Mechanical Standards

General Principles for Process Plant Design

The design of a process plant is a complex activity that will

usually involve many different disciplines over a
considerable period of time.

Many varied and complex factors including safety, health,

the environment, economic and technical issues may have
to be considered before the design is finalized.

In many occasions a number of different options may be

available and final selection may depend upon a range of
factors.

The process design should identify the various operational

deviations that may occur.

In the mechanical design, the materials of construction

chosen need to be compatible with the process materials
at the standard operating conditions with detailed design
issues, codes and applicable standards for the mechanical
design of equipment.

Plant design should take account of the relevant codes

and standards. Conformity between projects can be
achieved if standard designs are used whenever
practicable.

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Areas related to Codes and Standards

Design Assessments
 Value engineering assessment;
 Energy efficiency assessment;
 Reliability and availability assessment;
 Hazard identification and assessment;
 Occupational health assessment;
 Environmental assessment.

General Considerations
 Temperature and Pressure;
 Materials of Construction;
 Corrosion / Erosion.

Specific Equipment - Mechanical Design

 Pressure Vessels;
 Other Vessels (including Storage Tanks);
 Reactor Design;
 Heat Exchange Equipment;
 Furnaces and Boilers;
 Rotating Equipment.
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 Mechanical Standards

Standards for Pressure Vessels Design

Pressure vessels can be divided into `simple vessels' and

those that have more complex features.
The relevant standards and codes provide comprehensive
information about the design and manufacture of vessels
and vessel design and fabrication is an area well covered
by standards and codes.
Outright failure of a properly designed, constructed,
operated and maintained pressure vessel is rare.
Design and manufacture is normally carried out to meet
the requirements of national and international standards.
Standards and codes related to Pressure Vessels:
BS 5500. , ASME VIII..(Complex Vessels) BS EN 286-
1:1991 (simple Vessels)

Factors that should be taken into account in the design

process for pressure vessels include:
 Internal and external static and dynamic pressures;
 Ambient and operational temperatures;
 Weight of vessel and contents;
 Wind loading;
 Residual stress, localised stress, thermal stress etc.;
 Stress concentrations;
 Reaction forces and moments from attachments, piping etc;
 Fatigue;
 Corrosion/erosion;
 Creep;
 Buckling.

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 Mechanical Standards

Important design features associated with pressure

vessels failures

 Discontinuities such as vessel ends, changes of

cross-section and changes of thickness;

 Joints (bolted and welded);

 Bimetallic joints;

 Holes and openings;

 Flanges;

 Nozzles and connections;

 Bolt seating and tightening;

 Supports and lugs.

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 Mechanical Standards

Materials of Construction, requiring rigid standards

Vessels: Materials used for the manufacture of pressure vessels

should have appropriate properties for all operating conditions
that are reasonably foreseeable, and for all test conditions.
Where an American, British or European code is used for vessel
design and specific materials are quoted within the code it is
important that the correct materials are used in order that the
design is not invalidated.

Liners: Metallic liners may be made of ferritic alloy, monel alloy,

nickel, lead or any other metal resistant to the corrosive agent.
Non-metallic liners may be used to resist corrosion and erosion or
to insulate and reduce the temperature on the walls of a pressure
vessel. The most common materials are reinforced concrete,
insulating material, carbon brick, rubber, glass and plastic.

Internals: Pressure vessels have internals such as baffles, trays,

mesh or strip type packing, grids, bed supports, cyclones, pipe
coils, spray nozzles, quench lines, agitators etc. These internals
may be made from a wide range of materials but care should be
taken that the materials selected for the internals are compatible
with the materials chosen for fabrication of the main components.

Many pressure vessels have no internals. Others. Large vessels

may have internal bracing and ties and most vacuum vessels
have either internal or external stiffening rings. Heat exchangers
have internal tube bundles with baffle and support plates.

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 Mechanical Standards

Failure Modes in Pressure Vessels

The most common causes of mechanical failure in

process plant are:
 Faulty materials;
 Faulty fabrication and assembly;
 Excessive stress;
 External loading including reaction forces;
 Overpressure;
 Overheating;
 Mechanical and thermal fatigue;
 Mechanical shock;
 Brittle failure;
 Creep;
 Corrosion failure.

The most common corrosion mechanisms are:

 General corrosion;
 Crevice corrosion;
 Corrosion pitting;
 External corrosion including corrosion
beneath lagging;
 Stress corrosion cracking;
 Corrosion fatigue.
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 Mechanical Standards

Design Codes and Standards

American ASME VIII system
BS 5500 in the UK
BS 4994:1987 (for Glass reinforced plastic (GRP) or Fibre
reinforced Plastic (FRP)
API Std 620 (for design and construction of large, welded,
low-pressure storage tanks) API Std 650 (for welded steel
tanks for oil storage.)
API Standard 2000 (for guidance on the design of vents to
prevent pressure changes that would otherwise occur as
a result of temperature changes or the transfer in and out
of liquids.)
`BS 3274: 1960- (for design features, fabrication,
materials of construction and testing of shell and tube
heat exchangers)
The standards of the American Tubular Heat Exchanger
Manufacturers Association (TEMA standards) are also
widely used. Many companies also have their own
standards to supplement these various requirements.
API RP 520:1990. (for more specific guidance)
The TEMA standards give the preferred shell and tube
dimensions, the design and manufacturing tolerances,
corrosion allowances and the recommended design
stresses for materials of construction.
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 Mechanical Standards

Furnaces and Boilers

Furnaces and boilers are items of equipment that are often

found as part of process plant and are used for a variety of
purposes such as waste heat recovery, steam generation,
destruction of off-gases etc.

The design may involve the interaction of many different

variables including water/steam circulation systems, fuel
characteristics (liquid, gaseous or solid fuels), ignition
control systems, heat input and heat transfer systems.

The design of the furnace or boiler enclosure should be

able to withstand the thermal conditions associated with
the system and specialist designs are often required.
Many codes and standards exist for boiler design.

Isolation systems should be adequately designed to

ensure leakage of fuel does not occur. Double block and
bleed valves on fuel lines can be considered.

Purging facilities are essential to ensure that the firing

space is free from a flammable atmosphere prior to start-
up ignition.

A safety report should demonstrate that any furnace/boiler

system is designed and maintained to the relevant codes
and standards.

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 Mechanical Standards

Rotating Equipment
Process machines are required to provide the motive force
necessary to transfer process fluids (liquids, solids and
gases) from one area of operation to another.

Machine systems like pumps, fans, compressors, turbines,

centrifuges, agitators etc are to transfer or to produce a
change in properties within a process plant.

The basic requirements to define the application for

pumps, fans and compressors are usually the suction and
delivery pressures, the flow rate required and the pressure
loss in transmission.

Special requirements for certain industrial sectors may

also impose restrictions on the materials of construction to
be used or the type of device that can be considered.

Many designs have become standardised based on

experience and numerous standards (API standards,
ASME standards, ANSI standards) have become
available.

These standards often specify design, construction and

testing details such as material selection, shop inspection
and tests, drawings, clearances, construction procedures
etc.

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 Mechanical Standards

Pumps, Compressors and Fans

Pumps are available throughout a vast range of

sizes and capacities and are also available in a wide
range of materials including various metals and
plastics.

Pumps are particularly vulnerable to mal-operation

and poor installation practices. Proper installation
and high quality maintenance is essential for safe
operation.

Compressors are complex machines and their

reliability is crucial. It is very important that they are
maintained to high operational standards. Air
compressors for dry air require special consideration
and specific codes and standards exist.

Fans are used for high flow, low-pressure

applications such as supplying air for drying,
conveying material suspended in a gas stream,
removing fumes, or in condensing towers.

These units can be either centrifugal or axial flow

type. They are simple machines but proper

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 Mechanical Standards

installation and maintenance is required to ensure

high reliability and safe operation.

Vibration

One of the main causes of failure of rotating

equipment is vibration.

Numerous factors can result in vibration occurring

including cavitation, impeller imbalance, loose
bearings and pulses in the pipe.

ASME standards recommend that pumps should be

periodically monitored to detect vibration that should
normally fall within prescribed limits as determined
by the manufacturer.

This should be initially confirmed on installation and

then periodically checked. If measured levels
exceed prescribed values then preventative
maintenance is required and should be performed.

By collection and analysis of vibration signatures of

rotating equipment it is possible to identify which
components of the system are responsible for
particular frequencies of the vibration signal.

