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The Living World

Building blocks of life and their functions:
Living organism is formed of many types of inorganic as well as organic biomolecules. Inorganic
compounds include water, minerals etc. and are always micro-biomolecules (small sized, low
molecular weight, readily soluble in water and diffusible) while organic molecules may be micro (e.g.
monosugars, amino acids etc.) or macrobiomolecules (large sized, high molecular weight, insoluble
or slightly soluble and non-diffusible e.g., proteins, fats, nucleic acids, etc.). These both types of
biomolecules play important roles in metabolism:

 Role of Water: Water forms 70-90% of the cellular pool. It forms 65% of human body. It is
formed of H and O in the ratio of 2:1. 95% of water is found in free state and 5% in combined
form in the cell.

 Role of Oxygen: Oxygen is mainly utilized in aerobic cell respiration of the nutrients inside the
mitochondria to produce energy-rich ATP molecules so is essential for life. In the absence of
oxygen, only 5% of energy available is released.

 Role of Sodium chloride (common salt): Sodium chloride plays an important role in metabolic
functions of body especially when in ionic form.

 Role of Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are organic compounds formed of C, H and O generally in

the ratio of 1:2:1. These are commonly called saccharides (Gk. saccharon = sugar). Most
organisms use carbohydrates as an important fuel, breaking these bonds and releasing energy to
sustain life.

 Role of Proteins: Proteins are polymeric compounds formed by interlinking of amino acids
(monomers) by peptide bonds. Out of about 100 types of amino acids, only 20 types of amino
acids are of biological importance. Proteins play a vital role in the formation of structures in
living organisms. Like carbohydrate and fat protein can be broken down with the release of
energy.

 Role of lipids: Lipids comprise a major group of insoluble hydrocarbons having many functions.
These are polymers of alcohols (e.g. glycerol) and fatty acids interlinked by ester bonds. Complex
lipids such as true fats are important organic molecules that are used to provide energy.

 Role of Nucleic Acid: These are polymers of nucleotides interlinked by phosphodiester bonds, so
called polynucleotides. Each nucleotide is formed of 3 components: a pentose sugar (e.g. ribose
in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA), a phosphate group and an inorganic nitrogen-base (a purine or
a pyrimidine).

DNA acts as genetic material in most organisms and controls the synthesis of structural and.
functional proteins. RNA also act as genetic material in all plant viruses e.g. TMV and helps in
protein synthesis.

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Systematics
1. The term ‘Systematics’ was proposed by Linnaeus in 1735.
2. It includes description of external morphological characters of plants or living organisms. E.g.,
morphological characters of root, stem, leave, flowers.
3. New systematics or Neo systematics or Biosystematics is a new branch. Its name was given by
Julian Huxley (1940).
4. The term taxonomy was coined by A. P. de Candolle.
5. Carolus Linnaeus is called the father of taxonomy.
6. H. Santapau is called the father of Indian taxonomy.
 Alpha taxonomy- Only morphological characters are used for identification and classification
of plants.
 Beta taxonomy- Involves genetical, anatomical, cytological, palynological, physiological and
other characters.
 Omega taxonomy- Analysis and synthesis of all information and types of data to develop
classification system based on phylogenetic relationship.
7. Cytotaxonomy – The use of cytological characters of plants in classification or in solving
taxonomic problems is called cytotaxonomy.
8. Chemotexonomy – The use of chemical compounds present in plants for classification or in
solving taxonomic problems is called chemotaxonomy or chemical taxonomy. The basic chemical
compounds used in chemotaxonomy are alkaloids, carotenoids, tannins, etc.
9. Karyotaxonomy – It is based on the characters of nucleus and chromosomes. Pattern of
chromosomal bands is most specific character for classification of organisms.

Nomenclature
1. Nomenclature is giving distinct scientific names to various structures including living organisms
for their identification.
2. The names are of two types – vernacular (common name) and scientific names.
3. Types of Nomenclature -
 Polynomials nomenclature

 Binomial nomenclature

 Trinomial nomenclature

4. Carolus Linnaeus is the founder of binomial system.

5. Linnaeus proposed scientific names in his book “Species planatarum”.

6. In binomial nomenclature, each scientific name has 2 components – generic name (genus)
and specific name(species). Eg. Solanum tuberosum (potato).

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ICBN-“International Code of Botanical Nomenclature”

1. Collection of rules regarding scientific nomenclature of plants.

2. ICBN was first proposed by Sprague, Hitchcock, Green (1930).

3. ICBN was first accepted in 1961.

Main rules of ICBN

 Name of any species consists of two names – Generic name and Specific name.

 In plant nomenclature, tautonyms are not valid i.e. generic name and specific name cannot be
the same e.g., Magnifera indica. But tautonyms are valid for animal nomenclature e.g., Naja
naja (Indian cobra).

 Length of genus or species should not be less than 3 letters and not more than 12 letters
e.g., Magnifera indica. Exception: Riccia pathankotensis

 First letter of genus should be in capital letters and first letter of specific name should be in small
letter.

 Name of scientist (who proposed nomenclature) should be written in roman in short after the
specific name e.g., Magnifera indica Lin.

 If any scientist has proposed wrong name then his name should be written in bracket and the
scientist who corrected the name should be written after the bracket e.g., Tsuga
canadensis (Lin.) Salisbury.

Type specimen (herbarium sheet) are of different types-

Holotype: Herbarium sheet on which the first description of plant is based.
Isotype: Isotype is any duplicate specimen of the holotype.
Lectotype: In case holotype is lost, second herbarium sheet prepared from the original plant is called
lectotype.
Isolectotype: Isolectotype is any duplicate specimen of the lectotype.
Syntype: In case holotype and original plant is lost then many herbarium sheet prepared from many
plants of same species is called syntype.
Isosyntype: It is a duplicate specimen of a syntype.
Neotype: In case holotype and original plant is lost then herbarium sheet prepared from other
plants of same species is called neotype.
Isoneotype: any duplicate specimen of the neotype.
Paratype: Additional description sheet used in the first description of plant is called paratype. It is
prepared from some other plant of same species having some variations.
Taxonomic categories
a. Species b. Genus c. Family
d. Order e. Class f. Phylum g. Kingdom

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 Biological Classification
Systems of Classification:
 Identification of differences among organisms and placing them into groups that reflect their
most significant features and relationship is called biological classification.
 Biological classification was first proposed by Aristotle who divided plants into herbs, shrubs and
trees. Animals were classified into with RBC’s and without RBC’s.

Two kingdom classification:

It consists of artificial and natural system of classification.

 Artificial system of classification was proposed by Linnaeus.

 The first natural system of classification was proposed by Schimper (1879) followed
by Eichler (1883).

Five kingdom classification:

(1) Given by R. H. Whittaker (1969).

(2) The five kingdom classification of Whittaker was based on 3 characters:

(a) Complexity of cell: Cell is prokaryote or eukaryote, on this basis, kingdom Monera is formed.
And all the prokaryotes are grouped into it.
(b) Complexity of organism: Organism is unicellular or multicellular, on this basis kingdom
Protista was formed, and all the unicellular eukaryotes are grouped into it.
(c) Nutrition: Organism is autotrophic or heterotrophic, on this basis kingdom Fungi, Plantae
and Animalia were formed.
(3) The five kingdoms classified by Whittaker are:

Kingdom Monera:

 Includes prokaryotes.

 Typically unicellular organisms (but one group is mycelia).

 genetic material is naked circular DNA, not enclosed by nuclear envelop.

 Ribosomes and simple chromatophores are the only subcellular organelles in the cytoplasm. The
ribosomes are 70S.

 Gas vacuole may be present.

 The predominant mode of nutrition is absorpitive. But some groups are photosynthetic and
chemosynthetic.

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 The organisms are non-motile ior move by beating of simple gflagella or by gliding.

 Flagella composed of many interwined chains of a protein flagellin.

 Maoneran cells are moicroscopic.

 Most organisms bear a rigid cell wall (peptidoglycan).

 Reproduction is primarily asexual by binary fission or budding. Mitotic apparatus is not formed
during cell division.

 Examples: bacteria, actinomycetes, mycoplasma and cyanobacteria.

 Smallest and most abundant organism on Earth.

Bacteria:
 Bacteria are found in various shapes like:

a) Coccus (spherical)

b) Bacillus (rod-shaped)

c) Vibrio (comma shaped)

d) Spirillum (spiral shaped)

 Bacteria found almost everywhere and can be Photosynthetic autotrophs, Chemosynthetic

autotrophs or Heterotrophs.

Archaebacteria:
 Archaebacteria has different cell wall structure due to which they can live in most harsh habitats.

a) Halophiles (salt-loving), e.g., halobacterium and halococcus

b) Thermoacidophiles (in hot springs), e.g., sulfobolus and thermoplasma

c) Methanogen (marshy area),e.g., Methanobacterium, Methanolinea

 Methanogens are also found in the guts of several ruminant animals such as cows and buffalos
and they are responsible for the production of methane (biogas) from the dung of these animals.

Eubacteria:
 These are also known as true bacteria.

 They have a rigid cell wall.

 They posses flagellum, if motile.

 They also known as blue green algae or Cyanobacteria.
 Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic autotrophs.

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 These are unicellular, colonial or filamentous algae.
 Colonies are surrounded by gelatinous sheath.
 Some of the eubacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen by specialized cells,
e.g. Anabaena and Nostoc. These special cells are called heterocyst.
 Chemosynthetic autotrophs: Oxidize various inorganic substances such as nitrates, nitrites and
ammonia and use the released energy for their ATP production. They play a great role in
recycling nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous, iron and sulphur.
 Heterotrophic bacteria: The most abundant in nature
a) Most of them are decomposer

b) They are helpful in making curd from milk.

c) They are helpful in Production of antibiotics

d) Some are pathogen causing diseases like cholera, typhoid, and tetanus.

 Bacteria reproduce mainly by fission, also produce spore in unfavorable condition.

 Reproduce sexually by transfer of DNA form one bacteria to other, the process
called conjugation.

Mycoplasma:
 Completely lack a cell wall.

 Smallest living cells known.

 Can survive even without oxygen.

 Pathogenic in animals and plants.

Kingdom Protista:
 All are unicellular and eukaryotic.

 Primarily aquatic, can live in moist places.

 Forms a link with the others dealing with plants, animals and fungi.

 The cell body contains a well defined nucleus and membrane bound organelles.

 Some have cilia or flagella.

 Reproduce asexually and sexually by a process involving cell fusion and zygote formation.

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 PHOTOSYNTHETIC AUTOTROPHS
Chrysophytes:
 Includes diatoms and golden algae (desmids)

 They are found in freshwater as well as in marine environments.

 Mostly planktonic ( passive swimmer)

 Cell walls overlap to fit together like a soap box.

 Cell wall contains silica hence indestructible.

 Their accumulation forms ‘Diatomaceous Earth’.

 Used in polishing, filtration of oils and syrups.

 Diatoms are the chief ‘producers’ in the oceans.

Dinoflagellates :
 Marine, photosynthetic.

 Cell wall has stiff cellulose plates.

 Appears yellow, green, brown, blue or red depending on the pigments.

 Have two flagella − one longitudinal and other transversely in a furrow between wall plates.

 Red Dinoflagellates (Gonyaulax) form red tides.

Kingdom Fungi
 Fungi are eukaryotic organisms.

 They are non-vascular.

 They reproduce by means of spores called conidia or sporangiospores or zoospores.

 Depending on the species and conditions both sexual and asexual spores may be produced.

 They are non-motile.

 Exhibit the phenomenon of alteration of generation.

 The vegetative body of the fungi may be unicellular or composed of microscopic threads
called hyphae. The network of hyphae is known as mycelium.
 Cell wall composed of chitin.

 Fungi are heterotrophic organisms.

 Store their food as starch.

 Nutrition in fungi is saprophytic, or parasitic or symbiotic.

 Reproduction in fungi is both by sexual and asexual means. Sexual state is referred to
as teleomorph, asexual state is referred to as anamorph.

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 LICHENS
 Forms symbiotic relation with alga and fungus.
 Algal partner: phycobiont, fungal partner:mycobiont.
 Vegetative reproduction by fragmentation.
 Asexual as well as sexual reproduction.
 Three types:
1. Crustose lichen: crust like growth,Thallus flat irregularly lobed.example:Rhizocarpon,
Graphis
2. Foliose lichen: Thallus like dry forked leaf, flat ,irregularly lobed example:Parmelia ,
Peltigera
3. Fruticose lichen: Branched like a bush and attached to the substratum with the help of
flattened disc. Example: Usnea , Cladonia

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Kingdom Plantae
 Most of the plants are eukaryotic.

 They contain chlorophyll.

 Cells are surrounded by cell wall.

 Cell walls of plant cells are comprised of cellulose.

 They have an ability to grow by cell division. Growth occurs due to the presence of definite
growing points or cells. In higher forms, growing areas are called meristems.

 In life cycle of plant cells, the interchanges occur from the embryos and are supported by other
tissues and self produ ce.

 Plants have tissue and organ.

 They obtain their energy from sun through photosynthesis.

 Plants reproduce both sexually and asexually. Alternation of generation is found in plants.

 They lack motility.

Kingdom Animalia
 Animals are eukaryotic, multicellular and heterotrophic organisms.

 They have multiple cells with mitochondria

 They depend on other organisms for food.

 The size of animals ranges from a few celled organism like the mesozoans to animals weighing
many tons like the blue whale.

 The animal cell contains organelles like the nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi complex, endoplasmic
reticulum, ribosomes, lysosomes, vacuoles, centrioles, and cytoskeleton.

 They have tissue/organ/organ system.

 Organ systems are skeletal system, muscular system, digestive system, respiratory system,
circulatory system, excretory system, reproductive system, immune system and the endocrine
system.

 Most animals have the ability to move, they show rapid movement as compared to other
organisms.

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 Plant Kingdom
Kingdom Plantae includes green, brown and red algae, liwerworts, mosses, ferns and seed plants
with or without flowers. They have the following characters:-

(1) Multicellular organisms with walled and frequently vacuolate eukaryotic cells.

(2) They contain photosynthetic pigment in plastids.

(3) Principle mode of nutrition is photosynthesis but number of plants has become absorptive.

(4) Reproduction is primarily asexual or sexual. The reproductive organs are multicellular.

(5) A multicellular embryo is formed during development from the zygote. Algae lack embryo stage.

Life cycle consists of alternating haploid gametophyte and diploid sporophyte generation. This
phenomenon is called alternation of generation.

Thallophyta
Algae

(1) The branch of botany dealing with the study of algae is called as phycology or algology.

(2) It is derived from the Greek word Phykos which means 'alga' or 'sea weed'.

(3) They are simple, autotrophic non-vascular plants having unicelled sex organs and no embryo
formation.

(4) According to Fritsch, (1935) the designation alga must include all holophytic organisms.

(5) Specialized habitat

(1) Chlorophyceae
Plants fresh water or marine.

Forms unicelled to parenchymatous.

Chief pigments – Chlorophyll a, b; a, b, g– carotenes, lycopene, lutein, violaxanthin.

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Reserve food – Starch and oils.
Zoospore formation occurs.

Male gametes flagellate.

Sexual reproduction – Isogamous, anisogamous or oogamous.

(2) Phaeophyceae
Plants marine

Forms unicelled to parenchymatous

Chief pigments – Chlorophyll a, c; beta–carotene, fucoxanthin, lutein, violaxanthin, diatoxanthin.

Reserve food – Laminarin, mannitol and oils.
Zoospore formation occurs.

Male gametes flagellate.

Sexual reproduction – Isogamous , anisogamous or oogamous.

(3) Rhodophyceae
Plants generally marine.

Forms filamentous to parenchymatous.

Chief pigments – Chlorophyll a, d is present but chlorophyll c is absent; a, b–carotene, lutein,

violaxanthin, fucoxanthin, myxoxanthin, g–phycoerythrin, g–phycocyanin and allophycocyanin.
Reserve food – Floridean starch, galactan –SO4 polymers.
No zoospore formation.

Male gametes non-flagellate.

Sexual reproduction by specialized type of oogamy.

Life cycle haplobiontic or diplobiontic.

Bryophyta
(1) Bryophyta (Gk: Bryon = moss; phyton = plants) includes the simplest and primitive land plants.

(2) Due to peculiar type of their habitats, they are regarded as 'the amphibians of the plant
kingdom'.

(3) Habitat: Bryophytes usually grow in moist and shady places.

(4) Specialized habitats: Some bryophytes grow in diverse habitats such as –
(a) Aquatic (e.g., Riccia fluitans, Ricciocarpus natans, Riella), epiphytes (e.g., Dendroceros,
Radula protensa and many mosses), saprophytes (e.g., Buxbaumia aphylla, Cryptothallus
mirabilis)

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 (b) Dry habitats such as dry heaths (e.g., Polytrichum juniperinum), deserts (e.g., Tortula
desertorum) and dry rocks (e.g., Porella platyphylla).

