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Laser safety analysis of a retinal scanning display system

Article  in  Journal of Laser Applications · November 1997

DOI: 10.2351/1.4745467 · Source: PubMed

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 (t997) 9, 253-260
,ouRNAL OF LA,SERAPPLTCATIONSG

Laser safety analysisof a retinal scanning display system

E R I K V I I R R E , R I C H A R D J O H N S T O N , HOMER PRYOR, SATORU NAGATA AND THOMAS A. FURNESSIII
Human Interface Technology Laboratory, Universityof Washington, Box 3 5 2 1 4 2S
, e a t t l eW
, A 9 8 1 9 5 - 2 1 4 2U,S A
Acceptedfor publication 29 May 1997

The Virtual Retinal Display (VRD) is a visual display that scans modulated laser light on to the
retina of the viewer's eye to create an image. Maximum permissible exposures (MPE) have been
calculated for the VRD in both normal viewing and possible failure modes. The MPE power
levels are compared to the measured power that enters the eye while viewing images with the
VRD. The power levels indicate that the VRD is safe in both normal operating mode and in
failure modes,

KEYWORDS: display; laser; scanning; safety analysis

INTRODUCTION analysis of the safety aspectsof the SLO. He observedthat

the power levels required to illuminate the retina sufficiently
The Human Interface Technology Laboratory (HITL) at the
to measure backscatteredlight for scanning purposes were
University of Washingtonhas developeda display technology
lower than the calculated maximal permissible exposures
calledthe virtual retinaldisplay(VRD)rM, a devicethat scans
(MPE). He performed an extensive analysis of the heating
an image, one pixel at a time, onto the retina of the viewer's
effects on the retina of the laser illumination source. His
eye. The VRD is based on a novel scanning engine, the
analysis serves as an important basis for considering safety
mechar.rical resonancescanner (MRS). The MRS is small
aspectsof lasers scannedon the retina.
enough that when combined with a red laser diode, a portable
display can be created.When blue and green laser diodes are
perfected,portable,full color systemswill be possible.The THE VIRTUAL RETINAL DISPLAY
VRD approach for displaying images has several advantagcs
System description
compared to cathode ray tube or flat panel displays lbr head
mounted and other portable display applications.The contrast, The VRD consists of five basic parts: a light source, a
brightness and dynamic color range of the VRD are modulation mechanism, horizontal and vertical scanners,
extremely good. These features are especially important in delivery optics and controlling electronics.A block diagram
multiplexedapplications(wherethe displaytakesup a portion of the VRD is shown in Fig. L The light sourcein the VRD
of the field-of'-view) and augmentedapplications (where the is typically a laser. Methods have been developed and
display is superimposedon the outside environment).ln such demonstrated to use an LED as the light source in a
applications, portable displays will often be used in high monochromatic display. A single laser is used to create a
ambient brightness environments.The conventional displays
do not offer the desired combination of high resolution, low
power, and sufficient brightnessto operatein these situations.

The processof scanninglaser light on the retina was used by

Webb et al. [1] in the development of the scanning laser
ophthalmoscope (SLO). In the SLO a raster pattern is
scanned on that part of the retina the operator wishes to
view. A portion of the optical beam is reflected off the retina
and passesback through the lens and cornea of the eye where
it is detected.The intensity of the reflected light is used to
modulate a synchronizedvideo signal, allowing an image of
the retina to be displayed.Webb et al. have noted that rf the VGA
input optical beam was modulatedby a video source,the user Input
would see an image. SLO mechanismshave been used in this
mode for evoked potential stimuli [2, 3] and as test stimuli F I G U R EI . System block diagram of the virtual retinal
for low vision subjects. Kleinbeil [4] has performed an display.