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 Mechanical Standards

Seals

Seals are very important and often critical

components in large rotating machinery and in
systems, which are flanged / jointed such as heat
exchangers or pipe work systems.

Failure of a sealing arrangement can lead to loss of

containment and a potential for a major accident.

There are many factors that govern the selection of

seals for a particular application including the
product being handled, the environment which the
seal is installed in, the arrangement of the seal, the
equipment the seal is to be installed in, secondary
packing requirements, seal face combinations, seal
gland plate arrangements, and main seal body etc.

Stuffing boxes and glands with packing are

commonly used.

Mechanical seals are used in applications where a

leak tight seal of almost any fluid is required.
Mechanical seals find their best application where
fluids should be contained under substantial
pressure.
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 Mechanical Standards

Maintenance, Inspection and Monitoring of

Critical Machines

Plant equipment may be monitored during commissioning

and throughout its operational life.

Performance monitoring is condition monitoring of which

there are a number of techniques. The aim of such
techniques is to identify deterioration and pre-empt
imminent failures and so secure reliable/available plant,
particularly for production and safety critical items.

Machine systems that have been assessed to present

unacceptable consequences if the machine or protective
system should fail may be classified as a `Critical Machine
System' and given specific attention during operation
including additional maintenance and monitoring.

All machine systems should be assessed according to the

hazard presented if the machine or any associated
protective system should fail..

Assessments should be based on:

 Potential consequences of any loss of containment);

 Potential consequences of the failure of the process;

 Potential damage caused by mechanical failure.

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 Mechanical Standards

Structural Design Considerations

Structures are required to provide support for plant

and should be able to withstand all foreseeable
loadings and operational extremes throughout the
life of the plant.

Failure of any structural component could lead to

initiation of a major accident.

Structural design should take into account natural

events such as wind loadings, snow loadings and
seismic activity and also plant excursions.

Maps showing the wind speeds to be used in the

design of structures at locations in the UK are given
in British Standards Code of Practice BS CP 3:
1972: Basic Data for the Design of Buildings,
Chapter V Loading: Part 2 Wind Loads.

Lightning protection should be provided and

guidance is available in BS 6651 : 1992 Code of
Practice for Protection of Structures against
Lightning.

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 Mechanical Standards

Storage system design Codes & standards

For the following substances general published codes

exist giving full design details for storage and handling.

Chlorine Storage: The design of systems for chlorine

requires special consideration since chlorine is highly toxic
and, if wet, also very corrosive. Chlorine is usually stored
under pressure at atmospheric temperature, but may also
be stored fully refrigerated (-34°C) at atmospheric
pressure.

specific guidance for chlorine storage system is given by

Chlorine Institute, which included::
Chlorine Manual, 1986, Pamphlet 1, Chlorine Institute.
Non-refrigerated Liquid Chlorine Storage, 1982, Pamphlet
5, Chlorine Institute.
Refrigerated Liquid Chlorine Storage, 1984, Pamphlet 78,
Chlorine Institute.
Code of Practice for Chemicals with Major Hazards:
Chlorine, (the Chlorine Code), CIA, 1975.
Guidelines for Bulk Handling of Chlorine at Customer
Installations (the CIA Chlorine Storage Guide), CIA,
1980/9.
HS(G)40 Safe handling of chlorine from drums and
cylinders, HSE.
CS16 Chlorine vaporisers, HSE.

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 Mechanical Standards

ST 79/82, `Choice of materials of construction for use in

contact with chlorine', Euro Chlor.
Ammonia Storage
Anhydrous ammonia, boiling point -33°C, is normally
stored as a liquid either under pressure or at atmospheric
pressure in refrigerated facilities.

A number of publications are dedicated to the handling of

ammonia and specific guidance is given in:

HS(G)30 Storage of anhydrous ammonia under pressure

in the UK : spherical and cylindrical vessels, HSE, 1986
(Not in current HSE list).

Gives advice for the appropriate materials of construction

for ammonia storage vessels.

CIA Refrigerated Ammonia Storage Code

CIA Code of Practice for the storage of anhydrous

ammonia under pressure in the UK: Spherical and
cylindrical vessels. (The CIA has withdrawn this
document).

CIA Guidance for the large scale storage of fully

refrigerated anhydrous ammonia in the UK.

CIA Guidance on transfer connections for the safe

handling of anhydrous ammonia in the UK.

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 Mechanical Standards

LPG Storage
Propane and Butane are referred to as liquefied petroleum gas
(LPG) in accordance with BS 4250: Specification for commercial
butane and propane. Fully refrigerated storage is required at
atmospheric pressure and at the boiling points of the substances
concerned. LPG can also be stored under pressure in horizontal
cylindrical or spherical pressure vessels.
HS(G)34 Storage of LPG at fixed installations, HSE, 1987.
HS(G)15 Storage of liquefied petroleum gas at factories, HSE.
CS5 Storage of LPG at fixed installations, HSE.
LPGA CoP 1 Bulk LPG storage at fixed installations. Part 1 :
Design, installation and operation of vessels located above
ground, 2000.
LPGA CoP 1 Bulk LPG storage at fixed installations. Part 2: Small
bulk propane installations for domestic and similar purposes,
2000.
LPGA CoP 1 Bulk LPG storage at fixed installations. Part 3 :
Periodic inspection and testing, 2000.
LPGA CoP 1 Bulk LPG storage at fixed installations. Part 4 :
Buried/mounded LPG storage vessels, 2000.
LPGA CoP 15 Valves and fittings for LPG service, Part 1 Safety
valves, 2000.
LPGA CoP 17 Purging LPG vessels and systems, 2000.
EEMUA 147. Recommendations for the design and construction
of refrigerated liquefied gas storage tanks.
Liquefied petroleum gas. IP Model code of safe practice: Part 9
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 Mechanical Standards

Hydrocarbons Storage

A number of standards and codes exist for the storage of

petroleum products and flammable liquids generally. A range of
different main types of storage tanks and vessels for liquids and
liquefied gases can be considered:
 Atmospheric storage tanks:
 Low pressure storage tanks;
 Pressure or refrigerated pressure storage tanks;
 Refrigerated storage tanks.
The relevant standards and codes are:
API Std 620 Design and construction of large, welded, low-
pressure storage tanks, American Petroleum Institute, 1990.
API Std 650 Welded steel tanks for oil storage, American
Petroleum Institute, 1988.
BS 2594 : 1975 Specification for carbon steel welded horizontal
cylindrical storage tanks.
BS 2654 : 1989 Specification for manufacture of vertical steel
welded non-refrigerated storage tanks with butt-welded shells for
the petroleum industry.
BS 4741: 1971 Specification for vertical cylindrical welded steel
storage tanks for low temperature service: single-wall tanks for
temperatures down to -50°C.
BS 5387: 1976 Specification for vertical cylindrical welded steel
storage tanks for low temperature service: double-wall tanks for
temperatures down to -196°C.

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 Mechanical Standards

BS 7777 : 1993 Flat-bottomed, vertical, cylindrical storage tanks

for low temperature service.
This BS supersedes BS 4741:1971 and BS 5387: 1976 both of
which are withdrawn.
BS 799: 1972 Oil Burning Equipment, Part 5 Specification for oil
storage tanks.
NFPA 30: 1990 Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code.
IP MSCP Part 3, 1981 Refining Safety Code.
HS(G)50 The storage of flammable liquids in fixed tanks (up to
10000 cu. m in total capacity), HSE, 1990.
HS(G)51 Storage of flammable liquids in containers, HSE, 1998.
HS(G)52 The storage of flammable liquids in fixed tanks
(exceeding 10000 cu. m in total capacity), HSE, 1991.
HS(G)140 Safe use and handling of flammable liquids, HSE,
1996.
HS(G)176 The storage of flammable liquids in tanks, HSE, 1998.
CS2 The storage of highly flammable liquids, HSE, 1977.
IGE SR7 Bulk storage and handling of highly flammable liquids
used within the gas industry, 1989.
IGE SR14 High pressure gas storage: Part 1 - Above ground
storage vessels
CS15 The cleaning and gas freeing of tanks containing flammable
residues, HSE, 1997.
RC 20 Recommendations for the storage and use of flammable
liquids, LPC, 1997.
EEMUA 147. Recommendations for the design and construction
of refrigerated liquefied gas storage tanks, 1986.
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 Mechanical Standards

Construction of Plant
It is critically important that following the detailed design of
a plant that the construction phase is carried out according
to the original specification and that no additional hazards
are introduced to the plant during the construction phase.
Poor construction can result in the integrity of the whole
system being compromised resulting in an increased risk
of a major accident.