(5) Sexual reproduction: The male sex organ is called as antheridium and the female as
archegonium.

(6) Salient features of classes

(i) Hepaticopsida: The latin word Hepatica means liver. Thus the members of hepticopsida are
popularly known as liverworts.
(ii) Anthocerotopsida: This class is characterized by the following characters –
Gametophyte is thalloid. Thalli are lobed, dorsiventral, and internally homogenous without
any differentiation of tissues.

Scales are absent.

Each cell possesses single (some times more) large chloroplast with central pyrenoid.

Antheridia are endogenous in origin, borne singly or in groups inside the closed cavities.

Sporogonium is differentiated into foot, meristematic zone and capsule (the seta is absent).

Capsule has central sterile columella.

(iii) Bryopsida: The members of bryopsida are commonly known as mosses. The class is
characterised by the following characters –
Gametophyte is differentiated into two stages – prostrate protonema and erect radial leafy
shoot.

Leaf-like appendages are spirally arranged on stem – like axis.

Rhizoids are multicellular with oblique septa.

Sex organs develop from superficial cells.

Sporogonium is differentiated into foot, seta and capsule.

Wall of capsule is several layered with stomata on epidermis.

The capsule has central columella.

Pteridophyta
(1) The pteridophytes (Gk. Pteron = feather and phyton = plants ; means plants with feather like
fronds or ferns). They are flowerless, seedless, spore producing vascular plants which have
successfully invaded the land.

(2) Habitat: The plants of pteridophytes are mostly terrestrial. They prefer shady habitats.
(3) They have Sporophytic plant body

(4) Apical growth: The pteridophyte generally possesses a single apical cell with three cutting faces
in the shoot apex.

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(5) Salient features of sub-phyla

(i) Sub-phylum: Psilopsida

(a) These are the oldest known vascular plants; most of them (except Psilotum and
Tmesipteris) are fossils.
(b) Plant body is relatively less differentiated.

(c) Roots are absent; instead dichotomously branched rhizome is present.

(d) Aerial axis is either naked or have small spirally arranged leaves.

(e) Sporangia are cauline (i.e., directly borne on the axis or stem); they are lateral or
terminal in position. e.g., Psilotum, Tmesipteris.

(ii) Sub-Phylum: Lycopsida

(a) Plant body is differentiated into root, stem and leaves.

(b) Leaves small (i.e., microphyllous) with a single unbranched vein.

(c) Sporangia develop in the axil of the sporophylls.

(d) Sporophylls generally form compact strobili. e.g., Lycopodium, Selaginella, etc.

(iii) Sub-Phylum: Sphenopsida

(a) Stem differentiated into nodes and internodes.

(b) Leaves microphyllous, present in whorls at each node.

(c) Sporangia are borne on the sporangiophores which form compact cones at the apex of the
fertile branches. e.g., Equisetum.

(iv) Sub-Phylum: Pteropsida

(a) Plant body well differentiated into root, stem and leaves.

(b) Leaves megaphyllous, pinnately compound.

(c) Sporangia develop on the ventral surface of the sporophylls, usually aggregated into sori.
e.g., Dryopteris, Pteris, Pteridium, Polypodium, etc.

Angiosperms
The angiosperms, or flowering plants, constitute the most dominant and ubiquitous vascular plants
of present day flora which changed the green and yellow melancholy of the earth's vegetation by the
colourful brightness and fragrance of their flower.

(i) Dicotyledons :
They are show following distinguished characteristics.

(a) Tap roots found in the members of this group.

(b) The leaves in members of these class exihibit reticulate (net like) venation.

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 (c) The flowers are tetramerous or pentamerous having four or five members in the various
floral whorls, respectively.

(d) The vascular bundles arranged in a ring, numbering 2–6, open and with cambium.

(e) The seeds of dicotyledons are with two cotyledons as the name indicate.

(ii) Monocotyledons:
They are show following distinguished characteristics:

(a) Adventitious roots found in the members of this group.

(b) The leaves are simple with parallel venation.

(c) The flowers are trimerous having three members in each floral whorl.

(d) The vascular bundles scattered in the ground tissue, many in number, closed and without
cambium.

(e) The seeds of monocotyledons are with one cotyledon as the name indicates. e.g., Cereals,
bamboos, sugarcane, palms, banana, lilies and orchids.

Gymnosperms
(1) Living gymnosperms are mostly perennials, xerophytic, evergreen, arboreal and woody plants.

(2) They grow as wood trees, bushy shrubs or rarely as climbers (e.g., Gnetales).

(3) None of them are herbs or annuals.

(4) External features:

(i) The plant body is sporophyte and differentiated into root, stem and leaves.

(ii) The plant possesses well developed tap root system. In some cases the roots are symbiotically
associated with algae (e.g., Coralloid roots of Cycas) or with fungi (e.g., Mycorrhizal roots of
Pinus).

(iii) The stem is erect, aerial, solid, woody and branched (unbranched in Cycadales) but almost
tuberous in Zamia.

(iv) The leaves may be microphyllous or megaphyllous

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 Animal Kingdom

(i) Characters of Non Chordata (Invertebrates):The animals which lack a notochord are called
invertebrates. e.g. Amoeba, sponges, Hydra, worms, insects, etc., Invertebrates are
characterised by the following salient features –

(1) The vertebral column is absent.

(2) The nerve cord is solid in nature.

(3) The nerve cord is present on the ventral side and never on the dorsal side.

(4) When alimentary canal is present, it lies dorsal to the nerve cord.

(5) Invertebrates may be acoelomate or pseudocoelomate or true coelomate.

(6) They have either asymmetry or radial symmetry or bilateral symmetry.

(7) The circulatory system is open type or closed type.

(8) They exhibit all possible type of reproduction.

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 Phylum Protozoa and Porifera

 Phylum Cnidaria and Ctenophora

 Phylum Platyhelmithes and Nematoda

 Phylum Mollusca and Echinodermata

(ii) Characters of Chordata (Vertebrates): The animals which possess a notochord are called
vertebrates.

(1) Aquatic, aerial or terrestrial.

(2) Body small to large, bilaterally symmetrical and metamerically segmented.

(3) A post anal tail usually projects beyond the anus at some stage and may or may not persist
in the adult.

(4) Exoskeleton often present; well developed in most vertebrates.

(5) Body wall triploblastic with 3 germinal layers : ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.

(6) Coelomate animals having a true coelom, enterocoelic or schizocoelic in origin.

(7) A skeletal rod, the notochord, present at some stage in life cycle.

(8) A cartilaginous or bony, living and jointed...

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 Morphology & Anatomy of
flowering Plants
Morphology (Gr. Morphos = Form; logos = Study) is the branch of science which deals with the study
of form and structure. In botany, it generally means the study of external features, forms and
relative positions of different organs on plants.
Angiospermic or flowering plants show a great variety of shape, size and form. The size ranges from
the minuteWolffia and Lamna (0.1cm) to the tall Eucalyptus (up to 100 metre) and large sized
Banyan (Ficus bengalensis).
Parts of a flowering plant:
The Root
The root is usually an underground part of the plant which helps
in fixation and absorption of water. The root with its branches is
known as the root system.
(1) Characteristics of the root
(i) The root is the descending portion of the plant axis and
is positively geotropic.
(ii) It is non-green or brown in colour.
(iii)The root is not differentiated into nodes and internodes.
(iv) As per the rule the root does not bear leaves and true
buds.
(v) Usually the root tip is protected by a root cap.
(vi) The root bears unicellular root hairs.
(vii) Lateral roots arise from the root which are endogenous
in origin (arises from pericycle).
(2) Types of root system:
The root system is generally of two types:
(i) Tap root system: The tap root system develops from radicle of the germinating seed. It is
also called the normal root system. The tap root system is present in dicotyledonous plants.
(ii) Adventitious root system: The root system that develops from any part of the plant body
other than the radicle is called the adventitious root system. It is mostly seen in
monocotyledonous plants.
The Stem
(1) The stem develops from the plumule of the germinating seed.
(2) The stem shows the differentiation of nodes and internodes.
(3) The place where the leaf develops on the stem is called the node.
(4) The portion of the stem between two successive nodes is called the internode.
(5) Characteristics of stem

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 (i) Stem is an ascending axis of the plant and develops from the plumule and epicotyl of the
embryo.
(ii) It is generally erect and grows away from the soil towards light. Therefore, it is
negatively geotropic and positively phototropic.
(iii) The growing apex of stem bears a terminal bud for growth in length.
(iv) In flowering plants, stem is differentiated into nodes and internodes.
(v) The lateral organs of stem (i.e., leaves and branches) are exogenous in origin (from
cortical region).
(vi) The young stem is green and photosynthetic.
(vii) Hair, if present, are generally multicellular.
(viii) In mature plants, stem and its branches bear flowers and fruits.

The Leaf
The leaf is a green, flat, thin, expanded lateral appendage of
stem which is borne at a node and bears a bud in its axil. It is
exogenous in origin and develops from the leaf primordium of
shoot apex. The green colour of leaf is due to presence of the
photosynthetic pigment – chlorophyll which helps plants to
synthesize organic food. The green photosynthetic leaves of a
plant are collectively called foliage. They are borne on stem in
acropetal succession.
(1) Characteristics of lea
(i) The leaf is a lateral dissimilar appendage of the stem.
(ii) A leaf is always borne at the node of stem.
(iii) Generally there is always an axillary bud in the axil of a
leaf.
(iv) It is exogenous in origin and develops from the swollen leaf primordium of the growing apex.
(v) The growth of leaf is limited.
(vi) The leaves do not possess any apical bud or a regular growing point.
(vii) A leaf has three main parts – Leaf base, petiole and leaf lamina. In addition, it may possess
two lateral outgrowths of the leaf base, called stipules.
(viii) The leaf lamina is traversed by prominent vascular strands, called veins.

Flower
It can be defined as modified dwarf shoot which is meant for sexual reproduction.
(1) Floral Parts of a typical flower:
(i) Calyx: It is the outermost whorl composed ofsepals. The
calyx may show number of modifications. They are:
Campanulate : Bell shaped, e.g., Althaea.
Cupulate : Cup like, e.g., Gossypium.
Petaloid : Enlarged and brightly coloured sepals,
e.g., Clerodendron, Mussaenda

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 (ii) Corolla: It is composed of petals and is the second whorl.
The corolla may undergo modifications or possess some special appendages.
(a) Sepaloid : Green or dull coloured sepal. e.g., Anona, Polyalthia and Artabotrys.
(b) Saccate : The corolla tube may form a pouch on one side. e.g., Antirrhinum.
(c) Spurred : Sometimes one or two petals or the entire corolla tube grow downwards
forming a spur that usually stores nectar. e.g., Aquilegia vulgaris.
(d) Corona : Special appendages of different kinds like scales, hairs develop from the corolla.
Such appendages are called corona. e.g., Passiflora, Oleander and Nerium.
(iii) Androecium: It is the third whorl composed of stamens.
The mode of attachment of a filament to anther by connective is called fixation. It is of
following types:
(a) Adnate : Filament attached to the total length of the anther on the back.
e.g., Michelia (Campa).
(b) Basifixed : Filament is attached to the base of the anther e.g.,...

ANATOMY
A tissue may be defined as, “a group of similar or dissimilar cells having common origin and
performing a specific functions.”

Tissues are mainly divided into three categories:

(A) Meristematic tissues or Meristems

(B) Permanent tissue

(C) Secretory tissue

Meristematic Tissues or Meristems

(1) They contain immature and young cells and are capable of repeated divisions.

(2) Intercellular spaces are not present in meristematic tissue.

(3) They contain a homogeneous thin wall.

(4) They contain large nuclei associated with abundant cytoplasm.

(5) They are metabolically very active but they do not store food material.

(6) Only proto-plastids are present instead of plastids, chloroplast absent.

(7) Dense cytoplasm is present which contains several premature mitochondria.

(8) Vacuoles are absent.

(9) Meristematic cells are isodiametric in shape.

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Types of meristems
The meristems may be classified on the basis of their mode of origin, position or function:

(i) According to origin and development: On the basis of origin, meristematic tissues are of three
types :

(a) Promeristem or Primordial meristem: The promeristem originates from embryo and,
therefore, called primordial or embryonic meristem. It is present in the regions where an
organ or a part of plant body is initiated.

(b) Primary meristem: A primary meristem originates from promeristem and retains its
meristematic activity. It is located in the apices of roots, stems and the leaf primordia.

(c) Secondary Meristem: They always arise in permanent tissues and have no typical
promeristem. Some living permanent cells may regain the meristematic nature.

(ii) According to position: On the basis of their position in the plant body meristems are classified
into three categories:

(a) Apical meristem: This meristem is located at the growing apices of main and lateral shoots
and roots. These cells are responsible for linear growth of an organ.

(b) Intercalary meristem: These are the portions of apical meristems which are separated from
the apex during the growth of axis and formation of permanent tissues. It is present mostly
at the base of node (e.g., Mentha viridis-Mint), base of internode (e.g., stem of many
monocots viz., Wheat, Grasses, Pteridophyts like Equisetum) or at the base of the leaf (e.g.,
Pinus).

(c) Lateral meristem: These meristems occur laterally in the axis, parallel to the sides of stems
and roots. This meristem consists of initials which divide mainly in one plane (periclinal) and
result increase in the diameter of an organ.

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(iii) According to function: Haberlandt in 1890 classified the primary meristem at the apex of stem
under the following three types :

(a) Protoderm: It is the outermost layer of the apical meristem which develops into the
epidermis or epidermal tissue system.

(b) Procambium: It occurs inside the protoderm. Some of the cells of young growing region
which by their elongation and differentiation give rise to primary vascular tissue constitute
the procambium.

(c) Ground meristem: It constitutes the major part of the apical meristem develops ground
tissues like hypodermis, cortex, endodermis, pericycle, pith and medullary rays.

(iv) According to plane of cell division: On the basis of their plane of cell division meristem are
classified into three categories :

(a) Mass meristem: The cells divide anticlinally in all planes, so mass of cells is
formed. e.g., formation of spores, cortex, pith, endosperm.

(b) Plate meristem: The cells divide anticlinally in two planes, so plate like area
increased. e.g., formation of epidermis and lamina of leaves.

(c) Rib or File meristem: The cells divide anticlinally in one plane, so row or column of cells is
formed. e.g,,formation of lateral root.

Permanent Tissues
Permanent tissues are made up of mature cells which have lost the capacity to divide and have
attained a permanent shape, size and function due to division and differentiation in meristematic
tissues. The cells of these tissues are either living or dead, thin-walled or thick-walled. Permanent
tissues are of three types :

(1) Simple tissues: Simple tissues are a group of cells which are all alike in origin, form and function.
They are further grouped under three categories :

(i) Parenchyma: Parenchyma is most simple and unspecialized tissue which is concerned mainly
with the vegetative activities of the plant.

(ii) Collenchyma: The term collenchyma was coined by Schleiden (1839). It is the tissue of
primary body.

The cells of this tissue contain protoplasm and are living.

The cell walls are thickened at the corners and are made up of cellulose, hemicellulose and
pectin.

(iii) Sclerenchyma: It was discovered and coined by Mettenius (1805).

The main feature of sclerenchyma are :

It consist of thick-walled dead cells.

The cells vary in shape, size and origin.

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Special or secretory tissues
These tissue perform special function in plants, e.g., secretion of resins gum, oil and latex.

These tissues are of two types :

(1) Laticiferous tissues

(2) Glandular tissues

(1) Laticiferous tissues: They are made up of thin walled, elongated, branched and multinucleate
(coenocytic) structures that contain colourless, milky or yellow coloured juice called latex. These
occur irregularly distributed in the mass of parenchymatous cells. latex is contained inside the
laticiferous tissue which is of two types:

(i) Latex cells:

(a) A laticiferous cell is a very highly branched cell with long slender processes ramifying in
all directions in the ground tissue of the organ.

(b) Plants having such tissues are called simple or non-articulated

laticifers. e.g., Calotropis(Asclepiadaceae) Nerium, Vinca (Apocyanaceae), Euphorbia (Eu
phorbiaceae), Ficus (Moraceae).

(ii) Latex vessels:

(a) They are formed due to fusion of cells and form network like structure in all directions.

(b) Plants having such tissues are called compound or articulated laticifers. e.g., Argemone,
Papaver(Papaveraceae), Sonchus (Compositae), Hevea, Manihot (Euphorbiaceae).

(2) Glandular tissue: This is a highly specialized tissue consisting of glands, discharging diverse
functions, including secretory and excretory. Glands may be external or internal.

(i) External glands: They are generally occur on the epidermis of stem and leaves as glandular
hair in Plumbagoand Boerhaavia.

(ii) Internal glands: These are present internally and are of several types. e.g., oil glands
in Citrus and Eucalyptus, resinous ducts in Pinus.