1042-346X aa:..
1997 LASER INSTITUTE OF AMERICA
254 vilRRE, JOHNSTON, PRYOR, NAGATA AND FURNESS

monochromatic display and three lasers are used for the

creation of a color display. Each laser must be individually
modulated such that its intensity matches that of the imagc
pixel being drawn. For the modulation of the light source,
current to the laser diode itself can be varied. For systems
such as the green and blue gas lasers, which cannot be
directly modulated at video rates, the modulation is per-
formed by controlling an external device, such as an acousto-
optic modulator. In the case of the laser diode, optics to
equalize the horizontal and vertical divergenceof the beam
and to minimize the astigmatism are used. If a multi-color
system is being built the light from all lasers is combined
into a single, full color beam.

The resulting modulated beam is then scannedto place each

image pixel at the proper position on the retina. Our
controlling electronics use the raster method of scanning an
image which allows the VRD to be driven by standardvideo
sources.To draw the raster, a horizontal scanner moves the
beam to draw a row of pixels. A vertical scannerthen moves
the beam to the next line where another row of pixels is
drawn. The mechanicalresonancescanner (MRS) (Fig. 2)
was developedat HITL for the VRD. The MRS operatesat
frequencies on the order of 15.1kHz, which allows the
creationof high resolutionimages.

The scannedbeam is passedthrough a lens system which
forms an exit pupil about which the scannedbeam pivots.
The user placesthemself so that their pupil is positionedat
the exit pupil of the system.This is called a Maxwellianview
optical system.The lens of the eye focusesthe light beam on
the retina, forming a pixel image. As the beam scans across
the retina, an image is formed (Fig. 3).
FIGURE 3. Comparison of illumination of the retina by a
pixel-based display versus the VRD. Inset figures show
schematized light intensity oyer any given retinal area in
the image. Typical pixel-based displays such as CRTs have
persistence of light emission over the frame refresh cycle,
whereas the VRD illuminates in brief exposures.

Current prototypes
To demonstrate and test the capabilities of the VRD a
number of prototype systems havc bccn assembled.These
include a color bench system and a monochromaticportable
system.

In the bench mounted system, the MRS pcrforming the

FIGURE 2. A photograph of a prototype mechanical reso-
nance scanner shown beside a quarter for size comparison.
horizontal scan has been packaged with a galvanometer,
performing the vertical scan, to form a small scanning
engine. This engine is used to scan the optical beam in a full
color, VGA resolution (640 by 480 pixels) see-throughVRD.
Color is generated using three lasers, a red diode laser at
650 nm, a green helium neon gas laser at 543.5 nm and a
blue argon gas laser at 488 nm. The red laser is modulated
directly and the green and blue lasers are modulated with
external modulators. The three optical beams are combined
and passedto the scanningengine.An eyepiecemagnifies the
image field of view for direct viewing. An alternative
viewing arrangementallows the image to be viewed super-
imposed on the real world. The scannedbeam passesthrough
a beamsplitter and reflects off a magnifying mirror before

JOURNAL OF LASERAppLtCATtONS@9(s) (t997)