Building and construction are covered by a series of

different building regulation including the following:

Construction (General Provisions) Regulations, 1961;

Construction (Lifting Operations) Regulations, 1961;

Construction (Health and Welfare) Regulations, 1966;

Construction (Working Places) Regulations, 1966.

In addition the Construction (Design and Management)

Regulations (CDM) clarify the responsibilities of the
various parties in a construction project. Also available is
the Approved Code of Practice for the CDM Regs:
Managing Construction for Health and Safety.
Construction (Design and Management) Regulations
1994, ref L54, HSE Books 1995, ISBN 0 7176 0792 5.

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 Mechanical Standards

Commissioning/Verification of Manufacture and

Construction Standards
Evidence of the following should be available:
 Mechanical completion and hand over certificates;
 Mechanical completion checks - check that installed equipment
is ready for commissioning, is installed correctly and that the
component parts operate as specified and that any ancillary
equipment is installed and working;
 Certificates of acceptance of plant performance;
 Witnessing of performance tests;
 Witnessing of inspection and testing;
 Performance tests;
 Cleaning and pressure testing of systems;
 Visual inspection checks; Check that pipework and equipment
is installed in accordance with engineering drawings. Identify as
built discrepancies;
 Check that mechanical equipment conforms to specified codes
and standards, is installed in accordance with the relevant
drawings and meets the performance tests specified;
 Each item of equipment should be checked for compliance with
the specification. This may mean witnessing aspects such as
examination or testing at the manufacturers works;· Check any
internal fittings are installed, are of the correct dimensions and
are firmly secured;
 Check on the materials of construction;
 Check rotating equipment for noise and vibration;
 Check plant against P&IDs and isometrics;
 Pressure vessel and system tests : inspection, pressure tests,
leak tests, protective devices tests;
 Sub-system and system tests - dynamic safe fluid test (water
test), dynamic process fluid test;

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 Mechanical Standards

 Test utilities, instruments, etc. Simulate faults for testing

purposes.

Documentations required as per standard

 Modification records;

 Equipment examination records - pressure

vessels, pressure piping, protective devices;

 Equipment Test Records - pressure & leak tests,

pressure relief valve tests, rotating machinery
tests, instrument tests, computer system tests;

 Computer tests;

 Spares inventories;

 Safety review records;

 Environmental review records;

 Reservation lists.

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 Mechanical Standards

Evidence of a number of pre-commissioning

and commissioning checks Pre-commissioning
Hazards as per Standard

 Check that information is installed as per the process

flow diagrams and engineering line diagrams;

 Electrical installation checks;

 Mechanical installation checks - including rotation

checks;

 Civil installation checks - bunds, drains, hardstanding

etc;

 Safety system checks - relief devices installed etc;

 Instrumentation and control checks - verification of set

points, alarm and trip testing etc:

 Inert material tests using water and air as appropriate;

 Commissioning tests using process materials.

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 Mechanical Standards

Codes of Practice and Guidance

Pressure Vessel Design
 ASME Boiler and pressure vessel code : 1998
 BS 5500 : 1997 - Specification for Unfired Fusion Welded
pressure Vessels

Other Standards and Codes of Practice relating to

Pressure Vessel Design
In the UK pressure systems are covered by the Pressure Systems
Safety Regulations 2000 (PSSR regs).
Other useful documents include:
ACOP: Safety of Pressure Systems. Pressure Systems Safety
Regulations 2000. Ref L122. ISBN 0 7176 1767 X. Published by
HSE Books 2000.
HS(G)93 The assessment of pressure vessels operating at low
temperature, HSE, 1993.
BS 1500: 1958 - Fusion Welded Pressure Vessels for General
Purposes.
BS 5500 replaced this conventional code in the UK in 1976.
BS 1515: 1965 - Fusion Welded Pressure Vessels for Use in the
Chemical, Petroleum and Allied Industries.
BS 5500 replaced this advanced code in 1976.
BS EN 286-1:1991. Simple unfired pressure vessels designed to
contain air or nitrogen.
API 510 Pressure vessel inspection code: Maintenance
inspection, rating, repair, and alteration
API RP 572 Inspection of pressure vessels
API Standard 653 Tank inspection, repair, alteration and
reconstruction.

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 Mechanical Standards

API RP 520 Sizing, selection, and installation of pressure relieving

devices in refineries
ASME B16.9 Factory made wrought steel butt welding fittings :
1978
ASME B16.11 Forged steel fittings socket-welded and threaded :
1980
BS 1501: 1970 - Steels for Pressure Purposes:
Part 1 (1990) - Specification for carbon and carbon manganese
steels
Part 2 (1988) - Specification for alloy steels
Part 3 (1990) - Specification for corrosion and heat resisting
steels
BS 1502: 1990 - Specification for steels for fired and unfired
pressure vessels: sections and bars
BS 1503: 1989 - Specification for steel forgings for pressure
purposes
BS 1504: 1984 - Specification for steel castings for pressure
purposes
BS 1506: 1990 - Specification for carbon, low alloy and stainless
bars and billets for bolting material to be used in pressure
retaining applications.
BS 2594: 1975 - Specification for carbon steel welded horizontal
cylindrical storage tanks.
BS 2654: 1989 - Specification for vertical steel welded non-
refrigerated storage tanks with butt-welded shells for the
petroleum industry
BS 2790: 1992 - Specification for design and manufacture of shell
boilers of welded construction
BS 5276: 1977 - Pressure Vessel details (dimensions)
BS 5387: 1976 - Specification for vertical cylindrical welded steel
storage tanks for low temperature service: double wall tanks for
temperatures down to -196°C.
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 Mechanical Standards

ISO R831: Recommendations for Stationary Boilers which is

applicable to pressure vessels.

Pressure Vessels
Non-metallic materials of construction

BS 4994: 1987 - Specification for Design and

Construction of Vessels and Tanks in Reinforced
Plastics.
BS 6374: 1984 - Lining of equipment with polymeric
materials for the process industries.
ASME Boiler and Pressure Code Part X, Fiberglass
Reinforced Plastic Pressure Vessels (1992).
ASTM D 4021-86 Standard Specification for Contact
Moulded Glass-fiber-reinforced Thermosetting Resin
Underground Petroleum Storage Tanks.
ASTM D 4097-88 Standard Specification for Contact
Moulded Glass-fiber-reinforced Thermosetting Resin
Chemical Resistant Tanks.
PM75 Glass reinforced plastic vessels and tanks:
Advice to users, HSE, 1991.
Pressure vessel systems examination. IP Model
code of safe practice: Part 13
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 Mechanical Standards

Other Vessels (including Storage Tanks)

API Std 620 Design and construction of large,

welded, low-pressure storage tanks, American
Petroleum Institute, 1990.

API Std 650 Welded steel tanks for oil storage,

American Petroleum Institute, 1988.

API Std 653 Tank inspection, repair, alteration, and

reconstruction, American Petroleum Institute, 1991.

API 12B - Bolted Production Tanks.

API 12D - Large Welded Production Tanks.

API 12F - Small Welded Production Tanks.

API Std 2000 Venting atmospheric and low pressure

storage tanks: Nonrefrigerated and refrigerated,
American Petroleum Institute, 1998.

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 Mechanical Standards

Heat Exchangers, Furnace & Boilers

BS 3274: 1960- Tubular Heat Exchangers for General Purposes.
American Tubular Heat Exchanger Manufacturers Association
(TEMA standards).
The TEMA standards cover three classes of heat exchanger:
 Class R - generally severe duties in the petroleum and
related industries;
 Class C - moderate duties in commercial and general
process applications;
 Class B - exchangers for use in the chemical process
industries.
API Standard 660: 1987 - `Shell and Tube heat Exchangers for
General Refinery Services' supplements both the TEMA
standards and the ASME code.
API Standard 661: 1992 - Air Cooled Heat Exchangers for
General Refinery Services.
Furnaces/Boilers
BS 1113: 1992 - Specification for design and manufacture of
water-tube steam generating plant (including superheaters,
reheaters and steel tube economisers).
BS: 799: 1981 - Oil Burning Equipment
BS 5410: 1976 - Code of Practice for Oil Firing
British Gas Code of Practice for Large Gas and Dual Fuel Burners
(the BG Burner Code)

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 Mechanical Standards

API Standard 560 - Fired heaters for general refinery services,

1986.