The Tissue System

A collection of tissues performing the same general function is known as a “Tissue System''.
According to Sachs (1975) there are three major tissue systems in plants as follows:

(1) Epidermal tissue system

(2) Ground or fundamental tissue system

(3) Vascular tissue system

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 (1) Epidermal tissue system: The tissues of this system originate from the outermost layer of
apical meristem.

(i) Epidermis: Epidermis is composed of single layer cells.

(ii) Cuticle and Wax: In aerial parts, epidermis is covered by cuticle. The epidermal cells
secrete a waxy substance called cutin, which forms a layer of variable thickness (the
cuticle) within and on the outer surface of its all walls. it helps in reducing the loss of
water by evaporation.

(iii) Stomata: Stomata are minute apertures in the epidermis. Each aperture is bounded by
two kidney shaped cells, called guard cells. Stomata are absent in roots.

Depending upon distribution of stomata, the leaves are :

(a) Apple-mulberry type: e.g. Oxalis, Mulberry, Apple.

(b) Potato type: e.g. Bifacial (dorsiventral leaves of pea, bean, tomato).

(c) Oat type: e.g. Suberect (isobillateral) leaves of most grasses and cereals (monocotyledens).

(d) Nymphea type: e.g. Floating leaves of Nelumbo, Nymphia, water lily.

(e) Potamogeton type: e.g. Submerged plants like Hydrilla, Vallisneria, Potamogeton.

(iv) Trichomes: These are epidermal outgrowths present temporarily or permanently on almost
all plant parts.

(v) Root hairs: They are enlargements of special epiblema cells called trichoblasts and occurs in
a particular zone of young.

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 Structural Organization in
Animals
Epithelial Tissues
 An epithelium is a tissue composed of one or more layers of cells that cover the body surface and
lines its various cavities.
 It serves for protection, secretion and excretion..
 Epithelial tissue evolved first in animal kingdom.
 It originates from all the three primary germ layers. e.g. Epidermis arises from ectoderm, Coelomic
epithelium from the mesoderm and epithelial lining of alimentary canal from the endoderm.
 Types of Epithelium

Glands
 Multicellular exocrine glands are classified by structure, using the shape of their ducts and the
complexity (branching) of their ducts system as distinguishing characteristics.
 Shape include tubular and alveolar (Sac like).
 Simple exocrine glands e.g. intestinal glands, mammalian sweat glands, cutaneous glands of frog etc.
have only one duct leading to surface.
 Compound exocrine glands have two or more ducts e.g. liver, salivary glands etc.

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 Structural classification of exocrine glands:

Type Example

Simple tubular Intestinal glands, crypts of Lieberkuhn in ileum.

Simple coiled tubular Sweat glands in man

Simple branched tubular Gastric (stomach) gland, and Uterine gland.

Simple alveolar Mucous gland in skin of frog, Poison gland of toad and seminal vesicle.

Simple branched Sebaceous glands

alveolar
Compound tubular Brunner’s gland, bulbourethral gland and liver.

Compound alveolar Sublingual and submandibular parotid salivary gland

Compound tubulo Parotid salivary glands, Mammary gland and Pancreas.

alveolar

Muscle Tissues
 Muscle cells are highly contractile (contracting to 1/3 or 1/2 the resting length).
 Muscle cells lose capacity to divide, multiply and regenerate to a great extent. Study of muscle is
called myology.
 About 40% to 50% of our body mass is of muscles.
 The muscle cells are always elongated, slender and spindle-shaped, fibre-like cells, These are,
therefore called muscle fibres.
 These possess large numbers of myofibrils formed of actin and myosin.

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 (f) Difference between three types muscle fibres

S.No. Feature Striated or Striped or Non-striated or Unstriped Cardiac muscle fibres

Skeletal or Voluntary or Smooth or Visceral or
muscle fibres Involuntary muscle fibres
1. Shape Long cylindrical Fusiform (thick in middle Network of fibres
tapering at ends) (0.02 nm
to 0.2 nm long)
2. Stripes Dark A bands and light I Absent Present
bands present
3. Nucleus Many (syncytial) at Single at the centre of each Many nuclei between successive end
periphery cell plates central position
4. Unit Sarcomeres, cylindrical Fusiform cells with Oblique cross-connecting fibres make
long myofibrils placed inconspicuous borders this muscle an interconnected bundle
end to end forming of myofibrils
cylindrical myofibrils
5. Attachment To bones To soft organs or viscera Not attached to other organs except
major blood vessels which are
isolated and covered by pericardium
6. Sarcolemma Distinct Absent Absent

7. Sarcoplasmic Well developed Less extensive Poorly formed

Reticulum
8. Blood supply Rich Poor Rich

9. Contraction Quick, fatigue fast Slow, sustained contraction Rhythmic, contractions originate in
heart (pace maker immune to
fatigue)
10. Location Generally peripheral, Central, in hollow visceral Only in heart
tongue, proximal part of organs, iris of the eye,
oesophagus dermis of the skin
11. Intercalated Absent Absent Present
discs
12. T-tubule Well developed Lacking Well developed
system
13. Innervated Motor nerves from Nerves from autonomic Nerves from central and autonomic
nerves central nervous system nervous system nervous system (myogenic)
(neurogenic) (neurogenic)
14. Fibres Unbranched Unbranched Fibres join by short oblique bridges

15. Action Voluntary Involuntary Involuntary

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Connective Tissues
 It connects and supports all the other tissues, the intercellular element predominating.
 The cellular element is usually scanty. In function this tissue may be mechanical, nutritive and
defensive.
 It is a tissue made up of matrix (abundant intercellular substance or ground substance) and living
cells that connects and support different tissues.
 Connective tissue was called mesenchyme by Hertwig (1893).
 Types of connective tissues

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 (1) On the basis of their texture:
The bones are divided into two categories spongy or cancellous or tubecular bones and compact
or periosteal bones

Bone Cartilage

1. Matrix is composed of a tough, inflexible material, 1. Matrix is composed of a firm, but flexible material,

the ossein. the chondrin.

2. Matrix is always impregnated with calcium salts. 2. Matrix may be free or impregenated with calcium

salts.

3. Bone cells lie in lucunae singly. 3. Cartilage cells lie in lacunae singly or in groups of

two or four.

4. Osteocytes are irregular and give off branching 4. Chondroblasts are oval and devoid of processes.

processes in the developing bone.

5. Lacunae give off canaliculi. 5. Lacunae lack canaliculi.

6. There are outer and inner layers of special bone 6. There are no special cartilage-forming cells.

forming cells, the osteoblasts, that produce new Cartilage grows by division of all chondroblasts.

osteocytes, which secrete new lamellae of matrix.

7. Matrix occurs largely in concentric lamellae. 7. Matrix occurs in a homogenous mass.

8. Bone is highly vascular. 8. Cartilage in nonvascular.

9. Bone may have bone marrow at the centre. 9. No such tissue is present.

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(6) Number of RBC: The number of RBCs is counted by instrument haemocytometer.

S.No. Organism Number of RBCs

1. Male 5 – 5.4 million / cubic mm of blood

2. Female 4.5 – 5 million / cubic mm of blood

3. Infants 65 – 70 lacs/ cubic mm of blood

4. Embryo 85 lacs/ cubic mm of blood

5. Rabbit 70 lacs / cubic mm of blood

6. Frog 4 lacs / cubic mm of blood

(7) Life span of RBC:

S.No. Organism Life span of RBCs

1. Mammals and Human 120 days or 4 months

2. Rabbit 80 days

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 Cell: The Unit of Life
(1) Cytology: (G.k. kyios = cell ; logas = study) is the branch of biology which comprises the study of
cell structure and function.
(2) Cell is the structural and functional unit of all living beings.

(3) There are two types of cells: plant cell and animal cell.

Plant cell Animal cell

Cell wall present. Cell wall absent.

Nucleus usually lies near periphery due to vacuole. Nucleus present near the centre.

Centrosome is usually absent from higher plant cells, Usually centrosome is present that helps in
except lower motile cells. formation of spindle fibres.

Plastids are present, except fungi. Plastids are absent.

Mitochondria is generally spherical or oval in shape. Generally tubular in shape.

Single large central vacuole is present. Many vacuoles occur, which are smaller in size.

Number of mitochondria from 200 – 2000. Number of mitochondria is approximately 1600 –

16000 in liver cells.

Cytoplasm during cell division usually divides by cell Cytoplasm divides by furrowing or cleavage
plate method. method.

Plant cells are capable of forming all the amino acids Animal cells cannot form all the amino acids,
coenzymes and vitamins. coenzymes and vitamins.

There is no contractile vacuole. Contractile vacuole may occur to pump excess

water.

Sodium chloride is toxic to plant cells. Tissue fluid containing sodium chloride bathes the
animal cells.

Plant cells are generally well over 100 micrometer Generally much smaller than 100 micrometer
long.

Spindle formed during cell division is anastral. Spindle formed during cell division are amphiastral.

Lysosomes present in less number. Lysosomes present in more number.

Chromosomes are larger in size. Chromosomes are smaller in size.

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 Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

It is a single membrane system. It is a double membrane system.

Cell wall surrounds the plasma membrane. Cell wall surrounds the plasma membrane in some
protists, most fungi and all plant cell. Animal cell
lack it.

Cell wall composed of peptidoglycans. Strengthening It is composed of polysaccharide. Strengthening

material is mureir. material is chitin in fungi & cellulose in others
plants.

Cell membrane bears respiratory enzymes. It lacks respiratory enzymes.

Cytoplasm lacks cell organelles e.g., Mitochondria, Cytoplasm contains various cell organelles.
ER, Golgi body etc.

Ribosomes are 70 S type. Ribosomes are 80 S type.

There are no streaming movements of cytoplasm. Cytoplasm show streaming movements.

Endocytosis and exocytosis do not occur. Endocytosis and exocytosis occur in animal cells.

Mitotic spindle is not formed in cell division. Mitotic spindle is formed in cell division.

The mRNA does not need processing. The mRNA needs processing.

Nuclear material is not enclosed by nuclear envelope It is enveloped by nuclear envelope. Nucleus is
and lies directly in cytoplasm. It is called nucleoid. distinct from cytoplasm.

DNA is circular and not associated with histone Nuclear DNA is linear and associated with histone
proteins. proteins extranuclear DNA is circular and protein
free.

Replication of DNA occurs continuously throughout Replication of DNA occurs during S- Phase of cell
cell cycle. cycle only.

These have small size (0.5 to 10 micrometer) and These are relatively large (10 – 15 micrometer) and
have much less DNA. have much more DNA.

Sexual reproduction absent but parasexuality Sexual reproduction is present.

present.

Plasmids and pili occur in many prokaryotes There are no plasmids and pili in eukaryotic cells
Example – E. coli Example – Spirogyra, Chlorella

Cell division mostly amitotic. Cell division is typically mitotic.

Plasma invaginates and from finger like process. Absent

Mesosome which take part in respiration

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 (4) Difference between Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Primary cell wall Secondary cell wall

Primary wall is laid inner to middle lamella Secondary wall is laid inner to primary wall.

It is formed in a growing cell. It is formed when the cells have stopped growing.

It is capable of extension. Extensibility is absent except in collenchyma cells.

It is single layered. It is three or more layered.

Cellulose content is comparatively low (5 – 20%). Cellulose content is comparatively high (20 – 90%).

Cellulose microfibrils are shorter, wavy and loosely They are longer, closely arranged straight and
arranged. parallel.

Protein content up to 5%. Protein content up to 1%.

Hemicellulose content is high up to 50%. It is 25% of the total.

Lipid content up to 5 – 10%. Lipid is absent.

Primary wall is comparatively thin 1 – 5 micrometer It is comparatively thick 5 – 10 micrometer

(5) Difference between primary cell wall and secondary cell wall

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(6) Difference between extrinsic protein and intrinsic protein

Extrinsic Protein Intrinsic Protein

These are associated with surface only. These lie throughout phospholipid matrix and project
on both surfaces, also called transmembrane or
tunnel protein.

They form about 30% of the total membrane They form about 70% of total membrane proteins.
protein.

Example – Spectrin in red blood cells & ATPase Example – Rhodopsin in retinal rod cells.
in mitochondria.

Cell Wall
(1) Discovery: It was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665.
(2) Cell wall is the outer most, rigid, protective, non living and supportive layer found in all the plant
ells, bacteria, cyanobacteria and some protists.

(3) It is not found in animal cells.

Plasma Memberane
(1) Definition: Every living cell is externally covered by a thin transparent electron microscopic,
elastic regenerative and selective permeable membrane called plasma membrane.

Protoplasm
(1) Definition: Protoplasm is a complex, granular, elastic, viscous and colourless substance. It is
selectively or differentially permeable.
(2) It is considered as “Polyphasic colloidal system”.

Cytoplasm
The substance occurs around the nucleus and inside the plasma...

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 Biomolecules
Carbohydrates:
(1) e.g. sugars, glycogen (animal starch), plant starch and cellulose.

(2) Source of carbohydrate: Mainly photosynthesis. It exists only in 1% but constitutes 80% of the
dry weight of plants.
(3) Composition: It consists of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio CnH2N. It is also called
saccharide and sugars are their basic components.

(4) Properties of monosaccharide

(a) Monosaccharides are colourless, sweet tasting, solids.

(b) Due to asymmetric carbon, they exist in different isomeric forms. They can rotate polarized
light hence they are dextrorotatory and leavorotatory.

(c) D-glucose after reduction gives rise to a mixture of polyhydroxy alcohol, sorbitol or
mannitol.

(d) The sugars with a free aldehyde or ketone group reduce Cu++ to Cu+ (cupric to cuprous)

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 (e) Sugars show oxidation, esterification and fermentation.

(f) The aldehyde or ketone group of a simple sugar can join an alcoholic group of another

organic compound bond C-O-C the process involves loss of water and is called condensation
(H-O-H) or H+OH → H2O.

Lipids
(1) Term lipid was coined by Bloor.

(2) These are esters of fatty acids and alcohol.

(3) They are hydrophobic insoluble in water but soluble in benzene, ether and chloroform.

(4) Lipids are classified into three groups:–

(A) Simple lipids: These are the esters of fatty acids and glycerol. Again they are typed as:–
(a) Fats and Oils: (Natural lipids or true fats). These are triglycerides of fatty acid and glycerol.
Fats which are liquid at room temperature are called oils. Oils with polyunsaturated fatty
acids are called polyunsaturated e.g. sunflower oil, lower blood cholesterol.
(b) Fatty acids: Obtained by hydrolysis of fats. Formic acid is simplest fatty acid (HCOOH). These
are of 2 types:–
(i) Saturated fatty acids: The fatty acids which do not have double bond in between carbon
atoms.e.g. butyric acid, palmitic acid,hexanoic acid, etc. They have high melting points,
solid at room temperature and increase blood cholesterol.
(ii) Unsaturated fatty acids: The fatty acids which have double bonds in carbon atoms. e.g.
8 hexadecanoic acid, 9 octadecanoic acid etc. They have lower melting points mostly
found in plant fats, liquid at room temperature and lower the blood cholesterol.
(c) Waxes: These are simple lipids composed of one molecule of long chain fatty acid and long
chain monohydric alcohol. Waxes have high melting point, insoluble in water, resistant to
atmospheric oxidation, chemically inert and not digested by enzymes. They reduce rate of
transpiration by making plant tissue water proof and work as excellent lubricant.

(B) Compound lipids: They contain some additional or element. Group with fatty acid and alcohol
on the basis of group they may be of following types:
(a) Phospholipids: These contain phosphoric acid. It helps in transport, metabolism, blood
clotting and permeability of cell membrane. It is a bipolar molecule i.e. phosphate containing
end is hydrophilic whereas fatty acid molecules represent hydrophobic (non-polar tail).
(b) Glycolipids: These contain nitrogen and carbohydrate beside fatty acids. Generally found in
white matter of nervous system. e.g. sesocine frenocin.
(c) Chromolipids : It includes pigmented lipids e.g. carotene.
(d) Aminolipids : Also known as sulpholipids. It contains sulphur and amino acids with fatty acid
and glycerol. Cutin and suberin are also compound lipids resistant to water and also provide
mechanical support in plants.
(i) Derived lipids: These are obtained by hydrolysis of simple and compound lipids.

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(5) Functions of lipids
(a) Oxidation of lipids yields comparatively more energy in the cell than protein and
carbohydrates. 1gm of lipids accounts for 39.1 KJ.

(b) The oil seeds such as groundnut, mustard, coconut store fats to provide nourishment to
embryo during germination.

(c) They function as structural constituent i.e. all the membrane systems of the cell are made up
of lipoproteins.

(d) Amphipathic lipids are emulsifier.

(e) It works as heat insulator.

(f) Used in synthesis of hormones.

(g) Fats provide solubility to vitamins A, D, E, and K.

Amino Acids
(1) Amino acids are normal components of cell proteins (called amino acid).