SENSING,MEASUREMENTAND CONTROL
reflecting off the same beamsplitter into the eye. At the same
time, a view of the outside world is passed through the
beamsplitterand into the eye. The system can be focused to
yield pixels smaller than 2.5 arcmin and with a horizontal
field of view varying from l0 to 60'.
The portable VRD prototype is housed in a briefcase
allowing for system demonstrationsat remote locations. It
displays a VGA resolution, monochromatic image with six
bits of intensity variation using a single red laser diode as a
light source. The image horizontal field of view is 40' and
the vertical field of view is 30'. Also mounted into the
briefcaseare the system electronicsand power supplies.
SAFETY ANALYSIS
Our approachto this problem was to calculate the MPE in a
variety of methods and then choose the most conservative
value. We also assumedconservativeparameterssuch as an
8 h continuousexposurethat would be the extreme of regular
use. Calculationsof MPE were first made by determiningthe
MPE per pulse considering a pulsed source, then as a
continuouswave source. We then consideredthe VRD as an
extended source. The MPE values are compared against
measuredlaser power from the VRD to determineif the VRD
is within limits.
VGA scanned beam
The following analysis was performed for the color VGA
system. In the 640 X 480 pixel configuration, the sweep time
for each pixel is approximately 40 ns. The current system
operates at a frame rate of 60H2, giving a duration of
16.67ms per frame. The active time per frame is 12.19ms.
Analysis parameters
Following the method of the ANSI standard2136.1 (1993)
[5], we performed a worst-caseanalysis for laser exposurein
the visible range, which is in the 400 to 550 nm wavelength
region. For wavelengthsfrom 550 to 700 nm, the MPE value
calculated for the 400 to 550 nm wavelength region is
multiplied by a correction factor, Ce, which is greater than
one. Although we are creating full color images,we analyzed
the power limits for the wavelengths between 400 and 550 nm
for the more conservative approach.
We assumed an entrance pupil to the eye of 7 mm, giving an
area of 0.385 cm2 (ANSI Table 8, p. a\ t5). An 8 h exposure
was assumed based on a working day for a user who would
be wearing and viewing the display continuously.
MPE FOR PULSED LASERS
In the first method of analysis, the exposure effects for
repetitively pulsed lasers dispersed over an incident area is
used to determine exposure limits (ANSI Appendix 83.1.2,
p . 7 a )$ 1 .
We start with the maximal permissible exposure(MPE) of a
40 ns pulse in the visible and near infrared which is
0 . 5 x l 0 6 J c m 2 ( A N S I T a b l e5 , p a l ) t 5 l .
Using a continuousexposureof 8h (3 X 104s), the total
number of pulses,n, is (3 X lOas) X 60 pulsesper secon<1
-
1 . 8x 1 0 6 .
To correct for repeated pulses, we introduce a correction
factor in the calculation of MPE of n lla:0.0273. And
finally, we assume the beam is dispersed over the whole
apertureof the eye, 0.385cm2. Thus:
M P E p u r s=e ( 0 . 5 x l 0 6 J c m - 2 ;
x ( 0 . 3 8 5 c m 2 11 0 . 0 2 7 3 ) : 5 . 2 5 x t 0 e J
(1)
The MPEpur,. is equivalent to 0. l3 W, given no further
correction factors. This is five to six orders of magnitude
above the typical power output of the VRD: 100 300 nW.
MPE FOR CONTINUOUS WAVE SOURCES
In the second method of analysis,the exposure is calculated
for a continuous wavc laser source dispersed over a given
area. We then divide by the number of pulses and calculatc
the MPE pcr pulse. As above, the estimatcs arc most
conservativefor wavelengthsat 400 b 550 nm. For an 8 h
exposure at these wavelengths,the MPE for a continuous
sourceis l0 6 wcm 2 IANSI Table 5) [5].
M P E p u r ,:" l 0 6 W c m 2 / 6 0 p u l s e sp e r s
: 1 6 . 6 7x l o - e J c m - 2 (2\
The overall MPE is the MPE per pulse divided by the pulse
duration and multiplied by the aperture:
M P E : ( 1 6 . 6 7x t 0 e J c m - 2 1 4 0x 1 0 e n s )
X 0 . 3 8 5c m 2 : 0 . 1 6 W (3)
This value is essentially the same as calculated in mcthod
one.
MPE CALCULATIONS FOR EXTENDED SOURCES
For a further estimateof MPE, the VRD could be consideredas
an extendedsource.An extendedlaser sourceis consideredto
be a system with an intrabeamangular subtenseover 1l mrad
which for sourceviewing is longer that l0 s. As pointed out in
Marshall [6] almost all lasersources,including collimated laser