Rotating Equipment

BS 7322: 1990 Specification for the Design and

Construction of Reciprocating Type Compressors for the
Process Industry
API Standard 610: 1989 Centrifugal Pumps for General
Refinery Services.
API Standard 611: 1988 General Purpose Steam Turbines
for Refinery Services.
API Standard 612: 1987 Special Purpose Steam Turbines
for Refinery Services.
API Standard 613: 1988 Special Purpose Gear Units for
Refinery Services.
API Standard 614: 1992 Lubrication, shaft-sealing, and
Control Oil systems for special purpose applications.
API Standard 616: 1992 Gas Turbines for Refinery
Services.
API Standard 617: 1988 Centrifugal Compressors for
General Refinery Services.
API Standard 618: 1986 Reciprocating Compressors for
General Refinery Services.

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 Mechanical Standards

API Standard 619: 1985 Rotary Type Positive

Displacement Compressors for General Refinery Services.
API Standard 674: 1987 Positive Displacement Pumps -
Reciprocating.
API Standard 676: 1987 Positive Displacement Pumps -
Rotary.
ASME 19.1 - 1990 Air Compressor Systems.
ASME 19.3 - 1991 Safety Standards for Compressors for
the Process Industries.
ASME B73.1M - 1991 Specifications for Horizontal End
Suction Centrifugal Pumps for Chemical Industries.
ASME B73.2M - 1991 Specifications for Vertical In-line
Centrifugal Pumps for Chemical Industries.
BS 767: 1987 - Specification for centrifuges of the basket
and bowl type for use in industrial and commercial
applications.
BS 4082: 1969 - Specification for external dimensions for
vertical in-line centrifugal pumps.
BS 5257: 1975 - Specification for horizontal end suction
centrifugal pumps (16 bar).
BS 7322: 1990 - Specification for the design and
construction of reciprocating type compressors for the
process Industry.

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 Mechanical Standards

BS 4675: 1976 - Mechanical vibration in rotating

machinery

Pressure Vessels
Specific Mechanical Systems designs and fabricates stainless
steel, carbon steel, and exotic metal pressure vessels for
industries such as Oil & Gas, Biotechnology, Public Utilities,
Pharmaceutical, and Research & Development.

Specific Mechanical Systems adheres to the following codes and

standards in the construction of pressure vessels.

 ASME Code, Section VIII, Div. 1, "U" Accreditation

 ASME Code, Section IX
 ASME Code, B31.1, B31.3
 National Board Authorization
 CSA Standard B620 (Transport Canada)
 CSA B51
 Customer specified quality standards

Each vessel built by Specific Mechanical is manufactured by

qualified fabricators, thoroughly inspected by our quality control
staff, and hydrotested to 1.3 - 1.5 times the design pressure.
Equipment manufactured to ASME standards comes equipped
with a data plate stating design and working pressures and
temperatures, a serial number, and a date of manufacture.
ASME vessels also include a manufacturers data report which
summarizes the pressure vessel specifications and indicates the
manufacturer, owner, installation location, and date of
construction.
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 Mechanical Standards

Codes and Standards for storage tanks

ASME Section VIII Div. 1

API 620 (Low pressure Storage Tanks)
API 650 (Welded Storage Tanks)
UL 142 (Steel above ground tanks, flammable and
combustible liquids)
Catwalks, Handrails and Ladders designed and fabricated to
OSHA standards
NBIC “R” Certificate

Electrical and Controls

UL, ETL, NEC,CS standards and guidelines,
NEMA design standards and criteria

Materials
Carbon Steel
Aluminum Alloys
300 series and Duplex Stainless Steels
Nickel Alloys
From …..16 gauge sheets ……...1/8” thru 1” shell thickness

32
 Mechanical Standards

HEAT EXCHANGERS
The ASTM International specifications for steel tubes list
standard requirements for boiler and super heater tubes,
general service tubes, steel tubes in refinery service, heat
exchanger and condenser tubes, mechanical and
structural tubing.

Steel Pipes

 A53 - A53/A53M-99b - Specification for Pipe, Steel,

Black and Hot-Dipped, Zinc-Coated, Welded and
Seamless
 A74 - A74-98 - Specification for Cast Iron Soil Pipe and
Fittings
 A106 - A106-99e1 - Specification for Seamless Carbon
Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service
 A126 - A126-95e1 - Specification for Grey Iron Castings
for Valves, Flanges, and Pipe Fittings
 A134 - A134-96 - Specification for Pipe, Steel, Electric-
Fusion (Arc)-Welded (Sizes NPS 16 and Over)
 A135 - A135-97c - Specification for Electric-Resistance-
Welded Steel Pipe
 A139 - A139-96e1 - Specification for Electric-Fusion
(Arc)-Welded Steel Pipe (NPS 4 and Over)
 A182 - A182/A182M-99 - Specification for Forged or
Rolled Alloy-Steel Pipe Flanges, Forged Fittings, and
Valves and Parts for High-Temperature Service
 A252 - A252-98 - Specification for Welded and
Seamless Steel Pipe Piles

33
 Mechanical Standards

 A312 - A312/A312M-00 - Specification for Seamless

and Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipes
 A333 - A333/A333M-99 - Specification for Seamless
and Welded Steel Pipe for Low-Temperature Service
 A335 - A335/A335M-99 - Specification for Seamless
Ferritic Alloy-Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service
 A338 - A338-84 (1998) - Specification for Malleable Iron
Flanges, Pipe Fittings, and Valve Parts for Railroad,
Marine, and Other Heavy Duty Service at Temperatures
Up to 650?F (345?C)
 A358 - A358/A358M-98 - Specification for Electric-
Fusion-Welded Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Alloy Steel
Pipe for High-Temperature Service
 A369 - A369/A369M-92 - Specification for Carbon and
Ferritic Alloy Steel Forged and Bored Pipe for High-
Temperature Service
 A376 - A376/A376M-98 - Specification for Seamless
Austenitic Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Central-
Station Service
 A377 - A377-99 - Index of Specifications for Ductile-Iron
Pressure Pipe
 A409 - A409/A409M-95ae1 - Specification for Welded
Large Diameter Austenitic Steel Pipe for Corrosive or
High-Temperature Service
 A426 - A426-92 (1997) - Specification for Centrifugally
Cast Ferritic Alloy Steel Pipe for High-Temperature
Service
 A451 - A451-93 (1997) - Specification for Centrifugally
Cast Austenitic Steel Pipe for High-Temperature
Service

34
 Mechanical Standards

 A523 - A523-96 - Specification for Plain End Seamless

and Electric-Resistance-Welded Steel Pipe for High-
Pressure Pipe-Type Cable Circuits
 A524 - A524-96 - Specification for Seamless Carbon
Steel Pipe for Atmospheric and Lower Temperatures
 A530 - A530/A530M-99 - Specification for General
Requirements for Specialized Carbon and Alloy Steel
Pipe
 A648 - A648-95e1 - Specification for Steel Wire, Hard
Drawn for Pre-stressing Concrete Pipe
 A674 - A674-95 - Practice for Polyethylene Encasement
for Ductile Iron Pipe for Water or Other Liquids
 A691 - A691-98 - Specification for Carbon and Alloy
Steel Pipe, Electric-Fusion-Welded for High-Pressure
Service at High Temperatures
 A694 - A694/A694M-00 - Specification for Carbon and
Alloy Steel Forgings for Pipe Flanges, Fittings, Valves,
and Parts for High-Pressure Transmission Service
 A716 - A716-99 - Specification for Ductile Iron Culvert
Pipe
 A733 - A733-99 - Specification for Welded and
Seamless Carbon Steel and Austenitic Stainless Steel
Pipe Nipples
 A742 - A742/A742M-98 - Specification for Steel Sheet,
Metallic Coated and Polymer Pre-coated for Corrugated
Steel Pipe
 A746 - A746-99 - Specification for Ductile Iron Gravity
Sewer Pipe
 A760 - A760/A760M-99 - Specification for Corrugated
Steel Pipe, Metallic-Coated for Sewers and Drains