(2) They are 20 in number specified in genetic code and universal in viruses, prokaryotes and
eukaryotes.

(3) Structure and Composition : Amino acids are basic units of protein and made up of C, H, O, N
and sometimes S. Amino acids are organic acids with a carboxyl group (–COOH) and one amino
group(-NH2) on the a -carbon atom. Carboxyl group attributes acidic properties and amino group
gives basic ones. In solution, they serve as buffers and help to maintain pH. General formula is R-
CHNH2.COOH.
(4) Classification
Based on R-group of amino acids
(a) Simple amino acids: These have no functional group in the side chain. e.g. glycine, alanine ,
leucine, valine etc.
(b) Hydroxy amino acids: They have alcohol group in side chain. e.g. threonine, serine, etc.
(c) Sulphur containing amino acids: They have sulphur atom in side chain. e.g. methionine,
cystenine.
(d) Basic amino acids: They have basic group (-NH2) in side chain. e.g. lysine, arginine.
(e) Acidic amino acids: They have carboxyl group in side chain. e.g. aspartic acid, glutamic acid.
(f) Acid amide amino acids: These are the derivatives of acidic amino acids. In this group, one
of the carboxyl group has been converted to amide (-CONH2). e.g. asparagine, glutamine.
(g) Heterocyclic amino acids: These are the amino acids in which the side chain includes a ring
involving at least one atom other than carbon. e.g. tryptophan, histidine.
(h) Aromatic amino acids: They have aromatic group (benzene ring) in the side chain. e.g.
phenylalanine, tyrosine, etc.

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Nucleotides:
(1) Structurally a nucleotide can be regarded as a phosphoester of a nucleoside.

(2) A combination of nitrogens base and a sugar is called nucleoside and combination of a base, a
sugar and phosphate group is known as nucleotide.

Types of nitrogen base Nucleoside Nucleotide

Adenine Adenosine Adenylic acid

Guanine Guanosine Guanylic acid

Cytosine Cytidine Cytidilic acid

Thymine Thymidine Thymidylic acid

Uracil Uridine Uridylic acid

(3) Functions of nucleotides: Following are the major functions of nucleotides.

(a) Formation of nucleic acids: Different nucleotides polymerize together to form DNA and
RNA.
(b) Formation of energy carrier: They help in formation of ATP,AMP, ADP, GDP, GTP, TDP,TTP,
UDP, etc. which on breaking release energy.
(c) Formation of Coenzymes: Coenzymes like NAD, NADP, FMN, FAD, CoA, etc are formed.
Coenzymes are non-proteinaceous substance necessory for the activity of the enzymes.

Proteins
(1) The word protein was coined by Berzelius in 1838 and was used by G. J. Mulder first time 1840.

(2) 15% of protoplasm is made up of protein. Average proteins contain 16% nitrogen, 50–55%
carbon, oxygen 20–24%, hydrogen 7% and sulphur 0.3 – 0.5%. Iron, phosphorous, copper,
calcium, and iodine are also present in small quantity.

(3) Structure of proteins: It is due to different rearrangement of amino acids. When carboxyl group
of one amino acid binded with amino group (– NH2) of another amino acid the bond is called
peptide bond. A peptide may be dipeptide, tripeptide and polypeptide. The simplest protein is
Insulin. According to Sanger (1953) insulin consists of 51 amino acids. A protein can have up to
four level of conformation.
(i) Primary structure: The primary structure is the covalent connections of a protein. It refers to
linear sequence, number and nature of amino acids bonded together with peptide bonds
only. e.g. ribonuclease, insulin, haemoglobin, etc.
(ii) Secondary structure: The folding of a linear polypeptide chain into specific coiled structure
(α - helix) is called secondary structure and if it is with intermolecular hydrogen bonds the
structure is known as ß - pleated sheet. α - helical structure is found in protein of fur, keratin
of hair claws, and feathers. ß - pleated structure is found in silk fibres.

379
 (iii) Tertiary structure: The arrangement and interconnection of proteins into specific loops and
bends is called tertiary structure of proteins. It is stabilized by hydrogen bond, ionic bond,
hydrophobic bond and disulphide bonds. It is found in myoglobin (globular proteins).
(iv) Quaternary structure: It is shown by protein containing more than one peptide chain. The
protein consists of identical units. It is known as homologous quaternary structure e.g. lactic
dehydrogenase. If the units are dissimilar, it is called as heterogeneous quaternary structure
e.g. hemoglobin which consists of two α - chains and two ß - chains.

Nucleic Acid
(1) Definition: Nucleic acids are the polymers of nucleotide made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen and phosphorus and which controls the basic functions of the cell.
(2) These were first reported by Friedrich Miescher (1871) from the nucleus of pus cell.

(3) Altmann called it first time as nucleic acid.

(4) They are found in nucleus. They help in transfer of genetic information.

(5) Types of nucleic acids : On the basis of nucleotides i.e. sugars, phosphates and nitrogenous
bases, nucleic acids are of two types which are further subdivided. These are DNA
(Deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (Ribonucleic acid).

(A) DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acids)

(i) Types of DNA: It may be linear or circular in eukaryotes and prokaryotes respectively.
(a) Palindromic DNA: The DNA helical bears nucleotide in a serial arrangement but opposite
in two strands.
-T-T-A-A-C-G-T-T-A-A….

-A-A-T-T-G-C-A-A-T-T….

(b) Repetitive DNA: This type of arrangement is found near centromere of chromosome
and is inert in RNA synthesis. The sequence of nitrogenous bases is repeated several
times.
(c) Satellite DNA: It may have base pairs up to 11 – 60bp and are repetitive in nature. They
are used in DNA matching or finger printing (Jefferey). In eukaryotes, DNA is
deutrorotatory and sugars have pyranose configuration.

(B) RNA or Ribonucleic acid: RNA is second type of nucleic acid which is found in nucleus as well as
in cytoplasmi.e. mitochondria, plastids, ribosomes etc. They carry the genetic information in
some viruses. They are widely distributed in the cell.

380
Enzymes

 Enzymes (Gk. en = in; zyme = yeast) are proteinaceous substances which are capable of
catalysing chemical reactions of biological origins without themselves undergoing any change.

 Enzymes are biocatalysts.

 An enzyme may be defined as "a protein that enhances the rate of biochemical reactions but
does not affect the nature of final product."

 Maximum enzymes (70%) in the cell are found in mitochondrion. The study of the composition
and function of the enzyme is known as enzymology.

Classification of Enzymes
Inorganic part of enzyme acts as prosthetic group in few enzyme they are called activator. These
activators are generally...

381
 Cell Cycle and Cell Division
1. Introduction: It is the process by which a mature cell divides and forms two nearly equal
daughter cells which resemble the parental cell in a number of characters.
2. A cell divides when it has grown to a certain maximum size which disturb the karyoplasmic index
(KI)/Nucleoplasmic ratio (NP)/Kernplasm connection.
3. Two processes take place during cell reproduction.

 Cell growth: (Period of synthesis and duplication of various components of cell).

 Cell division: (Mature cell divides into two cells).

Cell cycle: Howard and Pelc (1953) first time described it. The sequence of events which occur during
cell growth and cell division are collectively called cell cycle. Cell cycle completes in two steps:
 Interphase
 M-phase/Dividing phase
(i) Interphase : It is the period between the end of one cell division to the beginning of next cell
division. It is also called resting phase or not dividing phase. But, it is actually highly
metabolic active phase, in which cell prepares itself for next cell division. In case of human
beings it will take approx 25 hours. Interphase is completed in to three successive stages.
(a) G1 phase/Post mitotic/Pre-DNA synthetic phase/Gap Ist
(b) S-phase/Synthetic phase
(c) G2-phase/Pre mitotic/Post synthetic phase/gap-IInd
(ii) M-phase/Dividing phase/Mitotic phase
(a) Nuclear division i.e. karyokinesis occurs in 4 phases – prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase. It takes 5-10% (shortest phase) time of whole division.
(b) Cytokinesis : Division of cytoplasm into 2 equal parts. In animal cell, it takes place by cell
furrow method and in plant cells by cell plate method.
4. Duration of cell cycle: It depends on the type of cell and external factors such as temperature,
food and oxygen. Time period for G1, S, G2 and M-phase is species specific under specific
environmental conditions. e.g. 20 minutes for bacterial cell, 8-10 hours for intestional epithelial
cell, and onion root tip cells may take 20 hours.
5. Regulation of cell cycle: Stage of regulation of cell cycle is G1 phase during which a cell may
follow one of the three options.
 It may start a new cycle, enter the S-phase and finally divide.
 It may be arrested at a specific point of G1 phase.
 It may stop division and enter G0 quiscent stage. But when conditions change, cell in
G0 phase can resume the growth and reenter the G1 phase.
6. Cell division is of three types, Amitosis, Mitosis and Meiosis.
7. Difference between cell Mitosis and Meiosis

382
S.No Characters Mitosis Meiosis

I. General

(1) Site of occurrence Somatic cells and during the Reproductive germ cells of gonads.
multiplicative phase of
gametogenesis in germ cells.
(2) Period of occurrence Throughout life. During sexual reproduction.

(3) Nature of cells Haploid or diploid. Always diploid.

(4) Number of divisions Parental cell divides once. Parent cell divides twice.

(5) Number of daughter cells Two. Four.

(6) Nature of daughter cells Genetically similar to parental cell. Genetically different from parental cell.
Amount of DNA and chromosome Amount of DNA and chromosome number
number is same as in parental cell. is half to that of parent cell.
II. Prophase

(7) Duration Shorter (of a few hours) and Prophase-I is very long (may be in days or
simple. months or years) and complex.
(8) Subphases Formed of 3 subphases : early- Prophase-I is formed of 5 subphases:
prophase, mid-prophase and late- leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene
prophase. and diakinesis.
(9) Bouquet stage Absent. Present in leptotene stage.

(10) Synapsis Absent. Pairing of homologous chromosomes in

zygotene stage.
(11) Chiasma formation and Absent. Occurs during pachytene stage of
crossing over. prophase-I.
(12) Disappearance of Comparatively in earlier part. Comparatively in later part of prophase-I.
nucleolus and nuclear
membrane
(13) Nature of coiling Plectonemic. Paranemic.

III. Metaphase

(14) Metaphase plates Only one equatorial plate Two plates in metaphase-I but one plate
in metaphase-II.
(15) Position of centromeres Lie at the equator. Arms are Lie equidistant from equator and towards
generally directed towards the poles in metaphase-I while lie at the

383
 poles. equator in metaphase-II.

(16) Number of chromosomal Two chromosomal fibre join at Single in metaphase-I while two in
fibres centromere. metaphase-II.
IV. Anaphase

(17) Nature of separating Daughter chromosomes Homologous chromosomes separate in

chromosomes (chromatids with independent anaphase-I while chromatids separate in
centromeres) separate. anaphase in anaphase-II.
(18) Splitting of centromeres Occurs in anaphase. No splitting of centromeres. Inter-zonal
and development of inter- fibres are developed in metaphase-I.
zonal fibres
V. Telophase

(19) Occurrence Always occurs Telophase-I may be absent but telophase-

II is always present.
VI. Cytokinesis

(20) Occurrence Always occurs Cytokinesis-I may be absent but

cytokinesis-II is always present.
(21) Nature of daughter cells 2N amount of DNA than 4N 1 N amount of DNA than 4 N amount of
amount of DNA in parental cell. DNA in parental cell.
(22) Fate of daughter cells Divide again after interphase. Do not divide and act as gametes.

384
 Plant Body Systems
Transport in Plants
(1) Types of osmosis
Depending upon the movement of water into or outward of the cell, osmosis is
of two types.

(a) Endosmosis: The osmotic inflow of water into a cell, when it is placed in a
solution, whose solute concentration is less than the cell sap, is called
endosmosis e.g., swelling of raisins, when they are placed in water.
(b) Exosmosis: The osmotic outflow of water from a cell, when it is placed in a solution, whose
solute concentration is more than the cell sap, is called exosmosis. e.g.,shrinkage of grapes
when they are placed in strong sugar solution.

(2) Osmotic concentrations (Types of solutions)

A solution can be termed as hypotonic, hypertonic and isotonic depending
upon its osmotic concentration, with respect to another solution or cell sap.

(a) Hypotonic solution (hypo = less than). A solution, whose osmotic

concentration (solute potential) is less than that of another solution or
cell sap is called hypotonic solution. If a cell is placed in such a solution,
water start moving into the cell by the process of endosmosis, and cell
become turgid.
(b) Hypertonic solution (hper = more than). A solution, whose osmotic concentration (solute
potential) is more than that of another solution or cell sap is called hypertonic solution. If a
cell is placed in such a solution, water comes out of the cell by the process of exosmosis and
cell become flaccid. If potato tuber is placed in concentrated salt solution it would become
shrink due to loss of water from its cell.
(c) Isotonic solution (iso = the same). A solution, whose osmotic concentration (solute
potential) is equal to that of another solution or cell sap, is called isotonic solution. If a cell is
placed in isotonic solution, there is no net change of water between the cell and the solution
and the shape of cell remain unchanged. The normal saline (0.85% solution of NaCl) and
0.4 m to 0.5 m solution of sucrose are isotonic to the cell sap.

(3) Significance of osmosis in plants

(a) The phenomenon of osmosis is important in the absorption of water by plants.

(b) Cell to cell movement of water occurs throughout the plant body due to osmosis.

(c) The rigidity of plant organs (i.e., shape and form of organism) is maintained through
osmosis.

385
 (d) Leaves become turgid and expand due to their OP.

(e) Growing points of root remain turgid because of osmosis and are thus, able to penetrate the
soil particles.

(f) The resistance of plants to drought and frost is brought about by osmotic pressure of their
cells.

(g) Movement of plants and plant parts, for example, movement of leaflets of Indian telegraph
plant, bursting of many fruits and sporangia, etc. occur due to osmosis.

(h) Opening and closing of stomata is affected by osmosis.

(4) Turgor pressure (TP)

The plant cell, when placed in pure water, swells but does not burst. Because of negative
osmotic potential of the vacuolar solution (cell sap), water will move into the cell and will cause
the plasmalemma be pressed against the cell wall.

(5) Wall pressure (WP)

Due to turgor pressure, the protoplast of a plant cell will press the cell wall to the outside. The
cell wall being elastic, presses back the protoplast with a pressure equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction. This pressure is called wall pressure. Wall pressure (WP) may, therefore,
be defined as 'the pressure exerted by the cell wall over the protoplast to counter the turgor
pressure.

(6) Plasmolysis (Gr. Plasma = something formed; lysis = loosing)

If a living plant cell is placed in a highly concentrated solution (i.e. hypertonic solution), water
comes out of the cell due to exosmosis, through the plasmamembrane. The loss of water from
the cell sap causes shrinkage of the protoplast away from the cell wall in the form of a round
mass in the centre. "The shrinkage of the protoplast of a living cell from its cell wall due to
exosmosis under the influence of a hypertonic solution is called plasmolysis".

(7) Water potential (y)

The movement of water in plants cannot be accurately explained in terms of difference in
concentration or in any other linear expression. The best way to express spontaneous
movement of water from one region to another is in terms of the difference of free energy of
water between two regions. Free energy is the thermodynamic parameter that determines the
direction in which physical and chemical changes must occur. The potential energy of water is
called water potential. e.g., water is stored behind a dam.

386
(8) Differences between diffusion pressure deficit and water potential

S.No. Diffusion Pressure Deficit (DPD) Water Potential (y)

(1) The DPD was originally described by the term
suction force (Saugkraft) by Renner. Other
synonyms of the term are suction pressure
(SP), enter tendency (E) and osmotic equivalent
(E).
Water potential is the chemical potential of water
which is equivalent to DPD with negative sign. The
term water potential was coined by Slatyer and
Taylor (1960).

(2) The diffusion pressure deficit is abbreviated as The symbol for water potential is a Greek
DPD. The term was coined by Meyer (1938). letterpsi, which is designated as y.

(9) Differences between active and passive absorption of water

S.No. Active absorption Passive absorption

(1) Force for absorption of water is generated in Force for absorption of water is created in the
the cells of root itself. mesophyll cells.

(2) Osmotic and non-osmotic forces are involved in Water is absorbed due to transpiration pull.
water absorption.

(3) Water is absorbed according to DPD changes. Water is absorbed due to tension created in
xylem sap by transpiration pull.

(4) Water moves through symplast. Water moves mainly through apoplast.

(5) Rate of absorption is not affected significantly Its rate is significantly affected by all those
by temperature and humidity. factors which influence the rate of transpiration.

(6) Metabolic inhibitors if applied in root cells No effect of metabolic inhibitors if applied in root
decrease the rate of water absorption. cells.

(7) Occurs in slow transpiring plants which are well Occurs in rapidly transpiring plants.
watered.

(8) Rate of absorption is slow. Very fast rate of water absorption.