diodes that are pulsed, actually are less than the I I mrad
restriction. This is consistent with the values for the VRD,
whose source standardangle is 1.1 mrad. However, use of the
JOURNAL OF LASERAPPLTCAT|ONS@
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correction factors for extended sources further reduces the
estimated MPE which causesa more severe restriction for the
VRD power limits. Further,becausethe scannedimage is swept
over an angular extent of 40 by 30', one might consider the
VRD as an extendedsource.This is the assumptionthat is used
in analysesof scanninglaser ophthalmoscopes [7]. The analysis
considering scanned sources as an extended source is not
explicit in the ANSI standard.The solid angle coveredby the
source,(Q), is approximately0.36 sr.
Extended source analysis for pulses
In ANSI Appendix B 3.2 [5], MPEs for extended sources
greater than 0.1 rad and less than 0.7 s in duration are
expressedas follows:
M P E : L p : 8 . 5 x 1 0 3M P E ( A N S I T a b l e5 ) J c m 2 s r - l
using the MPE for 40 ns pulses from Equation I abovc which
includes factors for pulse repetition, and aperture area:
M P E : L p : ( 8 . 5 x 1 0 3 )6 . 2 5 x l 0 e ; . rs r I
-4.46x10 5Jsrl
The time per raster sweep (i.e., the time to illuminate the
extendedsourceonce) is 12.19ms so
Intensity
MPE:Lp- (4.46 x l 0 s . l s r I l / 1 2 . 1 9m s
: 0 . 0 0 36 6 W s r I
Thus for a 0.36 sr display,
P ^ u *: 0 ' 0 0 1 3 W
In Klingbeil [4], a correction factor of 0.8 is used to correct
for the short term temperatureeffects of scanning.Using this
correction factor:
P . a x k- 1 . 0 5x l 0 - 3 W
This result is still four orders of magnitude greater than the
typical VRD power output.
Extended source analysis by video frame
In the following calculations,we will consider the source as
covering the whole video frame (at 60 Hz) and then we will
apply the maximum correction factor for extended sources,
CE (ANSI Table 6) [5]. Ce is the correction factor used for
extendedsourcesand it dependson the source angle. For an
extended source with a pulse duration of less than 0.7 s the
most conservativecorrection factor CE assumesan extended
source of over 100 mrad. For an extended source with
exposuregreater than l0 s ANSI Section B3.2 [5] shows:
MPE(extent::ffi"1;r
sr ,
rabre5)w cm-2
JOURNAL OF LASERAPPLTCATTONS@
9(5) (r997)
vilRRE, JOHNSTON, PRYOR,NAGATA AND FURNESS
MPE (extended
s o u r c e) : ( 1 . 1 5X 1 0 3 ) 1 06 W c m 2 s r I
- 0 . 0 0 11 5 W c m 2 s r I (5)
For a 0.385 cm2 pupil (the limiting aperture),
MPE:4.43x10-aWsr-r
Each video fiame occurs 60 times per second" and each
frame actually lasts only 12.19ms per frame so we can
determine the power per frame.
MPEpr"." - 6.05 x l0 4 Wsr I
For a display area of 0.36 sr, and applying the 80% correction
factor of Klingbeil,
MPE : 1 . 7 4x l 0 - 4 W , o r a b o u t 1 5 0a W
This result is our most conservativccstirnatcof MPE, giving
values of about three orders of magnitudeabove typical VRD
output.
SCANNER FAILURE
In thc cvcnt that both the horizontal and vertical bcam
controllers f'ailed,one spot on the retina would be exposedto
the whole output of the laser system. The calculations that
follow assumethe worst-casescenario,that the laser output is
continuous(continuouswave) rather than pulsed.
The first MPE limit will assumcthat an avcrsionrcsponscto
bright visible light will rnove the eye within 0.25 s (ANSI
Table 5) [5]. The MPE tbr wavelengthsfiorn 400 to 700 nm
fbr a tir.r.reduration of I : 0.25 s is:
l . } t 3 l al 0 3 . l c m 2 - 0 . 6 3 6x l 0 3 i c m 2
o r 2 . 5 5X l 0 3 W c m 2
Multiplying by the aperture of 0.385cm2. wc tict:
MPE :0.98 x 10 3 W. This value of approximatcly 1 mW
is again quite high relative to the actual output of thc VRD
lbr typical images.
SCANNER FAILURE WITHOUT AVERSION
RESPONSE
If we assumea scannercase wherc thc continuouswave was
viewed for more than l0a s t2.78 ht and there were no
aversion response,the MPE depends on the aperture and a
correction factor, Cs, depending on the wavelength:
MPE : (aperturearea) (Cn) (10 6) Wcm 2
(ANSI Table 5)
The calculated results are listed in Table l.
At shorter wavelengths, this output value approaches thc
power output value of the lasersin use in thc color VRD. To
reiterate though, it would require 2.78h of continuous
viewing of a single bright laser spot to reach this limit. A
SENSING,MEASUREMENTAND CONTROL 257

