. Therefore
Considering the low water volume existing in these is necessary to study the system stability in the
two elements we can neglect the water mass operation point (small stability in Lyapunov way)
accumulation (water is considered incompressible). and to determine the stability domain in the
Therefore, from the energy balance equation, the operational parameters plane.
behaviour of the penstock and the turbine can be
described by the water flow computed from the a) Small stability of the control system
following relation: Equations (27)-(31) will be linearized around the
operation point. For simplicity, it is preferable to use
non-dimensional variables as follows: qt is the
H c + C c Qc Qc
Qv = x ⋅ Qo , (30) relative variation of the flow through the penstock, hB
Ho is the relative variation of the water level in the
reservoir, hc is the relative variation of the water level
Where: H0 is the water level in the surge tank when in the surge tank, δ is the relative variation of the
the gate is completely open, Q0 is the water flow for controller output and qr is the relative variation of the
a completely open gate and -0 ≤ x ≤ 1 is the opening river flow around the steady state value for constant
factor for the gate. water level (Qr0=Qt0).
We choose this form of the expression in order to use
non-dimensional values for the gate opening and to Q − Qt 0 H − H B0
qt = t ; hB = B ;
avoid some very complex equations describing the Qt 0 H B0
water flow through the gate. Therefore are necessary (32)
H − H c0 x − x0 Q − Qr 0
some experiments to measure the values of H0 and hc = c ;δ = ; qr = r
Q0. The gate is open completely and the flow Q0 in H c0 x0 Qr 0
steady conditions is measured. After the flow
stabilizes, the water height in the surge tank, H0, is We will introduce the following supplementary
measured. It must be mentioned that in steady state Ct Q t20
x T
conditions (HL=constant, HC=constant, reference parameters, β= 0 i ; p= ,
Qcf=constant), the water flow into the surge tank H ref H c0
QC=0. where β characterize the statism of the integral
-50-
qr(s)
Notes: HR(s)-controller transfer function;
HIT(s)-the transfer function on the direct channel Hp(s)
HP(s)-transfer function on the perturbation channel
-51-
dhB 1 1 system is:
=− ⋅ qt + ⋅ qr (41)
dt TL TL P( s ) = 2TLTc T t2 ⋅ s 4 + TLTt (8 pTc + Tt ) ⋅ s3 +
dqt 2p ⎛ p +1 ⎞ 1
[
+ 8 p 2TcTL + 2( 2 p + 1 )TLTt + 2( p + 1 )TcTt ⋅ s 2 ]
=− ⋅ qt + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⋅ hB − ⋅ hc (42) + [4 p( p + 1 )( TL + Tc ) + ( p + 1 )Tt ]⋅ s + ( 2 p 2 + 3 p + 1 )
dt Tt T
⎝ t ⎠ Tt
(53)
dhc 1 1 1
= ⋅ qt − ⋅ hc − ⋅ δ (43)
dt Tc 2Tc Tc From (52), the two transfer functions in the block
Using Laplace transform, for zero initial conditions, diagram of the control system presented in figure 2
from equations (40) to (43) it results: can be calculated:
T ⋅s + 2p
H IT ( s ) = − t and
1 1 P( s)
hB ( s ) = − ⋅ qt ( s ) + ⋅ qr ( s );
sTL sTL
(44)
(T ⋅ s + 2 p ) ⋅ H n ( s)