387
(10) Differences between transpiration and evaporation

S.No. Transpiration Evaporation

(1) It is a physiological process and occurs in It is a physical process and occurs on any free surface.
plants.

(2) The water moves through the epidermis Any liquid can evaporate. The living epidermis and
with its cuticle or through the stomata. stomata are not involved.

(3) Living cells are involved. It can occur from both living and non-living surfaces.

(4) Various forces (such as vapour pressure, Not much forces are involved.
diffusion pressure, osmotic pressure, etc)
are involved.

(5) It provides the surface of leaf and young It causes dryness of the free surface.
stem wet and protects from sun burning.

(11)Types of stomata
On the basis of orientation of subsidiary cells around the guard cells, Metcalfe and Chalk
classified stomata into following types :
(i) Anomocytic : The guard cells are surrounded by a limited number of unspecialised
subsidiary cells which appear similar to other epidermal cells. e.g., in Ranunculaceae family.
(ii) Anisocytic : The guard cells are surrounded by three subsidiary cells, two of which are large
and one is very small. e.g., in Solanaceae and Cruciferae families.
(iii) Paracytic : The guard cells are surrounded by only two subsidiary cells lying parallel to the
guard cells e.g., Magnoliaceae family.
(iv) Diacytic : The guard cells are surrounded by only two subsidiary cells lying at right angles to
the longitudinal axis of the guard cells. e.g., Acanthaceae and Labiatae families.

(v) Actinocytic : The guard cells are surrounded by four or more subsidiary cells and which are
elongated radially to stomata.

(12)Differences between transpiration and guttation

MineralNutrition
(1) Macronutrients (Macroelements or major elements): Nutrients which are required by plants in
larger amounts (Generally present in the plant tissues in concentrations of 1 to 10 mg per gram
of dry matter).
(2) The macronutrients include carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous, sulphur,
potassium, calcium, magnesium.

388
(3) Micronutrients (Microelements or minor elements or trace elements): Nutrients which are
required by plants in very small amounts, i.e., in traces (equal to or less than 0.1 mg per gram
dry matter).
(4) The micronutrients include iron, manganese, copper, molybdenum, zinc, boron and chlorine.
Recent research has shown that some elements, such as cobalt, vanadium and nickel, may be
essential for certain plants.
(5) The usual concentration of essential elements in higher plants according to D.W. Rains (1976)
based on the data of Stout are as follows:

Major Role of Nutrients

Various elements perform the following major role in the plants:
(1) Construction of the plant body: The elements particularly C, H and O construct the plant body
by entering into the constitution of cell wall and protoplasm. They are, therefore, referred to
as frame work elements. Besides, these (C, H and O) N, P and S also enter in the constitution of
protoplasm. They are described asprotoplasmic elements.
(2) Maintenance of osmotic pressure: Various minerals present in the cell sap in organic or
inorganic form maintain the osmotic pressure of the cell.
(3) Maintenance of permeability of cytomembranes: The minerals, particularly Ca++, K+ and Na+
maintainthe permeability of cytomembranes.
(4) Influence the pH of the cell sap: Different cations and anions influence on the pH of the cell sap.
(5) Catalysis of biochemical reaction: Several elements particularly Fe, Ca, Mg, Mn, Zn, Cu, Cl act as
metallic catalyst in biochemical reactions.
(6) Toxic effects: Minerals like Cu, As, etc. impart toxic effect on the protoplasm under specific
conditions.
(7) Balancing function: Some minerals or their salts act against the harmful effect of the other
nutrients, thus balancing each other.

Specific Role of Macronutrients

The role of different elements is described below:
(1) Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen: These three elements though cannot be categorized as mineral
elements, are indispensible for plant growth. These are also called 'framework elements'.
(2) Nitrogen: Nitrogen is an essential constituent of proteins, nucleic acids, vitamins and many other
organic molecules as chlorophyll. Nitrogen is also present in various hormones, coenzymes and
ATP etc.
(i) Deficiency symptoms: The symptoms of nitrogen deficiency are as follows:
(a) Impaired growth
(b) Yellowing of leaves due to loss of chlorophyll, i.e., chlorosis.
(c) Development of anthocyanin pigmentation in veins, sometimes in petioles and stems.
(d) Delayed or complete suppression of flowering and fruiting.

389
(3) Phosphorus
(a) Phosphorous is present abundantly in the growing and storage organs such as fruits and
seeds. It promotes healthy root growth and fruit ripening by helping translocation of
carbohydrates.
(i) Deficiency symptoms
(a) Leaves become dark green or purplish.
(b) Sometimes development of anthocyanin pigmentation occurs in veins which may
become necrotic (Necrosis is defined as localised death of cells).
(c) Premature fall of leaves.
(4) Sulphur
(i) Functions
(a) Sulphur is a constituent of amino-acids like cystine, cysteine and methionine; vitamins
like biotin and thiamine, and coenzyme A.
(ii) Deficiency symptoms
(b) Leaf tips and margins roll downwards and inwards e.g., tobacco, tea and tomato.
(c) Premature leaf fall.
(d) Delayed flowering and fruiting.

(5) Potassium
(i) Functions
(a) It differs from all other macronutrients in not being a constituent of any metabolically
important compound.
(b) It is the only monovalent cation essential for the plants.
(c) It acts as an activator of several enzymes including DNA polymerase.
(ii) Deficiency symptoms
(a) Mottled chlorosis followed by the development of necrotic areas at the tips and margins
of the leaves.
(b) K+ deficiency inhibits proteins synthesis and photosynthesis. At the same time, it
increases the rate of respiration.
(c) The internodes become shorter and root system is adversely affected.
(6) Calcium
(i) Functions
(a) It is necessary for formation of middle lamella of plants where it occurs as calcium
pectate.
(b) It is necessary for the growth of apical meristem and root hair formation.
(c) It acts as activator of several enzymes, e.g., ATPase, succinic dehydrogenase, adenylate
kinase, etc.
(ii) Deficiency symptoms
(a) Ultimate death of meristems which are found in shoot, leaf and root tips.
(b) Chlorosis along the margins of young leaves, later on they become necrotic.
(c) Distortion in leaf shape.

390
(7) Magnesium
(i) Functions
(a) It is an important constituent of chlorophyll.
(b) It is present in the middle lamella in the form of magnesium pectate.
(c) It plays an important role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids and phosphorus.
(ii) Deficiency symptoms
(a) Interveinal chlorosis followed by anthocyanin pigmentation, eventually necrotic spots
appears on the leaves. As magnesium is easily transported within the plant body, the
deficiency symptoms first appear in the mature leaves followed by the younger leaves at
a later stage.
(b) Stems become hard and woody, and turn yellowish green.
(c) Depression of internal phloem and extensive development of chlorenchyma.

Specific Role of Micronutrients

(1) Iron
(i) Functions
(a) Iron is a structural component of ferredoxin, flavoproteins, iron prophyrin proteins
(Cytochromes, peroxidases, catalases, etc.)
(b) It plays important roles in energy conversion reactions of photosynthesis
(phosphorylation) and respiration.
(c) It acts as activator of nitrate reductase and aconitase.
(ii) Deficiency symptoms
(a) Chlorosis particularly in younger leaves, the mature leaves remain unaffected.
(b) It inhibits chloroplast formation due to inhibition of protein synthesis.
(c) Stalks remain short and slender.
(2) Manganese
(i) Functions
(a) It acts as activator of enzymes of...

Photosynthesis in Higher Plants

Chloroplast-The site of photosynthesis:

The most active photosynthetic tissue in higher plants is the mesophyll of leaves. Mesophyll cells
have many chloroplasts. Chloroplast is present in all the green parts of plants and leaves. There may
be over half a million chloroplasts per square millimetre of leaf surface. In higher plants, the
chloroplasts are discoid or lens-shaped. They are usually 4-10mm in diameter and 1-3mm in
thickness.

391
 Chloroplast pigments:

Pigments are the organic molecules that absorb light of specific wavelengths in the visible region due
to presence of conjugated double bonds in their structures. The chloroplast pigments are fat soluble
and are located in the lipid part of the thylakoid membranes.

(i) Chlorophylls: The chlorophylls, the green pigments in chloroplast are of seven types i.e.,
chlorophyll a, b, c, d, e, bacteriochlorophyll and bacterioviridin

(ii) Carotenoids : The carotenoids are unsaturated polyhydrocarbons being composed of eight
isoprene (C5H8) units. They are made up of two six-membered rings having a hydrocarbon chain
in between. They are sometimes called lipochromes due to their fat soluble nature.

Difference between Photosystem I and Photosystem II

S.No. Photosystem I Photosystem II

(1) PS I lies on the outer surface of the PS II lies on the inner surface of the thylakoid.
thylakoids

(2) In this system molecular oxygen is not As the result of photolysis of water molecular oxygen is
evolved. evolved.

(3) Its reaction center is P700. Its reaction center is P680.

(4) NADPH is formed in this reaction. NADPH is not formed in this reaction.

(5) It participate both in cyclic and noncyclic It participates only in noncyclic photophosphorylation.
photophosphorylation.

(6) It receives electrons from photosystem II. It receives electrons from photolytic dissociation of
water.

(7) It is not related with photolysis of water. It is related with photolysis of water.

392
 Difference between C3 Plants and C4 Plants

S.No. Characters C3 plants C4 plants

(1) CO2 acceptor The CO2 acceptor is Ribulose 1, 5 The CO2 acceptor is phosphoenol-
diphosphate. pyruvate.

(2) First stable product The first stable product is Oxaloacetate is the first stable product.
phosphoglyceric acid.

(3) Type of chloroplast All cells participating in photosynthesis The chloroplast of parenchymatous
have one type of chloroplast. bundle sheath is different from that of
mesophyll cells. Leaves have 'Kranz' type
of anatomy. The bundle sheath
chloroplasts lack grana. Mesophyll cells
have normal chloroplasts.

(4) Cycles Only reductive pentose phosphate cycle Both C4-dicarboxylic acid and reductive
is found. pentose phosphate cycles are found.

(5) Optimum The optimum temperature for the In C4 plants, it is 30-45°C.

temperature process is 10-25°C.

(6) Oxygen inhibition Oxygen present in air (=21% O2) The process of photosynthesis is not
markedly inhibit the photosynthetic inhibited in air as compared to an external
process as compared to an external atmosphere containing no oxygen.
atmosphere containing no oxygen.

(7) PS I and PS II In each chloroplast, photosystems I and In the chloroplasts of bundle sheath cells,
II are present. Thus, the Calvin cycle the photosystem II is absent. Therefore,
occurs. these are dependent to mesophyll
chloroplast for the supply of NADPH + H+

(8) Enzymes The Calvin cycle enzymes are present in Calvin cycle enzymes are absent in
mesophyll chloroplast. mesophyll chloroplasts. The cycle occurs
only in the chloroplasts of sheath cells.

(9) Compensation point The CO2 compensation point is 50- CO2 compensation point is 0-10ppm.
150ppm.

(10) Photorespiration Photorespiration is present and easily Photorespiration is present only to a slight
detectable. degree and difficult to detect.

(11) Net rate Net rate of photosynthesis in full It is 40-80mg. of CO2 per dm2 of leaf area per
sunlight (10,000-12,000 ft.c) is 15-35mg. h. That is photosynthetic rate is quite high.
of CO2 per dm of leaf area per h.
2
The plants are efficient.

(12) Saturation intensity The saturation intensity reached in the It is difficult to reach saturation even in full
range of 100-4000 ft.c. sunlight.

393
 Respiration in Plants
Differences between Photosynthesis and Respiration

Photosynthesis Respiration

Occurs only in chlorophyll containing cells of Occurs in all plant and animal cells.
plants.

Takes place only in the presence of light. Takes place continually both in light and in the dark.

During photosynthesis, radiant energy is During respiration, potential energy is converted into kinetic
converted into potential energy. energy.

Sugars, water and oxygen are products. CO2 and H2O are products.

Synthesizes foods. Oxidizeds foods.

CO2 and H2O are raw materials. O2 and food molecules are raw materials.

Photosynthesis is an endothermal process. Respiration is an exothermal process.

Stores energy. Releases energy.

It includes the process of hydrolysis, It includes the process of the dehydrolysis, decarboxylation, etc.
carboxylation etc.

Results in an increase in weight. Results in a decrease in weight.

It is an anabolic process. It is a catabolic process.

Require cytochrome. Also require cytochrome.

(viii) Intermediates A number of intermediates are No intermediate is produced.

produced.

394
Glycolysis cycle
Enzymes of glycolysis and their co-factors

395
S. No. Enzyme Coenzyme (s) and Activator (s) Inhibitor (s) Kind of reaction
cofactor catalyzed

(i) Hexokinase Mg2+ ATP4-, Pi Glucose 6- Phosphoryl transfer

phopshate

(ii) Phosphogluco- Mg2- - 2-dioxyglucose Isomerization

isomerase 6-phosphate

(iii) Phosphofructo- Mg2+ Fructose 2, 6- ATP 4-, citrate Phosphoryl transfer

kinase diphosphate, AMP,
ADP, cAMP, K+

(iv) Aldolase Zn2+ - Chelating agents Aldol cleavage

( in microbes)

(v) Phosphotriose Mg2+ - - Isomerization

isomerase

(vi) Glyceraldehyde NAD - Iodoacetate Phosphorylation

3-phosphate coupled to oxidation
dehydrogenase

(vii) Phosphoglycerate Mg2+ - - Phosphoryl transfer

kinase

(viii) Phosphoglycerate Mg2+ 2,3-diphos - - Phosphoryl shift

mutase phoglycerate

(ix) Enolase Mg2+ , Mn2+, Zn2+, - Fluoride+ Dehydration

Cd2+ phosphate

(x) Pyruvate kinase Mg2+, K+ - Acetyl CoA, Phosphoryl transfer

analine, Ca2+

Total input and output materials in glycolysis

Total Inputs Total Outputs

1 molecule of glucose (6 C) 2 molecules of pyruvate (2×3 C)

2 ATP 4 ATP

4 ADP 2 ADP

2 × NAD 2× NADH + 2H+

2 Pi 2×H2O

396
Kreb’s Cycle

397
 Enzymes of Kreb's cycle
Step Enzyme (Location in Coenzyme(s) and Inhibitor(s) Type of reaction
mitochondria) cofactor (s) catalyzed

(a) Citrate synthetase Matrix space CoA Monofluoro- Condensation

acetyl- CoA

(b) Aconitase Inner membrane Fe2+ Fluoroacetate Isomerization

(c) Isocitrate Matrix space NAD+, NADP+, ATP Oxidative

dehydrogenase Mg2+, Mn2+ decarboxylation

(d) alpha-ketoglutarate Matrix space TPP,LA,FAD,CoA, Arsenite,Succinyl- Oxidative

dehydrogenase NAD+ CoA, NADH decarboxylation
complex

(e) Succinyl-CoA Matrix space CoA - Substrate level

synthetase phosphorylation

(f) Succinate Inner membrane FAD Melonate, Oxidation

dehydrogenase Oxaloacetate

(g) Fumarase Matrix space None - Hydration

(h) Malate Matrix space NAD+ NADH Oxidation

dehydrogenase

Products formed during aerobic respiration by Glycolysis and Kreb’s cycle

ATP formation in Glycolysis

Steps Product of reactions In terms of ATP

ATP formation by 1, 3-diphosphoglyceric acid (2 moles) ® 2 ATP 2 ATP

substrate 3 phosphoglyceric acid (2 moles) 2 ATP 2 ATP
phosphorylation
Phosphoenolpyruvic acid (2 moles) ®
Pyruvic acid (2 moles)

Total 4 ATP

ATP formation by 1, 3 - disphosphoglyceraldehyde (2 moles) 2 NADH2 6 ATP

oxidative 1, 3 – diphosphoglyceric acid (2 moles)
phosphorylation or ETC

Total ATP formed 4 + 6 ATP = 10 ATP

ATP consumed in Glucose (1 mole) ® Glucose 6 phosphate (1 – 1 ATP – 1 ATP

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Glycolysis mole) – 1 ATP
Fructose 6 phosphate (1 mole) ® – 1 ATP
Fructose 1, 6-diphosphate (1 mole)

Total 2 ATP

Net gain of ATP = total ATP formed – Total 10 ATP – 2ATP 8 ATP
ATP consumed
ATP formation in Kreb’s cycle

ATP formation by Succinyl CoA (2 mols) ® 2 GTP 2 ATP

substrate Succinic acid (2 mols)
phosphorylation

Total 2 ATP

ATP formation by Pyruvic acid (2 mols) ® 2 NADH2 6 ATP

oxidative
phosphorylation or ETC
Acetyl CoA (2 mols)
Isocitric acid (2 mols) ® 2 NADH2 6 ATP
Oxalosuccinic acid (2 mols)
a-Ketoglutaric acid (2 mols) ® 2 NADH2 6 ATP
Succinyl CoA (2 mols)
Succinic acid (2 mols) ® 2 FADH2 4 ATP
Fumaric acid (2 mols)
Malic acid (2 mols) ® 2 NADH2 6 ATP
Oxaloacetic acid (2 mols)

Total 28 ATP

Net gain in Kreb’s cycle (substrate 2ATP + 28 ATP 30 ATP

phosphorylation + oxidative
phosphorylation)

Net gain of ATP in Net gain of ATP in glycolysis + Net 8 ATP + 30 ATP 38 ATP
glycolysis and Kreb’s cycle gain of ATP in Kreb’s cycle

Over all ATP production by ATP formed by oxidative 6 ATP + 28 ATP 34 ATP
oxidative phosphorylation phosphorylation in glycolysis +
or ETC ATP formed by oxidative
phosphorylation or ETC.