TABLE l. The calculated MPE values as a function of A modified minimally distinct border (MDB) approach was
wavelength used to perform the brightnessmatch for this study [1]. In
Wavelength MPE order to perform these tests, we used the color VRD unit in
(nm) (,"w) an augmentedvision mode as previously described. Using a
half silvered mirror in the optical setup, we arranged the
400-550 0.385 VRD image to be seen simultaneouslywith an image from a
600 2.t7
CRT. The image areas were I by 2'. A mask, flat black in
640 8.62
color, surroundedthe dual imagc arcas.The irnage field from
670 24.29
700 68.47 the VRD was aligned above that of the CRT image. A
program was developedin JAVA for adjusting the position of
the VRD image. This allowed the subject to move the VRD
subject would have to first suppressthe reflex drive from a image so that it immediately abutted the image from the
bright image and, second then perfectly stabilize the small CRT. The program also allowed the VRD color stimuli to bc
resulting image. adjustedover a range of 255 intensity steps.The intensity of
the VRD stimulus was ad.lustedby having the sublect move a
mouse.
MULTIPLE LASER SOURCES

Li and Rosenshein[7] have pointed out that there needsto bc
a method of determining MPE for scanned imagcs with
multiple wavelengths. They indicated that retinal hazard
comes from both the thermal effects of laser spots focused
onto the retina and from photochemical effects of the light
interactingwith photopigments[4, 8, 9]. The assumptionused
by Li and Rosensheinto cnablethe combinationsof different
wavelengthsis that the hazardsadd linearly. They found that
the MPE of combining an infrared laser with visible lasers
for scanning the retina while displaying an image was safe
for durations on the order of l0 min even for power levels
ten times greaterthan they typically used. It is importantto
note that the heating effects of the infrared laser were
limiting in their analysis.The VRD does not use an infiared
laser. The rndividual MPEs for each laser are determined as
above, but include the correction factor Cs that varies with
the wavelength. As described earlier, the effect of the
correction factor is to make the MPE higher fbr wavclengths
above 550 nm. In our color VRD, the blue and green sources
are below 550 nm and so have the same MPE. We can thus
simply add the power levels for blue and green. lf we directly
add in the power from the red without correction, we end up
with a power safety estimate that is casy and is more
conservative than the method of Li and Rosenshein [7].
Essentially the MPE calculated earlier will be distributed
across all visible light sources.Correction factors as Li and
Rosensheinsuggest can be used if a more precise value is
needed.
Eight solid color CRT test stimuli wsrc used: two each of
red, green, blue, and white. Thc CRT image field was
generatedusing a software color palette with 65 000 colors.
One of cach pair of intensities for each color was chosen to
bc at the upper limit of the brightnessrange. The CIE color
co-ordinates and photometric power levels from the CRT
images are given in Table 2. The CRT fbr this experiment
was an NEC MultiSync 5FGp monitor. The CRT and VRD
color images were both at 640 by 480 pixel resolution.
Mcasuremcnts for the CRT intensities were taken with a
Minolta TV-Color Analyzer II (TV-2150).Repeatedmeasure-
ments over severaldays showedthat these levels stayedquite
consistent.
Fourtecnsubjccts participated in thc cxpcrimcnt, four as pre-
test subjects and ten in the actual experiment. Each subject
was flrst presented with two test stimuli for each color
(except white) to familiarizc thcm with the procedure.The
subject would vary the intensity of the VRD until the border
betweenthe VRD and CIRT fields were minimally distinct or
until they .ludged both areas to be equal in intensity. The
brightncss control allowed complete variation, so subjects
TABLE 2. Color co-ordinates and intensities for the CRT
test images for brightness comparison tests. Intensity values
varied fess than l%
CRT measurements