35
 Mechanical Standards

 A761 - A761/A761M-98 - Specification for Corrugated

Steel Structural Plate, Zinc-Coated, for Field-Bolted
Pipe, Pipe-Arches, and Arches
 A762 - A762/A762M-98 - Specification for Corrugated
Steel Pipe, Polymer Pre-coated for Sewers and Drains
 A790 - A790/A790M-99 - Specification for Seamless
and Welded Ferritic/Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe
 A796 - A796/A796M-99 - Practice for Structural Design
of Corrugated Steel Pipe, Pipe-Arches, and Arches for
Storm and Sanitary Sewers and Other Buried
Applications
 A798 - A798/A798M-97a - Practice for Installing
Factory-Made Corrugated Steel Pipe for Sewers and
Other Applications
 A807 - A807/A807M-97 - Practice for Installing
Corrugated Steel Structural Plate Pipe for Sewers and
Other Applications
 A810 - A810-94 - Specification for Zinc-Coated
(Galvanized) Steel Pipe Winding Mesh
 A813 - A813/A813M-95e2 - Specification for Single- or
Double-Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe
 A814 - A814/A814M-96 (1998) - Specification for Cold-
Worked Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe
 A849 - A849-99 - Specification for Post-Applied
Coatings, Pavings, and Linings for Corrugated Steel
Sewer and Drainage Pipe
 A861 - A861-94e1 - Specification for High-Silicon Iron
Pipe and Fittings
 A862 - A862/A862M-98 - Practice for Application of
Asphalt Coatings to Corrugated Steel Sewer and
Drainage Pipe

36
 Mechanical Standards

 A865 - A865-97 - Specification for Threaded Couplings,

Steel, Black or Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Welded or
Seamless, for Use in Steel Pipe Joints
 A872 - A872-91 (1997) - Specification for Centrifugally
Cast Ferritic/Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe for
Corrosive Environments
 A885 - A885/A885M-96 - Specification for Steel Sheet,
Zinc and Aramid Fiber Composite Coated for
Corrugated Steel Sewer, Culvert, and Underdrain Pipe
 A888 - A888-98e1 - Specification for Hubless Cast Iron
Soil Pipe and Fittings for Sanitary and Storm Drain,
Waste, and Vent Piping Applications
 A926 - A926-97 - Test Method for Comparing the
Abrasion Resistance of Coating Materials for
Corrugated Metal Pipe
 A928 - A928/A928M-98 - Specification for
Ferritic/Austenitic (Duplex) Stainless Steel Pipe Electric
Fusion Welded with Addition of Filler Metal
 A929 - A929/A929M-97 - Specification for Steel Sheet,
Metallic-Coated by the Hot-Dip Process for Corrugated
Steel Pipe
 A930 - A930-99 - Practice for Life-Cycle Cost Analysis
of Corrugated Metal Pipe Used for Culverts, Storm
Sewers, and Other Buried Conduits
 A943 - A943/A943M-95e1 - Specification for Spray-
Formed Seamless Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipes
 A949 - A949/A949M-95e1 - Specification for Spray-
Formed Seamless Ferritic / Austenitic Stainless Steel
Pipe
 A954 - A954-96 - Specification for Austenitic Chromium-
Nickel-Silicon Alloy Steel Seamless and Welded Pipe
37
 Mechanical Standards

 A972 - A972/A972M-99 - Specification for Fusion

Bonded Epoxy-Coated Pipe Piles
 A978 - A978/A978M-97 - Specification for Composite
Ribbed Steel Pipe, Precoated and Polyethylene Lined
for Gravity Flow Sanitary Sewers, Storm Sewers, and
Other Special Applications
 A984 - A984/A984M-00 - Specification for Steel Line
Pipe, Black, Plain-End, Electric-Resistance-Welded
 A998 - A998/A998M-98 - Practice for Structural Design
of Reinforcements for Fittings in Factory-Made
Corrugated Steel Pipe for Sewers and Other
Applications
 A999 - A999/A999M-98 - Specification for General
Requirements for Alloy and Stainless Steel Pipe
 A1005 - A1005/A1005M-00 - Specification for Steel
Line Pipe, Black, Plain End, Longitudinal and Helical
Seam, Double Submerged-Arc Welded
 A1006 - A1006/A1006M-00 - Specification for Steel
Line Pipe, Black, Plain End, Laser Beam Welded

38
 Mechanical Standards

Steel Tubes

Superheater, Boiler and Miscellaneous Tubes:

 A178 - A178/A178M-95 - Specification for Electric-
Resistance-Welded Carbon Steel and Carbon-
Manganese Steel Boiler and Superheater Tubes
 A179 - A179/A179M-90a (1996) e1 - Specification for
Seamless Cold-Drawn Low-Carbon Steel Heat-
Exchanger and Condenser Tubes
 A192 - A192/A192M-91 (1996) e1 - Specification for
Seamless Carbon Steel Boiler Tubes for High-Pressure
Service
 A209 - A209/A209M-98 - Specification for Seamless
Carbon-Molybdenum Alloy-Steel Boiler and
Superheater Tubes
 A210 - A210/A210M-96 - Specification for Seamless
Medium-Carbon Steel Boiler and Superheater Tubes
 A213 - A213/A213M-99a - Specification for Seamless
Ferritic and Austenitic Alloy-Steel Boiler, Superheater,
and Heat-Exchanger Tubes
 A249 - A249/A249M-98e1 - Specification for Welded
Austenitic Steel Boiler, Superheater, Heat-Exchanger,
and Condenser Tubes
 A250 - A250/A250M-95 - Specification for Electric-
Resistance-Welded Ferritic Alloy-Steel Boiler and
Superheater Tubes
 A254 - A254-97 - Specification for Copper-Brazed Steel
Tubing
39
 Mechanical Standards

 A268 - A268/A268M-96 - Specification for Seamless

and Welded Ferritic and Martensitic Stainless Steel
Tubing for General Service
 A269 - A269-98 - Specification for Seamless and
Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubing for General
Service
 A270 - A270-98ae1 - Specification for Seamless and
Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Sanitary Tubing
 A334 - A334/A334M-99 - Specification for Seamless
and Welded Carbon and Alloy-Steel Tubes for Low-
Temperature Service
 A423 - A423/A423M-95 - Specification for Seamless
and Electric-Welded Low-Alloy Steel Tubes
 A450 - A450/A450M-96a - Specification for General
Requirements for Carbon, Ferritic Alloy, and Austenitic
Alloy Steel Tubes
 A608 - A608-91a (1998) - Specification for Centrifugally
Cast Iron-Chromium-Nickel High-Alloy Tubing for
Pressure Application at High Temperatures
 A618 - A618-99 - Specification for Hot-Formed Welded
and Seamless High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural
Tubing
 A632 - A632-98 - Specification for Seamless and
Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubing (Small-
Diameter) for General Service
 A688 - A688/A688M-98 - Specification for Welded
Austenitic Stainless Steel Feedwater Heater Tubes

40
 Mechanical Standards

 A771 - A771/A771M-95 - Specification for Seamless

Austenitic and Martensitic Stainless Steel Tubing for
Liquid Metal-Cooled Reactor Core Components
 A778 - A778-98 - Specification for Welded, Unanneled
Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubular Products
 A789 - A789/A789M-00 - Specification for Seamless
and Welded Ferritic/Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubing
for General Service
 A803 - A803/A803M-98 - Specification for Welded
Ferritic Stainless Steel Feedwater Heater Tubes
 A822 - A822-90 (1995) e1 - Specification for Seamless
Cold-Drawn Carbon Steel Tubing for Hydraulic System
Service
 A826 - A826/A826M-95 - Specification for Seamless
Austenitic and Martensitic Stainless Steel Duct Tubes
for Liquid Metal-Cooled Reactor Core Components
 A847 - A847-99a - Specification for Cold-Formed
Welded and Seamless High Strength, Low Alloy
Structural Tubing with Improved Atmospheric Corrosion
Resistance
 A908 - A908-91 (1998) - Specification for Stainless
Steel Needle Tubing
 A953 - A953-96 - Specification for Austenitic Chromium-
Nickel-Silicon Alloy Steel Seamless and Welded Tubing
–

41
 Mechanical Standards

Heat-Exchanger and Condenser Tubes

 A179 - A179/A179M-90a (1996) e1 -

Specification for Seamless Cold-Drawn Low-
Carbon Steel Heat-Exchanger and
Condenser Tubes
 A213 - A213/A213M-99a - Specification for
Seamless Ferritic and Austenitic Alloy-Steel
Boiler, Superheater, and Heat-Exchanger
Tubes
 A214 - A214/A214M-96 - Specification for
Electric-Resistance-Welded Carbon Steel
Heat-Exchanger and Condenser Tubes
 A249 - A249/A249M-98e1 - Specification for
Welded Austenitic Steel Boiler, Superheater,
Heat-Exchanger, and Condenser Tubes
 A498 - A498-98 - Specification for Seamless
and Welded Carbon, Ferritic, and Austenitic
Alloy Steel Heat-Exchanger Tubes with
Integral Fins
 A851 - A851-96 - Specification for High-
Frequency Induction Welded, Unannealed,
Austenitic Steel Condenser Tubes -