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 Aerobic, Anaerobic Respiration and Fermentation

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration Fermentation

Molecular oxygen is the ultimate The ultimate electron acceptor is an The final electron acceptors are organic
electron acceptor for biological inorganic compound other than compounds. Both electron donors
oxidation. The ETS serves to oxygen. The compounds accepting (oxidizable substrate) and electron
transfer electrons from the hydrogen (electrons) are acceptors (oxidizing agent) are organic
oxidisable donor to molecular nitrates, sulphates, carbonates compounds and usually both substrates
oxygen. The early enzymatic orCO2. Anaerobic respiration arise from same organic molecules during
steps involve dehydrogenation produces ATP through metabolism. Thus part of the nutrient
whereas the final steps are phosphorylation reaction involving molecule is oxidised and part reduced
mediated by a group of enzyme electron transfer systems. and the metabolism results in
called cytochromes. Ultimately (mechanism not known) intramolecular electron rearrangement.
the electrons are transferred to ATP is generated by substrate level
oxygen which is reduced to phosphorylation. This reaction differs
water. During aerobic from oxidative phosphorylation because
respiration ATP is generated by oxygen itself is not required for ATP
coupled reaction generation.

Plant Growth and Development

(1) The analysis of growth curve shows that it can be differentiated into three phases:

(i) Lag phase: It represents initial stages of growth. The rate of growth is very slow in lag phase.
More time is needed for little growth in this phase.
(ii) Log phase (Exponential phase): The growth rate becomes maximum and more
rapid. Physiological activities of cells are at their maximum. The log phase is also referred to
as grand period of growth.

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 (iii) Final steady state (Stationary phase) or Adult phase: When the nutrients become limiting,
growth slows down, so physiological activities of cells also slows down. This phase is
indicated by the maturity of growth system. The rate of growth can be measured by an
increase in size or area of an organ of plant like leaf, flower, fruit etc. The rate of growth is
called efficiency index.

(2) Phytohormones:-
(i) Growth hormones also called phytohormones
(ii) Term given by Thimann (1948),

(iii) It can be defined as ‘the organic substances which are synthesized in minute quantities in
one part of the plant body and transported to another part where they influence specific
physiological processes’.

Growth Hormones and Growth Regulators

(1) Auxins:
(i) Auxins (Gk. auxein = to grow) are weakly acidic growth hormones having an unsaturated ring
structure and capable of promoting cell elongation, especially of shoots (more pronounced
in decapitated shoots and shoot segments) at a concentration of less than 100 ppm which is
inhibitory to the roots. Among the growth regulators, auxins were the first to be discovered.
(ii) Types of auxins: There are two major categories of auxins natural auxins and synthetic
auxins:
(a) Natural auxins: These are naturally occurring auxins in plants and therefore, regarded
as phytohormones. Indole 3-acetic acid (IAA) is the best known and universal auxin. It is
found in all plants and fungi.
(b) Synthetic auxins: These are synthetic compounds which cause various physiological
responses common to IAA. Some of the important synthetic auxins are 2, 4-D (2, 4-
dichlorophenoxy acetic acid) is the weedicide. IBA is both natural and synthetic auxin.
(iii) Functions of auxins: Auxins control several kinds of plant growth processes. These are as
follows:
(a) Cell elongation: Auxins promote elongations and growth of stems and roots and
enlargement of many fruits by stimulating elongation of cells in all directions.
(b) Apical dominance: In many plants, the apical bud grows and the lower axillary buds are
suppressed. Removal of apical bud results in the growth of lower buds. The auxin (IAA)
of the terminal bud inhibits the growth of lateral buds. This phenomenon is known as
apical dominance.
(c) Weed control: Weeds are undesirable in a field with a crop. By the spray of 2, 4-D,
broad-leaved weeds can be destroyed but 2, 4-D does not affect mature
monocotyledonous plants.
(d) Root differentiation

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 (e) Control of lodging
(f) Parthenocarpy: Parthenocarpy can be induced by application of IAA in a paste form to
the stigma of a flower or by spraying the flowers with a dilute solution of IAA.

(2) Gibberellins:
(i) Gibberellins are weakly acidic hormones having gibbane ring structure which cause cell
elongation of intact plants in general and increased internodal length of genetically dwarfed
plants (i.e., corn, pea) in particular.
(ii) Functions of gibberellin
(a) Stem elongation: The gibberellins induce elongation of the internodes.
(b) Leaf expansion: In many plants leaves become broader and elongated when treated
with gibberellic acid.
(c) Reversal of dwarfism: One of the most striking effects of gibberellins is the elongation of
genetic dwarf (mutant) varieties of plants like corn and pea.
(d) Bolting and Flowering: Gibberellins induce stem elongation in ‘rosette plants’ e.g.,
cabbage, henbane, etc. Such plants show retarded internodal growth and profuse leaf
development. In these plants just prior to the reproductive phase, the internodes
elongate enormously causing a marked increase in stem height. This is called bolting.
(e) Enzyme formation: One of the most dramatic effects of GA is its induction of hydrolytic
enzymes in the aleurone layer of endosperm of germinating barley seeds and cereal
grains. GA stimulates the production of digestive enzymes like proteases, a-amylases,
lipases which help to mobilise stored nutrients.
(f) Breaking of dormancy: Gibberellins overcome the natural dormancy of buds, tubers,
seeds, etc. and allow then to grow. In this function, gibberellins act antagonistically to
abscisic acid (ABA).
(g) Parthenocarpy: Gibberellins have been considered to be more effective than auxins for
inducing parthenocarpy in fruits like apple, tomato and pear. GA application has also
resulted in the production of large fruits and bunch length in seedless grapes.
(h) Sex expression: Gibberellins control sex expression in certain plants. In general,
gibberellin promotes the formation of male flowers either in place of female flowers in
monoecious plants such as cucurbits or in genetically female plants like Cannabis,
Cucumis.

(3) Cytokinins (Phytokinins):

(i) Cytokinins are plant growth hormones which are basic in nature, either aminopurine or
phenyl urea derivatives that promote cell division (cytokinesis) either alone or in
conjugation with auxin.
(ii) Functions of cytokinins
(a) Cell division: Cytokinins are essential for cytokinesis and thus promote cell division.
In presence of auxin, cytokinins stimulate cell division even in non-meristematic
tissues.

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 (b) Cell enlargement and Differentiation: Under some conditions cytokinins enhance
the expansion of leaf cells in leaf discs and cotyledons. These cells considered to be
mature and under normal conditions do not expand.
(c) Delay in senescence: Cytokinin delay the senescence (ageing) of leaves and other
organs by controlling protein synthesis and mobilization of resources
(Disappearance of chlorophyll). It is called Richmond Lang effect.
(d) Counteraction of apical dominance: Auxins and cytokinins act antagonistically in the
control of apical dominance. Auxins are responsible for stimulating growth of apical
bud.
(e) Breaking of dormancy: Cytokinins breaks seeds dormancy of various types and thus
help in their germination.
(f) Accumulation and Translocation of solutes

(4) Ethylene:
(i) Ethylene is a gaseous hormone which stimulates transverse growth but retards the
longitudinal one.
(ii) Functions of ethylene
o Fruit growth and Ripening: Ethylene promotes fruit growth and its ripening. The
harmone is used in the artificial ripening of climacteric fruits (e.g., Apple, Banana,

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 Human Body Systems
Digestion and Absorption
(i) Process of conversion of complex food substances to simple absorbable forms is called
digestion.
(ii) Intracellular: When the process of digestion occurs within the cell in the food vacuole.
Examples:
Protozoa, Porifera, Coelenterata and free living Platyhelminthes

(iii) Extracellular: When the process of digestion occurs outside the cell, Examples: Coelenterates
and phylum Platyhelminthes to phylum Chordata.
(iv) Digestion in vertebrates occurs in the digestive tract or alimentary canal. The various parts
involved in digestion can be broadly grouped in two groups –

(1) Digestive tract or alimentary canal

(2) Digestive glands

On the basis of the embryonic origin, the alimentary canal of vertebrates can be divided into three
parts–

(1) Fore gut / Stomodaeum: Ectodermal. It includes buccal cavity / oral cavity, pharynx,
oesophagus, stomach and small part of duodenum.
(2) Mid gut/Mesodaeum: Endodermal. It includes small intestine, and large intestine.
(3) Hind gut/Proctodaeum: Ectodermal. It includes anal canal and anus.

Human Digestive System

The human digestive system is a complex series of organs and glands that processes food. It converts
ingested food so that it can be assimilated by the organism. The human digestive system consists of
following parts:-

Mouth

Mouth is also known as the oral cavity or buccal cavity. It is the first portion of the alimentary canal.
Food and saliva are received by mouth. Mouth has inner lining of mucous membrane epithelium.

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Digestive Glands: -
(A) Salivary glands:-
(i) These are the exocrine glands that produce saliva.

(ii) These are the glands with ducts which also secrete amylase.

(iii) Amylase is an enzyme that breaks down starch into maltose.

(iv) Three types of salivary glands are: -

1) Parotid gland
2) Submandibular gland
3) Sublingual gland

(B) Gastric glands:-

(i) The gastric glands (fundic gland) secrete acids and digestive enzymes.

(ii) Secretion of gastric gland is called gastric juice.

(iii) There are approximately 35 million gastric glands present in human stomach.

(C) Intestinal glands:-

(i) Intestinal glands in maamals is a collective name for crypts of Liberkuhn (secretes alkaline
enzymatic juice) and Brunner’s glands (secrete mucous).

(ii) Intestinal glands secrete intestinal juice or sucus entericus.

(D) Pancreas:-
(i) Pancreas has two different kind of tissue- exocrine and endocrine.

(ii) Pancreatic secretion is stimulated by cholecystokinin and secret

in both.
(iii) Complete digestive juice is pancreatic juice as it contains
amylolytic, lipolytic and proteolytic enzymes.

(iv) It produces several important hormones like insulin, glucagon,

somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide.

(E) Liver:-
(i) Liver is the largest digestive gland of the body, weighing about 1.2 to 1.5 Kg in an adult
human.
(ii) It is situated in the abdominal cavity, just below the diaphragm and has two lobes (small left
and large right lobe).

(iii) The liver has a wide range of functions to perform in the body:

a) It detoxifies various metabolites

b) It helps in protein synthesis.

c) Various biochemical necessary for digestion are produced by liver.

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Pharynx: -
It is the opening of oral and nasal cavities. It is classified as: -
1) Nasopharynx

2) Oropharynx

3) Laryngopharynx

Oesophagus: -
Oesophagus connects pharynx with stomach.

Opening of oesophagus is regulated by gastro-oesophageal sphincter.

Stomach: –
It is a J-shaped, muscular, hollow and dilated part of the digestive system. It is located between the
oesophagus and the small intestine. It has 1 liter capacity. It secretes protein-digesting enzymes
(proteases) and strong acids which aid in food digestion.

The stomach has three parts:

Cardiac: The part of the stomach into which oesophagus opens.
Fundus: It is the air filled portion of stomach.
Pyloric: The portion of the stomach that opens into the small intestine

Breathing and exchange of gases

Pulmonary Volumes and Capacities

There are following respiratory volumes and capacity:

(i) Tidal volume (TV): It is volume of air normally inspired or expired in one breath (i.e. inspiration
and expiration) without any extra effort. It is about 500 ml in normal healthy adult. In infants it is
15 ml and in fetus it is 0 ml.
(ii) Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) : By taking a very deep breath, you can inspire a good deal
more than 500 ml. This additional inhaled air, called IRV is about 3000 ml.
(iii) Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) : If you inhale normally & then exhale as forcibly as possible,
you should be able to push out 1200 ml of air in addition to 500ml. of T.V. The extra 1200 ml is
called ERV.
(iv) Residual volume (RV): Even after expiratory reserve volume is expelled, considerable air
remains in the lung, this volume, which cannot be measured by spirometry, and it is called
residual volume is about 1200 ml.
(v) Dead space: Portion of tracheobronchial tree where gaseous exchange does not occur is called
dead space. It is also called conductive zone. Dead space is 150 ml.

(vi) Functional residual capacity (FRC): It is the amount of air that remains in the lungs after a
normal expiration. It is about 2300 ml.

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 FRC = ERV + RV

= 1100 + 1200 = 2300 ml.

(vii) Vital capacity (VC): This is the maximum amount of air that can be expired forcefully from
his lungs after first filling these with a maximum deep inspiration. It is about 4600 ml.
VC = IRV + TV + ERV

= 3000+500+1100 = 4600 ml.

(viii)Total lung capacity (TLC): TLC is the sum of vital capacity (VC) and residual volume (RV). It is
about 5800ml.
TLC = VC + RV

= 4600 + 1200 = 5800 ml.

(ix) Inspiratory capacity (IC): It is the total amount of air a person can inspire by maximum
distension of his lungs.
I.C. = TV + IRV

= 500 + 3000 = 3500 ml.

Process of Respiration
The process of respiration is completed in 4 steps:

(i) Breathing or ventilation

(ii) Exchange of gases or External respiration

(iii) Transport of gases

(iv) Cellular respiration

(i) Ventilation or breathing:

Breathing is movement of thorax, expansion (inflation) and deflation of lungs and flow of air into
the lungs and from the lungs. It is extracellular, energy consuming and physical process. Sum of
inspiration and expiration is called respiratory movement. There are two steps of breathing:

(a) Inspiration: Intake of fresh air in lungs from outside. It is an active process. Blood pressure
increases during later part of respiration.
(b) Expiration: Out flow of the air from the lungs is called expiration. When expiration occurs,
the inspiratory muscles relax. As the external intercostal relax, ribs move inferiorly and as
the diaphragm relaxes, its dome moves superiorly owing to its elasticity.
(c) Mechanism of ventilation/breathing:

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 (ii) Exchange of gases:
(a) Exchange of gases in lungs: It is also called external respiration. In this gaseous exchange
oxygen passes from alveoli to pulmonary capillary blood and CO2. Comes to alveoli from
pulmonary capillary.
(b) Release of CO2 by the blood: The PCO2 (partial pressure of carbon dioxide) of blood reaching
the alveolar capillaries is higher than the PCO2 of alveolar air. Therefore, carbon dioxide
diffuses from the blood of alveolar capillaries into the alveolar air.
(c) Exchange of gases in tissues: In the tissues, exchange of gases occurs between the blood
and the tissue cells. This exchange occurs via tissue fluid that bathes the tissue cells. The
blood reaching the tissue capillaries has PO2 higher than that in the tissue cells and
PCO2 lower than that in the tissue cells.
(iii) Transport of gases: Blood carries O2 from respiratory organs to the tissue cells for oxidation and
CO2 from tissue cells to respiratory organs for elimination. Blood should be slightly alkaline to
help the transport of O2 and CO2 properly.

Difference between breathing and respiration

Breathing (Ventilation) Respiration

It is a physical process. It is a biochemical process.

It is simply an intake of fresh air and removal of foul It involves exchange of gases and oxidation of food.
air.

No energy is released rather used. Energy is released that is stored in ATP.

It occurs outside the cells, hence it is an extra-cellular It occurs inside the cells, hence it is an intra-cellular
process. process.

No enzymes are involved in the process. A large number of enzymes are involved in the process.

Breathing mechanism varies in different animals. Respiratory mechanism is similar in all animals.

It is confined to certain organs only. It occurs in all living cells of the body.

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 Composition of three samples of air
For the control of respiration following respiratory centres are found in hind brain

Type of centre Location Function

Inspiratory centre Medulla oblongata Inspiration (2 second active condition)

Respiratory centre Medulla oblongata Expiration (3 second inactive condition)

Apneustic centre Pons Slow and deep inspiration

Pneumotaxic centre Pons Control other centres and produce normal quite
breathing

Gasping centre Pons Sudden and shallow respiration

Oxygen content: Total volume of O2 in 100 ml. of whole blood i.e. volume of O2 in physical solution
form and oxyhaemoglobin form. It is equal to 19.7 + 0.3 = 20 ml of oxygen.

Oxygen capacity: Maximal amount of O2 that can be held by the blood at 760 mm Hg pressure and
370C. Oxygen capacity is about 20 ml/100 ml.