H P ( s) = t
2p ⎛ p +1 ⎞ 1 P( s)
qt ( s ) = − ⋅ qt ( s ) + ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⋅ hB ( s ) −
⎟ ⋅ hc ( s )
sTt ⎝ sTt ⎠ sTt (54)
From (47), using the Laplace transform, we get:
1 1 1
hc ( s ) = ⋅ qt ( s ) − ⋅ hc ( s ) − ⋅ δ( s )
sTc 2sTc sTc KI + KRs K + KRs
(46) δ (s) = ⋅ hr ( s ) − I ⋅ hBT ( s ) (55)
KI s s
δ( s ) = ⋅ e( s ) + K P ⋅ e( s )
s
These equations can be processed to obtain the
transfer functions on the direct channel and on the Replacing (55) in (52), after several simple
perturbation channel. From (45), the flow qt can be transforms, it results:
expressed as:
( p + 1) 1 ( Tt s + 2 p )( K I + K R s )
qt ( s ) = ⋅ hB ( s ) − hc ( s ) (48) hB ( s ) = ⋅ hr ( s ) +
Tt ⋅ s + 2 p Tt ⋅ s + 2 p s ⋅ P( s ) + ( Tt s + 2 p )( K I + K R s )
This will be used in equation (46): s ⋅ ( Tt s + 2 p ) ⋅ H n ( s )
( p +1) + ⋅ qr ( s )
sTc hc ( s ) = ⋅ hB ( s ) − s ⋅ P( s ) + ( Tt s + 2 p )( K I + K R s )
Tt ⋅ s + 2 p (56)
(49)
1 1 Where the characteristic polynomial of the closed-
− ⋅ hc ( s ) − ⋅ hc ( s ) − δ( s )
Tt ⋅ s + 2 p 2 loop system is:
L( s ) = s ⋅ P( s ) + ( Tt s + 2 p )( KI + KRs ) = 2TLTc T t2 ⋅ s5 +
And the variation of the water level in the surge tank
can be determined as: + TLTt (8 pTc + Tt ) ⋅ s4 +
( p +1)
[
+ 8 p2TcTL + 2( 2 p + 1)TLTt + 2( p + 1)TcTt ⋅ s3 +]
hc ( s ) = ⋅ hB ( s ) + [4 p( p + 1)(TL + Tc ) + ( p + 1)Tt + Tt KR ]⋅ s2 +
2TcTt ⋅ s 2 + ( 4 pTc + Tt ) ⋅ s + 2( p + 1 )
Tt ⋅ s + 2 p + ( Tt KI + 2 pKR + 2 p2 + 3 p + 1)s + 2 pKI
− δ( s )
2TcTt ⋅ s 2 + ( 4 pTc + Tt ) ⋅ s + 2( p + 1 ) For an exact analysis of the hydropower unit
(50) dynamic behaviour it can be considered the example
of a hydropower plant with reservoir and surge tank
Let note Hn(s)=2TcTts+(4pTc+Tt)s+2(p+1) to having a low installed power but a high storage
simplify the calculations and let use (50) in (48) to capacity in the reservoir.
determine the water flow through the penstock,
which is equal with the flow through turbine. Experiment. It is considered a hydropower system
with the following parameters:
( p +1) H m ( s ) 1 The water volume in the reservoir VL=4,8.106 m3;
qt ( s ) = ⋅ ⋅ hB ( s ) + δ( s ), -The equivalent depth of the reservoir (considered
Tt ⋅ s + 2 p H n ( s ) Hn( s )
constant) HL=60m; The equivalent reservoir surface
where : H m ( s ) = 2Tc Tt ⋅ s 2 + ( 4 pTc + Tt ) ⋅ s + 2 p + 1 area is AL4,8.106/60=8.104m2; The length of the pipe
(51) between the reservoir and the surge tank Lt=9650m,
And after simple processing from (51) and (44) it the diameter of the pipe Dt=3,6m and the cross-
results: section At=10m2; The surge tank has a diameter
Dc=5,4m with a cross-section Ac=23m2; The gross
T ⋅ s + 2p
hB (s) = − t
(T ⋅ s + 2 p) ⋅ Hn (s) ⋅ q (s)
⋅ δ ( s) + t nominal head HB=260m, HBmax=266m, HBmin=245m;
r
P(s) P(s) The gross nominal head at the surge tank Hc0=230m;
(52) The nominal flow through the penstock Qt0=36m3/s;
Where the characteristic polynomial of the open-loop The length of the penstock Lcf=205m.