Stimulus CIE-X CIE-Y (Cd m 2) (nw)

MEASURED VRD BRIGHTNESS
Blue I 226.00 3t2.50 25.68 3t4
Preliminary tests and calculations of VRD images demon- Blue2 2t 3 . 9 0 298.20 50.54 6tB
strated that the system'spower output with typical images is Green I 3 0t . 5 0 565.| 0 29.91 366
below the maximum permissible exposure (MPE) limits Green2 295.70 576.80 48.9| 598
previously established[0]. We designed a test to determine Red I 6t5.78 324.s6 t8.49 226
the range of power levels required for images in the VRD Red 2 602.00 322.67 I t.39 t39
that have the same apparent brightness as images fiom a White I 287.80 335.20 35.30 437
White 2 289.30 3 3r . 7 0 22.t7 271
conventionalcathode ray tube (CRT) display.

9(5) (r997)
JOURNAL OF LASERAPPLTCATTONS@
 vlIRRE, JOHNSTON, pRyOR, NAGATA AND FURNESS

could change the VRD image to both dimmer and brighter
than the CRT image. They were allowed as much time as
necessary for the match. In the actual test, the starting
intensity of the VRD image was randomly selected to be
brighter or dimmer than the CRT image. For each stimulus,
there were two trials. The subiectswere tested in a darkened
room.
Once the test subjects had made their adjustments for
intensity matches,then the power output of the system was
measured.As mentioned above, the test images for intensity
comparisonswere I by 2" in size. For the power measures,
the entire extent of the VRD image was turned on to the
same intensity. The VRD power measurementswere taken
with a Newport Multifunction Optical Meter (model 1835-C)
and sensor(model 818ST).The sensorsurfaccis 7 by 8mm
and it was placed at the exit pupil of the VRD system. The
sensor size correspondsto the 7 mm limiting aperture set by
the ANSI standard(ANSI Table 9 p. a\ $| The actual exit
pupil is approximately L5 mm in diameter. The radiometric
measureswere taken with the meter set for thc sensitivity at
the wavelength of the particular red" green or blue source
being tested. For white level power measurcs,the red, grecn
and blue were measuredindividually and the results summed.
The power measureswere made in darknessand were derived
by measuring the power with the display off and then
subtractingthat value from the power with the system turned
on.
in the low standard error of the mean for the values with
these colors. However,the red matcheswere more difficult to
make. We determined with subsequenttesting clf the system
that there was a large non-linearity in the intensity output of
the red source. The most rapid change in intensity per
incremental change in control valuc occurred close to the
brightness levels being tested. Thc widcr range of standard
error of the mean for the red test rsflccts this effect. As a
consequencedue to the non-linearity in red brightncsslevels,
the white was also somewhat difficult to match. Scvsral
sublectsnoted the white acquiring a 'pinkish tinge' at the
brighter end of thc control scale. However, despite these
difficulties, subiects were still ablc to make consistcnt
matches.
Comparison to theoretical predictions
Converting the photometric output of a CRT to a radiometric
measure of power would allow us to directly compare the
power levels. Using a standardconversion we calculated the
power output levels of the CRT, that are listed in Table 3. Wc
note that these power levels are approximately the samc as
thosc given for a typical CRT.
Figure 5 shows the MPE power limits as they vary with
wavelength. F'igure 6 shows MPE levels as they vary with
cxposurc duration and indicates power levels of the VRD
ambientlight sourcesand thc scanninglascr ophthalmoscope.