Excretory products and their Elimination

Excretion is the process by which waste products of metabolism and other non-useful materials are
eliminated from an organism

Excretory system of man

Mammalian (human) urinary system consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureter, a urinary bladder
and a urethra.

(i) Kidneys : The kidneys are dark-red, bean-shaped organs about 11 cm long, 5 cm wide and
3 cm thick, each weight about 150 gm in an adult male and about 135 gm in adult female.

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 Differences between cortical and Juxtamedullary nephrons

Cortical Nephrons Juxtamedullary Nephron

1. Form 80% of total nephrons. 1. Form only 20% of total nephrons.

2. Are small in size. 2. Are large in size.

3. Lie mainly in the renal cortex. 3. Have Bowman's capsules in the cortex near its

junction with the medulla.

4. Henle's loops are very short and extend only a 4. Henle's loop are very long and extend deep into the

little into the medulla medulla.

5. Control plasma volume when water supply is 5. Control plasma volume when water supply is short.

normal.

(ii) Ureters: From the hilum of each kidney emerges a whitish tube the ureter. The ureters are
about 28 cm long. Their wall consists of transitional epithelium surrounded by a layer of muscle
fibres. Openings of the two ureters in the bladder are separate, but closely placed. These are
oblique, so that the urine cannot regurgitate into the ureters when the bladder contracts.
Peristalsis of ureters also cheeks regurgitation of urine.

(iii) Urinary bladder and Urethra: The urinary bladder is pear-shaped which is made up of smooth
and involuntary muscles. The muscles are also known as detrusor muscles (muscles that has the
action of expelling a substance). The lower part or neck of the bladder leads into the urethra.

Differences between male and female urethra

Male urethra Female urethra

1. It is about 20 cm long. 1. It is just 3 – 5 cm long.

2. It has 3 regions : prostatic urethra (3–4 cm), 2. It is not differentiated into regions.

membranous (1 cm) and penial (15 cm)

3. It opens out at the tip of the penis by 3. It opens into the vulva by urinary aperture.

urinogenital aperture.

4. It carries urine as well as semen to the exterior. 4. It carries only urine to the exterior.

5. It has 2 sphincters. 5. It has a single sphincter.

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 Physiology of Excretion
Major nitrogenous excretory substance in frog, rabbit and human is urea, i.e. these are ureotelic
animals. The excretory physiology in these animals may be considered under two phases, viz urea
synthesis and formation and excretion of urine.

(i) Synthesis of urea in liver: Urea is formed in liver by two processes.

(a) Deamination

(b) Ornithine cycle

(ii) Urine formation: Urine formation occurs in the kidneys. It involves three processes glomerular
filtration, reabsorption and tubular secretion.
(iii) Mechanism of urine concentration (Counter current mechanism of urine concentration) :
Mammals form hypertonic urine. The urine is made hypertonic with the help of counter current
multiplier system. This process takes place in the Henle's loop and vasa recta and it involves
mainly Na+ and Cl-. In P.C.T. urine is isotonic. The descending limb of loop of Henle is permeable
to water. Its surrounding tissue fluid is hypertonic. Hence, the water moves out and the Na+ and
Cl- move in the descending limb by passive transport. Therefore, the filtrate in the descending
limb finally becomes hypertonic.

Summary of events occurring in a nephron

Materials transferred Nephron region Process involved Mechanism

1. Glucose, Amino acids, Bowman's capsule Glomerular Ultrafiltration

Vitamins, Hormones, Na+, K+, filtration
Mg2+, Ca+2, H2O, Urea, Uric Acid,
Creatinine, Ketone Bodies.

2. Glucose, Amino Acids, Proximal convoluted tubule Reabsorption Active transport

Hormones, Vitamins, Na+, K+,
Mg2+, Ca+2

3. Cl– Proximal convoluted tubule Reabsorption Passive transport

4. Water Proximal convoluted tubule Reabsorption Osmosis

5. Urea Proximal convoluted tubule Reabsorption Diffusion

6. H2O Narrow region of descending limb of Reabsorption Omosis

Henle's loop

7. Na+,K+,Mg+2,Ca+2,Cl– Narrow region of ascending limb of Reabsorption Diffusion

Henle's loop

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8.Inorganic ions as above Wide part of ascending limb of Reabsorption Active transport
Henle's loop

9.H2O Distal convoluted tubule, collecting Reabsorption with Osmosis

tubule, collecting duct ADH Help

10. Na+ Distal convoluted tubule, collecting Reabsorption with Active transport
tubule, collecting duct aldosterone help
reabsorption
secretion

11. Urea Last part of collecting duct Reabsorption with Diffusion

aldosterone help
reabsorption
secretion

12. Creatinine, Hippuric Acid, Proximal convoluted tubule Reabsorption with Active transport
Foreign substances aldosterone help
reabsorption
secretion

13. K+, H+ Distal convoluted tubule Reabsorption with Active transport

aldosterone help
reabsorption
secretion

14. NH3 Distal convoluted tubule Reabsorption with Diffusion

aldosterone help
reabsorption
secretion

15. Urea Ascending limb of Henle's loop (Thin Reabsorption with Diffusion
part) aldosterone help
reabsorption
secretion

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 Differences between Rennin and Renin
S.No. Rennin Renin

1. It is secreted by peptic (zymogen) cells of gastric It is secreted by specialised cells in the

glands into the stomach. afferent arterioles of the kidney cortex.

2. Its secretion is stimulated by food. Its secretion is stimulated by a reduction of

Na+level in tissue fluid

3. It is secreted as an inactive form prorennin which It is secreted as renin.

is activated to rennin by HCl.

4. It is a proteolytic enzyme. It is a hormone that acts as an enzyme

5. It helps in the digestion of milk protein casein. It converts the protein angiotensinogen into
angiotensin.

Renin
(i) Waste products of protein metabolism
(a) Amino acids: These are end products of protein digestion absorbed into the blood from
small intestine. Certain invertebrates, like some molluscs (eg Unio, Limnae, etc.) and some
echinoderms (eg Asterias) excrete excess amino acids as such. This is called aminotelic
excretion or aminotelism.

(b) Ammonia: In most animals, excess amino acids are deaminated, i.e. degraded into their keto
and ammonia groups. The keto groups are used in catabolism for producing ATP, whereas
ammonia is excreted as such or in other forms.

(c) Urea: This is less toxic and less soluble in water than ammonia. Hence, it can stay for some
time in the body.

(d) Uric acid: Animals living in dry (arid) conditions, such as land gastropods, most insects, land
reptiles (snakes and lizards), birds etc have to conserve water in their bodies.

(f) Guanine: Spiders typically excrete their ammonia in the form of guanine. Some guanine is
also formed in amphibians, reptiles, birds and earthworms. It is insoluble in water. Hence, no
water is required for its excretion.

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 Differences between ammonotelism, ureotelism and uricotelism

S.No. Ammonotelism Ureotelism Uricotelism

1. Means excretion of nitrogenous Means excretion of nitrogenous Means excretion of nitrogenous

waste mainly as ammonia. waste mainly as urea. waste mainly as uric acid.

2. Uses very little energy in forming Uses more energy in producing Uses far more energy in producing
ammonia. urea. uric acid.

3. Its product is very toxic. Its product is less toxic. Its product is least toxic.

4. Causes considerable loss of body's Causes less loss of body's water. Causes least loss of body's water
water.

5. Occurs in aquatic animals. Occurs in aquatic as well as land Occurs in land animals.
animals.

6. Examples: Amoeba, Scypha, Hydra, Examples: Earthworm, Examples: Insects, land

Earthworm, Unio, Prawn, Cartilaginous fishes, frog, turtles, crustaceans, land snails, land
Salamander, Tadpole or frog, alligators, mammals (man). reptiles birds.
bonyfish.

7. Animals excreting NH3 are called Animals excreting urea are termed Animals excreting uric acid are
ammoniotelic. uroetelic. called uricotelic.

Body movements and Locomotion

Types of Bones and their Description

Name No. Description

Frontal 1 Forms the forehead (anterior or front part of the top of cranium) and some upper parts
(roofs) of eye orbits or sockets and nasal cavities. A newborn infant displays a faint suture
in midline of frontal, indication that adult frontal is actually formed of two completely
fused frontal.

Parietals 2 Articulated to and situated just behind frontal. Form the main parts of bulging top and
sides of cranium.

Occipital 1 Articulated to and situated just behind parietals. Forms posterior (back) and lower (base)
parts of cranium. Foramen magnum is a large perforation in this bone. On each side of the
foramen, the occipital bears a prominent elevation called occipital condyle. The condyles
articulate the skull with first vertebra (atlas). Thus, human skull is dicondylic.

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Temporals 2 Form lower parts of right and left sides of cranium, as well as, the floor of cranial cavity.
These house structures of internal and middle ears and form a part of external auditory
meatuses. The middle ear of each side encloses the three small ear ossicles – malleus,
incus and stapes.

Sphenoid 1 A typically butterfly-shaped bone that forms the middle and anterior parts of base of
cranium in front of occipital in the middle and temporals on the sides. It articulates with all
skull bones, keeping these firmly together. It also forms parts of lateral walls and floors of
eye orbits.

Ethmoid 1 A small, irregular bone in front of sphenoid and behind nasal bones. It fashions the front
(anterior) extremity and closer of cranial cavity. It also contributes to the architecture of
eye orbits and proximal parts of nasal chambers.

Nasals 2 Small, oblong bones in middle of upper part of face, forming proximal part of the bridge of
our nose. The remaining, lower part of our nose is formed of cartilage.

Inferior nasal 2 Two highly coiled, scroll-like processes of ethmoid bone, called conchae project into each
nasal cavity from lateral wall of the proximal bony part of concerned nasal chamber. One
conchae
ethmoidal concha is superior (uppermost). The other one is called middle concha, because
(Turbinales)
it is followed by a thin, separate scroll-like bone which is named inferior nasal concha or
turbinate.

Vomer 1 A thin, elongated, platelike bone, forming a part of the septum which separates the two
nasal cavities.

Lacrimals 2 Small and thin, finger-shaped bones, each located in front part of the medial (inner) side of
corresponding eye orbit. these form a part of the passages of corresponding tear ducts.

Zygomatics 2 Cheek-bones; form the prominences of our cheeks and parts of the floor and side walls of
(Malars) eye orbits.

Palatines 2 L-shaped bones that form the back (posterior) part of our hard palate (roof of mouth). Also
contribute to the framework of nasal cavities and floor of eye orbits.

Maxillae 2 Large, upper jaw bones that form the major part of our face and upper jaw. Comprise
entire front (anterior) part of our hard palate. Also contribute to the architecture of eye
orbits and nose. Bear the teeth of upper jaw.

Mandible 1 Largest bone of our face, and strongest of all bones of the body. Forms entire lower jaw
and bears all lower jaw teeth. Articulated with temporal bones of skull.

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 Difference between Thoracic and Lumbar vertebra
S.No. Characters Thoracic vertebra Lumbar vertebra

1. Neural spine Long undivided and downward directed. Short, flat and upward directed.

2. Facet for ribs Present on transverse process and centrum. Absent.

3. Transverse process Club-shaped. Thin and elongated.

Difference between Male and Female pelvis

S.No. Characters Male pelvis Female pelvis

1. Nature of bones of pelvic girdles Heavier and longer Lighter and smaller

2. Sacrum Less concave More concave anteriorly

3. Pelvis Shallow, narrow and round Deep, wide and funnel-shaped

Muscle Contraction
From excitation to contraction to relaxation, following occurs within a skeletal muscle:

(1) An electrical signal (action potential) travels down a nerve cell. This in turn causes to release a
chemical message (neurotransmitter). This chemical message is released into a small gap
between the nerve cell and muscle cell. This gap is called synapse.

(2) The neurotransmitter then crosses the gap. It binds to a protein (receptor) on the muscle-cell
membrane which causes an action potential in the muscle cell.

(3) The action potential spreads along the muscle cell.

(4) The action potential enters the cell through T-tubule.

(5) The action potential opens gate in the muscle's calcium store.

(6) Calcium ions flow into the cytoplasm.

(7) Calcium ions bind to troponin-tropomyosin molecules. These are located in the grooves of the
actin filaments.

(8) The sites on actin where myosin can form crossbridges are covered by the rod-like tropomyosin
molecule.

(9) On binding calcium ions, troponin changes shape. It then slides tropomyosin out of the groove,
exposing the actin-myosin binding sites.

(10)Myosin interacts with actin by cycling crossbridges. The muscle thereby creates force, and
shortens.

(11)After the action potential has passed, the calcium gates close automatically.

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(12)Calcium pumps remove calcium from the cytoplasm. These pumps are located on the
sarcoplasmic reticulum.

(13)As the calcium gets pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, calcium ions come off the
troponin.

(14)The troponin returns to its normal shape.

(15)Troponin allows tropomyosin to cover the actin-myosin binding sites on the actin filament.

(16)As no binding sites are available now, hence no crossbridges can form, and the muscle relaxes.

Note:-
(1) The activities of muscle contraction and relaxation require energy.

(2) Muscles use energy in the form of ATP. The energy from ATP is used to reset the myosin
crossbridge head and release the actin filament.

(3) In order to make ATP, the muscles do the following:

(a) Breaks down creatine phosphate.

(b) Add phosphate to ADP to create ATP.

(c) Carry out anaerobic respiration, by which glucose is broken down to lactic acid and ATP is
formed.

(d) Carry out aerobic respiration. Due to which glucose, glycogen, fats and amino acids are broken
down in the presence of oxygen to produce ATP.

Neural Control and Cordination

Parts of nervous system

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 Central nervous system:
(1) Central nervous system is made up of brain and spinal cord. CNS is covered by 3 meninges and
its wall has two type of matter.
(2) Types of matter: CNS of vertebrates is formed of two types of matter –
(a) Grey matter: It is formed of cell-bodies and non-medullated nerve fibres.
(b) White matter: It is formed of only medullated nerve fibres which appear white due to
presence of medullary sheath.

Brain (Encephalon): It is soft, whitish, large sized and slightly flattened structure present inside
cranial cavity of cranium of the skull. In man, it is about 1200-1400 gm in weight and has about
10,000 million neurons. Brain is made up of 3 parts
(1) Fore brain (Prosencephalon)
(i) Olfactory lobe – Rhinencephalon

(ii) Cerebrum – Telencephalon

(iii) Diencephalon – Diencephalon

(2) Mid brain (Mesencephalon)

(i) Optic lobes – Mesencephalon

(3) Hind brain (Rhambencephalon)

(i) Cerebellum – Metencephalon

(ii) Medulla oblongata – Myelencephalon

Important areas in the human brain

Area Location Function

Premotor area Frontal lobe The highest centre for involuntary movements of muscles and
ANS.

Motor area Frontal lobe Controls voluntary movements of the muscle

Broca’s area Frontal lobe Motor speech area

Somesthetic area Parietal lobe Perception of general sensation like pain, touch and temperature

Auditory area Temporal lobe Hearing

Olfactory area Temporal lobe Sense of smell

Wernicke’s area Temporal lobe Understanding speech written and spoken

Gustatory area Parietal lobe Sense of taste

Visual area Occipital lobe Sensation of light

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 Differences between Cerebrum and Cerebellum

Cerebrum Cerebellum

(1) It is the largest part of the brain, forming four- (1) It is the second largest part of the brain, forming one-
fifths of its weight. eighth of its mass.

(2) It covers the rest of the brain. (2) It covers the medulla oblongata only.

(3) It is a part of the forebrain. (3) It is a part of the hindbrain.

(4) It consists of 2 cerebral hemispheres each (4) It consists of two cerebellar hemispheres and a median
comprising 4 lobes : frontal, occipital, parietal, vermis.
temporal.

(5) It encloses 2 lateral ventricles. (5) It is solid.

(6) White matter does not form arbor vitae. (6) White matter form arbor vitae.

(7) It initiates voluntary movements, and is a seat of (7) It maintains posture and equilibrium.
will, intelligence, memory etc.

Subdivisions, parts and associated structures of a vertebrate brain

Divisions Subdivisions Parts Cavity Associated strcutures

(1) Telencephalon Rhinencephalon I Ventricle (Rhinocoel) Olfactory bulbs

Olfactory tracts

(I) Prosencephalon Olfactory lobes

(Forebrain)
Palaeocortex on
pallium

Cerebral II or Lateral Ventricles Corpora striata or basal

hemispheres ganglia

Corpus callosum

Neocortex on pallium

Paraphysis

(2) Diencephalon Epithalamus (roof) Habenulae

Pineal apparatus

Parapineal or parietal

Thalamus (sides)

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 Hypothalamus Hypothalamic nuclei
(floor)
Optic chiasma

Median eminence

Infundibular stalk

Pituitary

Saccus vasculosus

Mamillary bodies

Anterior choroid plexus

(II) Mesencephalon – Crura cerebri Iter or cerebral Cerebral peduncles

(Midbrain) (floor) aqueduct

(III) (1) Metencephalon Cerebellum Trapezoid body

Rhombencephalon
Pons
(Hind brain)
(2) Myelencephalon Medulla oblongata IV Ventricle (Metacoel) Restiform bodies

Pyramids

Reflex action

(1) The reflex actions are involuntary actions because these are not under the conscious control of
the brain.