42
 Mechanical Standards

Structural and Mechanical Tubing

 A500 - A500-99 - Specification for Cold-Formed

Welded and Seamless Carbon Steel Structural
Tubing in Rounds and Shapes
 A501 - A501-99 - Specification for Hot-Formed
Welded and Seamless Carbon Steel Structural
Tubing
 A847 - A847-99a - Specification for Cold-Formed
Welded and Seamless High Strength, Low Alloy
Structural Tubing with Improved Atmospheric
Corrosion Resistance
 A618 - A618-99 - Specification for Hot-Formed
Welded and Seamless High-Strength Low-Alloy
Structural Tubing –

 A511 - A511-96 - Specification for Seamless

Stainless Steel Mechanical Tubing
 A512 - A512-96 - Specification for Cold-Drawn
Buttweld Carbon Steel Mechanical Tubing
 A513 - A513-98 - Specification for Electric-
Resistance-Welded Carbon and Alloy Steel
Mechanical Tubing
 A519 - A519-96 - Specification for Seamless
Carbon and Alloy Steel Mechanical Tubing
 A554 - A554-98e1 - Specification for Welded
Stainless Steel Mechanical Tubing -
43
 Mechanical Standards

Welded Fittings

 A234 - A234/A234M-99 - Specification for

Piping Fittings of Wrought Carbon Steel and
Alloy Steel for Moderate and High
Temperature Service
 A403 - A403/A403M-99a - Specification for
Wrought Austenitic Stainless Steel Piping
Fittings
 A420 - A420/A420M-99 - Specification for
Piping Fittings of Wrought Carbon Steel and
Alloy Steel for Low-Temperature Service
 A758 - A758/A758M-98 - Specification for
Wrought-Carbon Steel Butt-Welding Piping
Fittings with Improved Notch Toughness
 A774 - A774/A774M-98 - Specification for
As-Welded Wrought Austenitic Stainless
Steel Fittings for General Corrosive Service
at Low and Moderate Temperatures -

44
 Mechanical Standards

Cooling Towers

The machines and processes of industry, as well

as those devoted to human comfort and well-
being, generate tremendous amounts of heat which
must be continuously dissipated if those machines
and processes are to continue to operate efficiently.

Although this heat is usually transferred to a cool,

flowing volume of water, final rejection is always to
the atmosphere and, invariably, is accomplished by
some form of heat exchanger.

Many of those terminal heat exchangers are not

easily recognized as such because they are better
known as “creeks”, “rivers”, “lakes”, etc.

The natural process of evaporation makes them very

effective heat transfer mediums, although somewhat
inefficient due to their limited surface area and their
total dependence upon random winds.

45
 Mechanical Standards

Nomenclature Connected with Cooling

Tower Science

Acfm – The actual volumetric flow rate of air-vapor

mixture. Unit: cu ft per min.
Air Horsepower – The power output developed by a fan in
moving a given air rate against a given resistance. Unit:
hp. Symbol: ahp
Air Inlet – Opening in a cooling tower through which air
enters. Sometimes referred to as the louvered face on
induced draft towers.
Air Rate – Mass flow of dry air per square foot of cross
sectional area in the tower’s heat transfer region per hour.
Unit: ib per sq ft per hr. Symbol: G’. (See Total Air Rate)
Air Travel – Distance which air travels in its passage
through the fill. Measured vertically on Counter flow towers
and horizontally on cross flow towers. Unit: ft.
Air Velocity – Velocity of air-vapor mixture through a
specific region of the tower (i.e. the fan) Unit: ft per min.
Symbol: V
Ambient Wet-Bulb Temperature – The wet-bulb
temperature of the air encompassing a cooling tower, not
including any temperature contribution by the tower itself.
Generally measured upwind of a tower, in a number of
locations sufficient to account for all extraneous sources of
heat. Unit: Deg. F. Symbol: AWB

46
 Mechanical Standards

Approach – Difference between the cold water

temperature and either the ambient or entering wet-bulb
temperature. Unit: Deg. F.
Atmospheric – Refers to the movement of air through a
cooling tower purely by natural means, or by the aspirating
effect of water flow.
Automatic Variable-Pitch Fan – A propeller type fan whose
hub incorporates a mechanism, which enables the fan
blades to be re-pitched simultaneously and automatically.
They are used on cooling towers and air-cooled heat
exchangers to trim capacity and/or conserve energy.
Basin – See “Collection Basin” & “Distribution Basin”.
Basin Curb – Top level of the cold water basin retaining
wall; usually the datum from which pumping head and
various elevations of the tower are measured.
Bay – The area between adjacent transverse and
longitudinal framing bents.
Bent – A transverse or longitudinal line of structural frame
work composed of columns, girts, ties, and diagonal
bracing members.
Bleed–Off - See “Blowdown”
Blowdown – Water discharged from the system to control
concentrations of salts or other impurities in the circulating
water. Units % of circulating water rate or gpm.
Blower – A squirrel-cage (centrifugal) type fan; usually
applied for operation at higher-than normal static
pressures.
47
 Mechanical Standards

Blowout – See “Windage”

Brake Horsepower – The actual power output of a motor,
turbine, or engine. Unit: hp Symbol: bhp
Btu (British Thermal Unit) – The amount of heat gain (or
loss) required to raise (or lower) the Temperature of one
pound of water 1 Deg. F.
Capacity - The amount of water (gpm) that a cooling tower
will cool through a specified range, at a specified approach
and wet-bulb temperature. Unit: gpm
Casing – Exterior enclosing wall of a tower, exclusive of
the louvers.
Cell – Smallest tower sub-division, which can function as
an independent unit with regard to air and Water flow; it is
bounded by either exterior walls or partition walls. Each
cell may have one or more fans and one or more
distribution systems.
Chimney – See “Shell”
Circulating Water Rate – Quantity of hot water entering the
cooling tower. Unit: gpm
Cold Water Temperature – Temperature of the water
leaving the collection basin, exclusive of any Temperature
effects incurred by the addition of make-up and/or the
removal of blowdown. Unit: Deg. F. Symbol: CW
Collection Basin – Vessel below and integral with the
tower where water is transiently collected and directed to
the sump or pump suction line.
Counter flow – Air flow direction through the fill is counter
current to that of the falling water.
48
 Mechanical Standards

Cross flow – Air flow direction through the fill is essentially

perpendicular to that of the falling water
Distribution Basin – Shallow pan-type elevated basin used
to distribute hot water over the tower fill by means of
orifices in the basin floor. Application is normally limited to
cross-flow towers
Distribution System – Those parts of a tower, beginning
with the inlet connection, which distribute the hot
circulating water within the tower to the points where it
contacts the air for effective cooling. May include headers,
laterals, branch arms, nozzles, distribution basins, and
flow-regulating devices.
Double Flow – A crossflow cooling tower where two
opposed fill banks are served by a common air Plenum.
Drift – Circulating water lost from the tower as liquid
droplets entrained in the exhaust air stream. Units: % of
circulating water rate or gpm. (For more precise work, an
L/G parameter is used, and drift becomes pounds of
water per million pounds of exhausts air. Unit:ppm)
Drift Eliminators – An assembly of baffles or labyrinth
passages through which the air passes prior to its exit
from the tower, for the purpose of removing entrained
water droplets from the exhaust air.
Driver – Primary drive for the fan drive assembly. Although
electric motors predominate, it may also be a gas engine,
steam turbine, hydraulic motor or other power source.
Dry-Bulb Temperature – The temperatures of the entering
or ambient air adjacent to the cooling tower as measured
with a dry-bulb thermometer. Unit: degrees F. Symbol:DB.
49
 Mechanical Standards

Entering Wet-Bulb Temperature – The wet-bulb

temperatures of the air actually entering the tower,
including any effects of re-circulation. In testing, the
average of multiple readings taken at the inlets to
establish a true entering wet-bulb temperature. Unit oF.
Symbol:EWB.
Evaluation – A determination of the total cost of owning a
cooling tower for a specific peirod of time. Includes first
cost of tower and attendant devices, cost of operation,
cost of maintenance and/or repair, cost or land use, cost of
financing, etc., all normalized to a specific point in time.
Evaporation Loss – Water evaporated from the circulating
water into the air stream in the cooling Process. Units % of
circulating water rate or gpm.
Exhaust (Exit) Wet-Bulb Temperature – See “Leaving Wet-
Bulb Temperature”.
Fan Cylinder – Cylindrical or venturi-shaped structure in
which a propeller fan operates. Sometimes referred to as
a “fan stack” on larger towers.
Fan Deck – Surface enclosing the top structure of an
induced draft cooling tower, exclusive of the Distribution
basins on a cross flow tower.
Fan Pitch – The angle which the blades of propeller fan
make with the plane of rotation, measured at a prescribed
point on each blade. Unit :degrees.
Fan Scroll – Convolute housing in which a centrifugal
(blower) fan operates.