Test results CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION

The averaged power levels from all subjects are shown in ln our maximal permissibleexposurecalculations.we have
Fig. 4. As can be seen, the output varied in the range of used a number of conscrvativc assumptionsfor our estrma-
60-250 nW. Most subjects found that they could match the trons. Any changein these assumptionsshould thus result in
intensity reasonablywell for green and blue. This can be seen greater differences between thc calculated limits and the
actual output values. For example, the current lirnits were
Mean Power Levels calculatedbasedon an 8 h cxposurctime. If the time is less
350 than I h, the limits increase. Further. the bluc cntl of the
300
2q
TABLE 3. Intensity measures for CRT yersus VRD light
200 comparisons.The VRD measurements are the mean values
150 I from the test
100
I I
Brightnessmeasurements
50
.-.l
0 CRT CRT VRD
81 82 G1 G2 R1 R2 W1 W2 Stimulus (Cdm 2) (nw) (nw)
Stimulus Blue I 25.68 3t4 t33
Blue 2 50.54 6t8 t99
FIGURE 4. Power level histograms. Measurements of power
output in nanowatts at the VRD exit pupil after brightness
Green I 29.91 366 59
comparison tests. Each bar indicates the mean power level.
Green 2 48.9| 598 83
Error bars indicate one standard error of the mean. Stimuli
Red I t8.49 226 249
were: Bl :Blue l, 82:Blue 2, Gl:Green
Red 2 It.39 t39 2t0
l, G2:Green
2, Rl :Red I, R2:Red 2. Wl :White
White I 35.30 432 t73
I and W2-
White 2.
White 2 22.t7 771 124

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SENSING,MEASUREMENTAND CONTROL 259

SourceWavelengthvs. MPE these conditions. However, if the VRD is to be incorporated

0.0
into an ophthalmic device, such as a scanning laser
- 1.0
ophthalmoscopeor visual fields and the image from it is
-2.O stabilized or the ocular pupil is dilate{ thc lower MPE limits
N
3.0 will have to be used.
= - 4 .0
Measuresof power output with typical images indicates that
-5.0
the VRD generatespower on the order of 200 nW during
6.0 normal operation.This is below the Class I lascr powcr limit
7.O of 400 nW. If failure were to occur, i.e., if scanning were to
8.0 stop in one or both dimensions,the power limits indicate the
400 450 500 550 600 650 700 mechanism is still safe. To use thc VRD in brighter light
(nm)
Wavelength conditions, such as ambient daylight, higher power levels will
be needed. The MPE limits calculated here should be the
FIGURE 5. Power versus wavelength. MPE values for wave-
guidelineused.
lengths from 400 to 700 nm for VRD illumination charac-
teristics. Symbols indicate the average power output for the
VRD for targets I and 2 in the brightness tests of blue,
Klingbeil's power analysisfor scanninglaser ophthalmoscopes
green and red, [4] producedsimilar values to the ones reported in this paper.
He noted that the power output fbr SLOs was higher than the
VRD and correspondingly the SLO in image acquisition
ExposureDurationvs. MPE
mode was closer to the limits. He recommendedthat there be
8.00
a safety interlock for the SLO that would turn off thc lascr
6.00
source within I ms of scanner failure. This was necessary
4.00 becausethe time ibr an aversion responsewas too slow for
(400-550nm)
N 2.00 loq Wcm'/sr saf-ety.ln the VRD, the saf'ety limits fbr tailure incorporate
o (600nm)^ the aversionresponse.Even so, the design of the VRD driver
0.00 - log Wcm'/sr
3 (650nm) circuit is such that the laser source is immediately
o) -2.00 . VRD
r Snow extinguishedwith a scannerfailurc.
4.00 . BrightSky
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FIGURE6. Exposure duration and MPE. The solid line
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