-52-
qr(s)
0,166.10−5
s
hc(s) qt(s)
h B* e(s) δ(s) + hB(s)
- -
HR(s) HC(s) HQt(s) Hqth(s)
+ -
- + +
Hhqt(s)
Hhhc(s)
Figure 9. The block diagram of the level control system, used for simulation
Using the previous data, the time constants and L(s) = 405.108. s5 + 153.107.s4 + 348,53.105.s3 +
equations’ coefficients can be determined using (35,27.104 +15.KR).s2 + (15.KI+0,26.KR+4238).s +
relation (14): 0,26.KI (59)
= 2T L Tc T t2 ⋅ s 5 + T L Tt (8 pTc + Tt ) ⋅ s 4 + ⎛ K ⎞ 1.92
Notes: H R ( s) = K R ⎜1 + I ⎟ ,
[ ]
H Qt =
+ 8 p 2Tc T L + 2( 2 p + 1 )T L Tt + 2( p + 1 )Tc Tt ⋅ s 3 + ⎝ s ⎠ 58 s +1
0.166.10 s − 5 4.35
+ [4 p( p + 1 )( T L + Tc ) + ( p + 1 )Tt + Tt K R ]⋅ s 2 + H qth ( s ) = , H hqt = ,
s 58s + 1
+ ( Tt K I + 2 pK R + 2 p 2 + 3 p + 1 )s + 2 pK I 0.5 58s +1
Hhhc(s) = , HC (s) =
1991s2 + 41s +1 1991s 2 + 41s +1
-53-
0 .1 4 1
hB [%] qt [%]
0 .1 2 0 .5
0 .1
0
0 .0 8
-0.5
0 .0 6
-1
0 .0 4
-1.5
0 .0 2
-2
0
t [s] t [s]
-0 .0 2 -2.5
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 0 2000 4000 60 0 0 8000 10000
Figure 10. The response of the control system for a 10% variation of the set-point
0.18
0.16
hB [%] 0.6 qt
0.14 0.4
0.12
0.2
0.1
0.08 0
0.06
-0.2
0.04
0.02 -0.4
0
-0.6
t t
-0.02
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Figure 11. The response of the control system with flow limitation
This diagram was preferred for simulation since it 4. MONITORING SYSTEM FOR CASCADE
allows highlighting the variation of some specific HYDRO POWER PLANTS.
parameters of the system, such as the level in the
surge tank and the flow variation in the penstock Qt. The optimal generation scheduling is an important
The simulation results are represented in the figures daily activity for hydroelectric power generation
10 and 11. companies. The goals are to determine which
hydropower groups are to be used in order to
In figure 10 is presented the system output for a 10% generate enough power to satisfy demand
variation of the set-point for the reservoir water requirements, with various technological constraints
level, with no limitation on the flow control channel. and with minimum operating cost. In the same time
Oscillations of the flow can be observed, due to the hydropower systems must consider the stream-flow
big differences between the time constants in the equations for reservoirs that couple all reservoirs
simulation scheme. along a hydro-valley, because the amount of outflow
water released by one of hydropower plant affects
To avoid these flow oscillations, the variation of the water volumes in all the plants downstream.
flow control output is limited in order to avoid big Furthermore, other conditions must be imposed as:
differences between the subsequent commands sent water travel times, alternative uses (irrigation, flood
to the gate. The simulation results are presented in control, navigation). To solve the optimal scheduling
figure 11. of hydropower plants, a highly sophisticated
modelling for the operation is required.
3.3. Conclusions
In the figure 12 is presented the SCADA system
Specifically, a hydropower plant may be composed architecture for monitoring and control of hydro
of several turbine-generator units, referred to in this power plants in a cascade system along a river,
paper as groups. Each hydropower plant must be implemented in order to optimize the use of the river
controlled by a local SCADA system that will be resources [7]. This structure is implemented at the
connected at the Central SCADA system, which central dispatcher. At the level of hydro power plant
performs the control of the plants from the hydro- there is a local monitoring and control system,
valley, for optimal generation scheduling and control interconnected with central dispatcher via modems
for the reservoir stream-flows. and radio communication buses.
-54-
Wall Display (4 modules)
Ethernet Switch
Local Sincron
Server
Hist. Date Server Server Engineering
Sincron Server SCADA 1 SCADA 2
mGPS
Ethernet Bus
Ethernet Switch
-55-