50
 Mechanical Standards

Fill – That portion of a cooling tower which constitutes its

primary heat transfer surface. Sometimes referred to as
“packing”.
Fill Cube – (1) Counterflow: The amount of fill required in a
volume one bay long by one bay wide by an air travel
high. Unit: cu ft (2) Crossflow: The amount of fill
required in a volume one bay long by an air travel wide by
one story high. Unit: cu ft
Fill Deck – One of a succession of horizontal layers of
splash bars utilized in a splash-filled cooling tower. The
number of fill decks constituting overall fill height,
establishes the effective primary heat transfer surface.
Fill Sheet – One of a succession of vertically-arranged,
closely-spaced panels over which flowing water spreads to
offer maximum surface exposure to the air in a film-filled
cooling tower. Sheets may be flat,; or they may be formed
into corrugated, chevron, and other patterns whose
protrusions provide proper spacing, and whose
convolutions provide increased heat-transfer capability.
Film-Filled – Descriptive of a cooling tower in which film-
type fill is utilized for the primary heat- transfer surface.
Float Valve – A valve which is mechanically actuated by a
float. Utilized on many cooling towers to control make-up
water supply.
Flow-Control Valves – Manually controlled valves which
are used to balance flow of incoming water to all sections
of the tower.

51
 Mechanical Standards

Flume – A trough which may be either totally enclosed, or

open at the top. Flumes are sometimes used in cooling
towers for primary supply of water to various sections of
the distribution system.
Fogging – A reference to the viscosity and path of the
effluent air stream after having exited the cooling tower. If
visible and close to the ground, it is referred to as “fog”. If
elevated, it is normally called the “plume”.
Forced Draft – Refers to the movement of air under
pressure through a cooling tower. Fans of forced draft
towers are located at the air inlets to “force” air through the
tower.
Geareducer – See “Speed Reducer”
Heat Load – Total heat to be removed from the circulating
water by the cooling tower per unit time. Units: Btu per
min. or Btu per hr.
Height – On cooling towers erected over a concrete basin,
height is measured from the elevation of the basin curb.
“Nominal” heights are usually measured to the fan deck
elevation, not including the height of the fan cylinder.
Heights for towers generally measured from the lower
most point of the basin, and are usually overall of the
tower. Unit: ft.
Hot Water Temperature – Temperature of circulating water
entering the cooling tower’s Distribution system. Unit: Deg.
F. Symbol: HW.
Hydrogen Ion Concentration – See “pH”

52
 Mechanical Standards

Induced Draft – Refers to the movement of air through a

cooling tower by means of an induced partial vacuum.
Fans of induced draft towers are located at the air
discharges to “draw” air trough the tower.
Inlet Wet-Bulb Temperature – See “Entering Wet-Bulb
Temperature”
Interference – The thermal contamination of a tower’s inlet
air by an external heat source. (i.e. the discharge plume of
another cooling tower.)
Leaving Wet-Bulb Temperature – Wet-bulb temperature of
the air discharged from a cooling tower. Unit: Deg. F.
Symbol: LWB
Length – For cross-flow towers, length is always
perpendicular to the direction of air flow through The fill
(air travel), or from casing to casing. For counterflow
towers, length is always parallel to the long dimension of a
multi-cell tower, and parallel to the intended direction of
cellular extension on single-cell towers. Unit: ft.
Liquid-to-Gas Ratio – A ratio of the total mass flows of
water and dry air in a cooling tower. (See Total Air Rate &
Total Water Rate) Unit: lb per lb. Symbol: L/G.
Longitudinal – Pertaining to occurrances in the direction of
tower length.
Louvers – Blade or passage type assemblies installed at
the air inlet face of a cooling tower to control water
splashout and/or promote uniform air flow through the fill.
In the case of film-type crossflow fill, they may be
integrally molded to the fill sheets.
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 Mechanical Standards

Make-Up – Water added to the circulating water system to

replace water lost by evaporation, drift, wind-age,
blowdown, and leagage. Units: % of circulating water rate
or gp,.
Mechanical Draft – Refers to the movement of air through
a cooling tower by means of a fan or other mechanical
device.
Module – A preassembled portion or section of a cooling
tower cell. On larger factory-assembled towers, two or
more shipped modules may require joining to make a cell.
Natural Draft – Refers to the movement of air through a
cooling tower purely by natural means. Typically, by the
driving force of a density differential.
Net Effective Volume – That portion of the total structural
volume within which the circulating water is in intimate
contact with the flowing air. Unit: cu ft.
Nozzle – A device used for controlled distribution of water
in a cooling tower. Nozzles are designed to deliver water
in a spray pattern either by pressure or by gravity flow.
Packing – See “Fill”.
Partition – An interior wall subdividing the tower into cells
or into separate fan plenum chambers. Partitions may also
be selectively installed to reduce windage water loss.
Performance – See “Capacity”.
pH – A scale for expressing acidity or alkalinity of the
circulating or make-up water. A pH below 7.0 indicates
neutral water.
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 Mechanical Standards

Pitot Tube – An instrument that operates on the principle of

differential pressures. Its primary use on a cooling tower is
in the measurement of circulating water flow.
Plenum Chamber – The enclosed space between the drift
eliminators and the fan in induced draft towers, or the
enclosed space between the fan and the fill in forced draft
towers.
Plume – The effluent mixture of heated air and water
vapor (usually visible) discharged from a cooling tower.
Psychrometer – An instrument incorporating both a dry-
bulb and a wet-bulb thermometer, by which simultaneous
dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperature readings can be taken.
Pump Head – See “Tower Pumping Head”
Range – Difference between the hot water temperature
and the cold water temperature (HW – CW) Unit: Deg. F.
Recirculation – Describes a condition in which a portion of
the tower’s discharge air re-enters the air inlets along
with the fresh air. Its effect is an elevation of the average
entering wet-bulb temperature compared to the ambient.
Riser – Piping which connects the circulating water supply
line, from the level of the base of the tower or the supply
header, to the tower’s distribution system.
Shell – The chimney-like structure, usually hyperbolic in
cross-section, utilized to induce air flow through a natural
draft tower. Sometimes referred to as a “stack” or “veil”

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 Mechanical Standards

Speed Reducer – A mechanical device, incorporated

between the driver and the fan of a mechanical draft
tower, designed to reduce the speed of the driver to an
optimum speed for the fan. The use of geared reduction
units or differential pulleys and V-belts for the transmission
of power.
Splash Bar – One of a succession of equally-spaced
horizontal bars comprising the splash surface of a fill deck
in a splash-filled cooling tower. Splash bars may be flat, or
may be formed into a shaped cross-section for improved
structural rigidity and/or improved heat transfer capability.
When flat, they are sometimes referred to as “slats” or
“lath”
Splash-Filled – Descriptive of a cooling tower which
splash-type fill is used for the primary heat transfer
surface.
Spray-Filled – Descriptive of a cooling tower which has no
fill, with water-to-air contact depending entirely upon the
water break-up and pattern afforded by pressure spray
nozzles.
Stack – An extended fan cylinder whose primary purpose
is to achieve elevation of the discharge plume. Also see
“Fan Cylinder” and “Shell”
Stack Effect – descriptive of the capability of a ower shell
or extended fan cylinder to induce air (or aid in its
induction) through a cooling tower.
Standard Air – Air having a density of 0.075 lb per cu ft.
Essentially equivalent to 70 Deg. F. dry air at 29.92 in Hg
barometric pressure.
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 Mechanical Standards

Story – The vertical dimension between successive levels

of horizontal framework tiew, girts, joists, or bleams.
Story dimensions vary depending upon the size and
strength characteristics of the frame work material used.
Unit: ft.
Sump – A depressed chamber either below or along side
(but contiguous to) the collection basin, into which the
water flows to facilitate pump suction.
Total Air Rate – Total mass flow of dry air per hour through
the tower. Unit: lb per hr. symbol G.
Total Water Rate – Total mass flow of water per hour
through the tower. Unit: lb per hr. Symbol L.
Tower Pumping Head – The static lift from the elevation of
the basin curb to the centerline elevation of the distribution
system inlet; plus the total pressure (converted to ft of
water) necessary at the point to effect proper distribution
of the water to its point of contact with the air. Unit: ft of
water
Transverse – Pertaining to occurrances in the direction of
tower width.
Velocity Recovery Fan Cylinder – A fan cylinder on which
the discharge portion is extended in height and outwardly
flared to decrease the total head differential across the
fan, resulting in either an increase in air rate at constant
horsepower, or a decrease in horsepower at constant air
rate.
Water Loading – Circulating water rate per horizontal
square foot of fill plan area of the cooling tower. Unit gpm
per sq ft.
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 Mechanical Standards

Water Rate – Mass flow of water per square foot of fill plan
area of the cooling tower per hour. Unit: lb per sq ft per hr.
Symbol: L’.
Wet-Bulb Temperature – The temperature of the entering
or ambient air adjacent to the cooling tower as measured
with a wet-bulb thermometer. Unit: Deg. F. Symbol: WB.
Wet-Bulb Thermometer – A thermometer whose bulb is
encased within a wetted wick.
Windage – Water lost from the tower because of the
effects of wind. Sometimes called “blowout”
Wind Load – The load imposed upon a structure by a wind
blowing against its surface. Unit: lb per sq ft.

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 Mechanical Standards

COOLING TOWER MECHANICAL

COMPONENTS

Types of Fans

1. Propeller Fans: Able to move vast quantities of air at the

relatively low static pressures encountered. They are
comparatively inexpensive, may be used on any size
tower, and can develop high overall efficiencies.
2. Automatic Variable-Pitch Fans: These are propeller fans
on which a mechanized hub controls the pitch of the
blades in unison. The mechanism may be
pneumatically, hydraulically, or electrically operated to
vary the air flow and the energy consumption.
3. Centrifugal Fans: Usually of the double inlet type, used
predominantly on cooling towers designed for indoor
installations. Capable to operate against relatively high
static pressures and have inability to handle large
volume of air

4. Fans Law:
a. The capacity (cfm) varies directly as the speed (rpm)
ratio.
b. The static pressure (hs) varies as the square of either
the rpm ratio or the cfm ratio.
c. At constant blade pitch, the fan horsepower varies as
the cube of either the rpm ratio or the cfm ratio.

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 Mechanical Standards

d. At constant cfm and rpm, the fan horsepower and static

pressure vary directly with air density.
Speed reducers in Cooling Towers

Speed reduction in cooling towers is accomplished either

by differential gears of positive engagement, or by
differential pulleys (sheaves) connected through V-belts.
Gear reduction units are applied through a wide range of
horse-power ratings, from the very large down to as little
as 5 hp. V-belt drives, on the other hand, are usually
applied at ratings of 50 hp or less.

1. Gear Reduction Units: Geareducers are available in a

variety of designs and reduction ratios to accommodate
the fan speeds and horse powers encountered in cooling
towers. Spiral bevel, helical gear and worm gears sets are
most widely Generally, two-stage reduction units are
utilized for the large, slower-turning fans.

2. V-Belt Drives: These are an accepted standard for the

smaller factory-assembled cooling towers. Correctly
designed and installed, and well maintained, V-belt drives
can provide very dependable service. The drive consists of
the motor and fan sheaves, the bearing housing assembly
supporting the fan, and the V-belts.

V-belts (as opposed to cog belts) are used most commonly

for cooling tower service. A variety of V-belt designs is
available, offering a wide assortment of features. Most of
these designs are suitable for cooling tower use. In many
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 Mechanical Standards

cases, more than one belt is required to transmit power

from the motor to the fan. Multiple belts must be supplied
either as matched sets.

Drive shafts for cooling tower units

The drive shaft must be highly corrosion resistant.
Turning at full motor speed, it must be well balanced – and
capable of being re-balanced.
Transmitting full motor power over significant distances, it
must accept tremendous torque without deformation.
Subjected to long term cyclical operation, and occasional
human error, it must be capable of accepting some degree
of misalignment.
Drive shafts are described as “floating” shafts, equipped
with flexible couplings at both ends.
Where only normal corrosion is anticipated and cost is of
primary consideration, shafts are fabricated of carbon
steel, hot-dip galvanized after fabrication.
Shafts for larger industrial towers, and those that will be
operating in atmospheres more conductive to corrosion,
are usually fabricated of tubular stainless steel.
The yokes and flanges which connect to the motor and
gear reducer shafts are of cast or welded construction, in
a variety of materials compatible with that utilized for the
shaft.
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 Mechanical Standards

Valve types in a cooling tower unit

Valves are used to control and regulate flow through the water
lines serving the tower.
Valves utilized for cooling tower application include stop valves,
flow-control valves, and make-up regulator valves.
The types of valves, quantity required, and complexity of design
are dictated by the type and size of the tower, and the
requirements of the user.

Stop Valves: are usually of the gate or butterfly type .

stop valves may be incorporated into the internal distribution
system and provided by the cooling tower manufacturer.
In these cases, slide-gate type valves are used successfully when
relatively low pressures are involved.

Flow-Control Valves: are considered to be valves that discharge

to atmosphere.
They are end-of-line valves, as opposed to in-line valves.
They are used on cross-flow towers to equalize flow between
distribution basins of a tower to equalize flow between distribution
basins of a tower cell, as well as between cells of a multi-cell
tower.
Properly designed, they may be used to shut off flow to selected
distribution basins, for interim cleaning and maintenance, while
the remainder of the tower continues to operate.

Make-Up Valves: are valves utilized to automatically replenish the

normal water losses from the system.
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 Mechanical Standards

They are normally provided by the manufacturer where the cold

water collection basin is part of his scope of work. Otherwise, they
are left to the user’s responsibility.
The National Electrical Manufacturers
Association (NEMA) Standards for Cooling
Tower Motors

a. NEMA Type 1 – General Purpose: Intended primarily to

prevent accidental contact with control apparatus.
Suitable for general purpose applications indoors,
under normal atmospheric conditions. and it is not
dust-proof.

b. NEMA Type 3 – Dusttight, Raintight, and Sleet-

Resistant: Intended for outdoor use, and for protection
against wind-blown dust and water. This sheet metal
enclosure is usually adequate for use outdoors on a
cooling tower. It has a watertight conduit entrance,
mounting means external to the box, and provision for
locking and is not sleet-proof.

c. NEMA Type 3R: This is similar to Type 3, except it also

meets UL requirements for being rainproof. When
properly installed, rain cannot enter at a level higher
than the lowest live part.

d. NEMA Type 4 – Water tight and Dusttight: Enclosure is

designed to exclude water. It must pass a hose test for
water, and a 24 hour salt spray test for corrosion. This

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 Mechanical Standards

enclosure may be used outdoors on a cooling tower. It

is usually a gasketed enclosure of cast iron or stainless
steel.
e. NEMA Type 4X: Similar to Type 4, except it must pass
a 200 hour salt spray test for corrosion. It is usually a
gasketed enclosure of fiber reinforced polyester.

f. NEMA Type 6 – Submersible, Watertight, Dusttight and

Sleet-Resistant: Intended for use where occasional
submersion may be encountered. Must protect
equipment against a static head of water of 6 feet for
30 minutes.

g. NEMA Type 12 – Dusttight and Driptight: Enclosure

intended for indoor use. It provides protection intended
for indoor use. It provides protection against fibers,
flyings, lint, dust, dirt and light splashing.

h. NEMA Type 7 – Hazardous Locations – Class I Air-

Break: This enclosure is intended for use indoors in
locations defined by the National Electrical Code for
Class I, Division 1, Groups A, B, C or D hazardous
locations.

i. NEMA Type 9 – Hazardous Locations – Class II Air-

Break: Intended for use indoors in areas defined as
Class II, Division 1, Groups E, F or G hazardous
locations.

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