(2) The spinal cord and brain stem are responsible for most of the reflex movements.

(3) A few examples of the reflex actions are withdrawal of hand or leg if pricked by a pin, secretion
of saliva as soon as one thinks of delicious food or mere its sight causes salivation, if the body

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 part is touched with acid or hot object it is automatically, without thinking and planning is
withdrawn, cycling, motor driving etc.

(4) Component of reflex action: The whole of the reflex are includes six parts –
(a) Receptor organs: Receptors are windows of the body or guards of the body. These are
situated on all, important organs, for example – eyes, nose, ear, tongue, integument etc.
These perceive the stimuli from outside the body.
(b) Sensory neurons: These are also termed afferent neurons. These carry the stimuli from
receptors to spinal cord. These neurons are situated in the ganglion on the dorsal side of
spinal cord.
(c) Nerve centre: Spinal cord is termed as nerve centre. Synaptic connections are formed in it.
(d) Association neurons: These are also called intermediate neurons or interstitial neurons.
These are found in spinal cord. They transfer the impulses from sensory neurons to motor
neurons.
(e) Motor neurons: These are situated in the ventral horn of spinal cord. These carry the
impulses to effector organs.
(f) Effector organs: These are the organs, which react and behave in response to various
stimuli, for example – muscles and glands.
(5) Type of reflexes: The reflexes are of following types –
(a) Monosynaptic reflex
(b) Polysynaptic Spinal Reflex
(c) Polysynaptic Spinal/Brain Reflexes
(d) Unconditioned or Simple reflex
(e) Conditioned or Acquired reflex

Cranial nerves of mammal at a glance

Olfactory – sensory
Optic-sensory

Occulomotor (smallest nerve)-motor

Trochlear(pathetic)-motor

Trigeminal(dentists nerve) –mixed (a) Opthalmic-sensory (b)maxillary-sensory (c) mandibular-

mixed

Abducens(shortest nerve)-motor

Facial-mixed

Auditory(vestibulocochlear)-sensory

Glossopharyngeal-mixed

Vagus(longest nerve)-mixed

Spinal accessory nerve-motor

Hypoglossal-motor

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Chemical control and Coordination

Properties of hormones
(a) These are secreted by endocrine gland (biogenic in origin).

(b) Their secretions is released directly into blood (except local hormones e.g. gastrin).

(c) These are carried to distantly locate specific organs, called target organ.

(d) These have specific physiological action (excitatory or inhibatory). These co-ordinate different
physical, mental and metabolic activities and maintain homeostasis.

(e) The hormones have low molecular weight e.g. ADH has a molecular weight of 600–2000 daltons.

(f) These act in very low concentration e.g. around10–10 molar.

(g) Hormones are non antigenic.

(h) These are mostly short-lived. So have a no camulative effect.

(i) Some hormones are quick acting e.g. adrenalin, while some acting slowly e.g. ostrogen of ovary.

(j) Some hormones secreted in inactive form called Prohormone e.g. Pro-insulin.

(k) Hormones are specific. They are carriers of specific information to their specific target organ.
Only those target cell respond to a particular hormone for which they have receptors.

Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis)

(1) Pituitory is known as hypophysis cerebri, its name
pituitary was given by vesalius.

(2) Muller’s gland of amphioxus and subneural gland of

hardmania is homologous to pituitary of
vertebrates.

Parts and component

(1) Adenohypophysis (Anterior lobe)
(i) Pars distalis

(ii) Pars tuberalis

(iii) Pars intermedia

(2) Neurohypophysis (Posterior lobe)

(i) Pars nervosa

(ii) Infundibulum

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 Hypothalamus
(i) Position and Structure: Hypothalamus is the floor of diencephalon. It is formed of masses of
grey matter, called hypothalmic nuclei, containing neurosecretory cells. It is connected with
anterior pituitary lobe by blood capillaries of hypophyseal portal system and with the posterior
pituitary lobe by axons of its neurons, both passing through the pituitary stalk.
(ii) Hormones of hypothalamus: Neurosecretory cells of hypothalamus secrete neurohormones
called releasing factors (RF) or inhibiting factors (IF). These neurohormones are carried by
hypophyseal portal system to adenohypophysis (primary target organ) and stimulate or inhibit
the release of trophic hormones from adenohypophysis. These neurohormones are proteinous
in nature and formed of 3 – 20 amino acids.

Neurohormones of Adenohypophysis

Neurohormones Physiological effects

(1) TSH-RF

(Thyroid Stimulating Hormone – Releasing Factor) Increased ACTH secretion from adenohypophysis.

(2) ACTH-RF

(Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone-Releasing Factor) Increased ACTH secretion from adenohypophysis.

(3) STH-RF

(Somatotrophic Hormone-Releasing Factor) Increased STH secretion from adenohypophysis

(4) SOMATOSTATIN (GROWTH INHIBITING HORMONE) Decreased STH secretion from adenohypophysis.

(5) GTH-RF

(Gonadotrophic Hormone-Releasing Factor)

(i) FSH-RF

(Follicular Stimulating Hormone-Releasing Factor) Increased FSH secretion from adenohypophysis.

(ii) LH-RH (In female)

(Luteinising Hormone – Releasing Factor) Increased LH secretion from adenohypophysis.

or ICSH-RF (In male)

(Interstitial Cells stimulating Hormone-Releasing Factor)

(6) Prolactin-Releasing hormone (P-RH) Increased secretion of prolactin or leutotrophic

hormone.

(7) Prolactin-Inhibiting hormone (P-IH) Increased secretion of prolactin or leutotrophic

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 hormone.

(8) MSH-RF

(Melanophore Stimulating Hormone-Releasing Factor) Increased MSH secretion from intermediate pituitary
lobe.

(9) MIF

(Melanophore Inhibiting Factor) Decreased MSH secretion from intermediate pituitary

lobe.

List of hormones their chemical nature and functions

Name of endocrine gland Name of hormone and Functions

its chemical nature

(1) Neurosecretory cells of (1) Oxytocin and vasopressin (1) Milk ejection and parturition (oxytocic effect).
Hypothalamus nanopeptide. (2) Vasoconstriction and antidiuretic (vasotocin)
(Supraoptic Nucleus effects.
and Paraventricular
Nucleus) (2) Gonadotropin releasing Stimulates FSH and LH sysnthesis.
hormones

(3) Other releasing Stimulate TSH, MSH, ACTH GH secretions from

hormones e.g.TSHRH, pituitary.

MSHRH, ACTHRH, GHRH

etc. Proteinaceous

(2) Pituitary Store and release Oxytocin Hormone release is related to physiological state and
(a) Neurohypophysis and Vasopressin. requirements.

(Pass Nervosa)
(b) Adenohypehypsis Proteincaceous or Affect growth, development differential pubertal
(contains diverse glycoprotein changes and other metabolic mechanism.

cell types)

(3) Pineal Melatonin-derived from the (1) Antagonist to FSH / LH

amino acid tyrosine (2) Regulates biological / circadian rhythms.

(4) Thyroid gland (amine (a) Thyroxine, iodinated (a) Controls basal metabolic rate (BMR). All organ /

424
 hormone) having – NH2
group)
(5) Parathyroid gland
(6) Thymus
(7) Islets of lengerhans
(= Endocrine pancrease)
(i) a-cells
(ii) b-cells
(iii) d-cells
(8) Adrenal gland
(a) Adrenal medulla
(Amine hormone have –
NH2)
(b) Adrenal cortex
(9) Ovary
(a) Ganulosa cells steroid,
fat soluble have sterol
group derived from
cholesterol
(b) Corpus luteum
(c) Placenta temporary
endocrine gland formed
amino acid called tyrosine
(T2, T3, T4).
(b) Thyrocalcitonin (Peptide)
Parathormane, Peptide
Thymosine (polypeptide)
(i) Glucagon
(ii) Insulin
(iii) Secretin
Isolated by banting
polypeptide
(a) Catecholamines
(epinephrine = adrenaline,
and norepinephrine =
noradrenaline (derived from
tyrosine)
(b) Mineralcorticoids and
glucocorticoids and traces of
androgen and estrogen
steroids derived from
cholesterol
Estrogen (Steroid)
Estrone, estradiol
Estrogen and Progesterone
(Steroid)
(a) Steroid secreted are
estrogen and progesterone
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system of body respond to thyroxine.
(b) Facilitates Ca+2 absorption
Ca+2 and PO–4 metabolism.
Anti-FSH and LH; delays puberty
(i) Gluconeogenesis / Glycogenolys
(ii) Glycogenesis
(iii) Gastric functions
(a) Stresses = emergency = Fright, Fight and Flight
Hormone (3F) acclerates cardiac functions muscle
activity etc.
(b) Electrolyte and carbohydrate metabolism.
(a) Secondary sex character primary action on
uterine endometrium mitogenic.
(a) Secreted during luetal phase of menstrual cycle in
human female and oestrous cycle of other mammals.
Prepares uterine endometrium for receiving
blastocytes for implantation. Progesterone is also
called pregnancy hormone and is anti-FSH and anti-
LH/anti-LTH.
(a) Maintenance of pregnant state prevents
lactogenesis folliculogenesis, and Ovulation.
during pregnancy (b) Relaxin-Polypeptide (b) Act on pubic symphysis and enlarges the birth
canal to facilitate birth. Acts synergestically with
oxytocin during this process (parturition)

(10) Testis Inhibin – Polypeptide Inhibits FHS action and attenuates spermatogenesis
(i) Sertoli cells decrementally

(=sustentacular cells)

(ii) Leydig cells (ii) Estradiol-Steroid (i) Pubertal changes in male

(=Interstitial cells) Androgens (e.g. Testosterone) (ii) Secy. sex characters in male
Steroid androstenedione)
(iii) Sex drives
(iv) Spermatogenesis

(11) Gastro-intestinal Stimulates gastric juices secretion from gastric gland,

hormones (secreted by movement of sphincters of stomach and increased
cells of mucosa of stomach movement of stomach
and intestine) also called
hormones

(a) Pyloric stomach Gastrin (i) Stimulates secretion of succus entericus

(Argentophil cells) Intestine (i) Secreten (ii) Bile released from gall bladder
(ii) Cholecystokinin (CCK) (iii) Inhibits gastric secretin
(iii) Enterogastrone (iv) Stimulates secretion of mucous from Brunner's
(iv) Duedocrinin gland

(v) Enterokinin (v) Stimulate intestinal gland

(vi) Villikrinin (vi) Stimulate villi movement

Circulation
Circulatory System

Functions of Circulatory System

(1) Transport of various substances such as nutrients, waste products, respiratory gases, metabolic
intermediates (Such as lactic acid from muscle to liver), and vitamins hormones etc.

(2) Regulation of body pH by means of buffer, body temperature homeostasis, water balance etc.

(3) Prevention of disease by means of antibodies and antitoxins.

(4) Support or turgidity to certain organs like penis and nipples.

426
 Heart of vertebrates

Class of vertebrates Characteristics Example

(1) Pisces (= Branchial Thick, muscular, made of cardiac muscles, has two chambers (i) Labeo
heart) auricle and (ii) ventricle. The heart is called venous heart since it Scoliodon
pumps deoxygenated blood to gills for oxygenation. This blood goes
Neoceratodus
directly from gills to visceral organs (single circuit circulation). A sinus
venosus and conus arteriosus is present. Lung fishes have 2 auricles
and 1 ventricle.

(2) Amphibians Heart consists of Frog

(a) Two auricles Toad
(b) Undivided ventricle
(c) Sinus venosus
(d) Truncus arteriosus
(conus + proximal part of aorta) Right auricle receives blood from all
the visceral organs (deoxygenated) via precaval and post caval.
Pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood to lungs for
oxygenation. This blood returns to left auricle via pulmonary vein
(Double circuit circulation)

(3) Reptiles Heart consists of : Lizards

(a) Left and right auricle Snakes
(b) Incompletely divided ventricle Turtles
(Ventricle in crocodiles gavialis and alligator is completely divided)
(c) Sinus venosus
(d) Conus arteriosus divided into right systemic, left systemic and
pulmonary arch.

(4) Aves Heart consists of Pigeon

(a) Left and right auricle
(b) Left and right ventricle
(c) Complete separation of arterial and venous circulation
(d) Only right systemic arch is present
(e) Sinus venosus and truncus arterisious absent

(5) Mammals Same as bird except that mammals have left systemic arch. Rabbit, man

427
 Human Heart
Circulation of Blood through Heart
(1) The heart pumps blood to all parts of the body.

(2) The deoxygenated blood is drained into right auricle through superior and inferior vena cava and
coronary sinus whereas the pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from lungs to the left
auricle. This is called as Auricular circulation.

(3) About 70% of the auricular blood passes into the ventricles during
diastole. This phase is called diastasis.

(4) The rest of 30% of blood passes into the ventricles due to auricular
systole (contraction).

(5) In this way, blood reaches the ventricles and is called ventricular
filling.

(6) During ventricular systole (which starts first in left ventricle than in
right ventricle), the pressure increases in the ventricles, thus, forcing
the oxygenated blood from left ventricle into systemic aorta and deoxygenated blood from right
ventricle into pulmonary aorta.

(7) The systemic arch distributes the oxygenated blood to all the body parts except lungs while
pulmonary aorta carries the deoxygenated blood to lungs for oxygenation.

Differences between Neurogenic heart and Myogenic heart

Neurogenic heart Myogenic heart

(1) The heart beat is initiated by a ganglion situated (1) The heart beat is initiated by a patch of modified heart

near the heart. muscle.

(2) The impulse of contraction originates from (2) The impulse of contraction originates itself in the heart.

nervous system.

(3) The heart normally stops beating immediately (3) The heart removed from the body continues to beat for

after removal from the body. Therefore, heart some time. Therefore, heart transplantation is possible.

transplantation is not possible.

(4) Examples: Hearts of some annelids and most (4) Examples: Hearts of molluscs and vertebrates.

arthropods.

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 Fractions of cardiac output :
Amount of pure blood going to an organ per minute is called as fraction of the organ.
(i) Cardiac fraction – 200 ml/min.

(ii) Hepatic fraction – 1500 ml/min. (28% of blood as liver is the busiest organ of body and has
maximum power of regeneration).

(iii) Renal fraction – 1300 ml/min (25% of blood)

(iv) Myofraction – 600-900 ml/min.

(v) Cephalic organs – 700-800 ml/min.

Differences between first and seconds heart sounds

First heart sound (Lubb) Second heart sound (Dup)

(1) It is produced by closure of bicuspid and tricuspid (1) It is produced by closure of semilunar valves at the start
valves at the start of ventricular systole. of ventricular diastole.
(2) It is low pitched, less loud and of long duration. (2) It is higher pitched, louder, sharper and of short
duration.
(3) It lasts for 0.15 seconds. (3) It lasts for 0.1 second.

(4) Its principal frequencies are 25 to 45 cycles per (4) Its principal frequency is 50 cycles per second.
second.

Electrocardiogram (ECG)
(1) A graphic record of electrical events occurring during a cardiac cycle is called Electrocardiogram.

(i) Depolarisation waves: They represent the generation of the potential difference. These
waves appear only when both electrodes of galvanometer are in different fields. When both
the electrodes are in same field, there are no deflection and wave drops down to base line.
(ii) Repolarisation waves: They appear when depolarisation is over and the muscle fibre is
returning to its original polarity. When both electrodes are in same polarity (means 100%
repolarisation and 100% depolarisation), there is no deflection.
(a) P wave: Indicates impulse of contraction generated by S.A. node and its spread in atria
causing atrial depolarisation. The interval PQ represents atrial contraction and takes 0.1
second.
(b) QRS complex: Indicates spread of impulse of contraction from A.V node to the wall of
ventricles through bundle of His and pukinje fibres causing ventricular depolarisation.
This complex also represents repolarization of S.A. node.
The RS of QRS wave and ST interval show ventricular contraction (0.3 seconds). QRS is
related to ventricular systole.

o T wave: Indicates repolarisation during ventricular relaxation

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Types of Blood Circulation in Human
(i) Coronary circulation: It involves blood supply to the heart wall and also drainage of the heart
wall.
(a) Coronary arteries: One pair, arising from the aortic arch just above the semilunar valves.
They break up into capillaries to supply oxygenated blood to the heart wall.
(b) Coronary veins: Numerous, collecting deoxygenated blood from the heart wall and drains it
into right auricle through coronary sinus which is formed by joining of most of the coronary
veins.
(ii) Pulmonary circulation: It includes circulation between heart and lungs. The right ventricle
pumps deoxygenated blood into a single, thick vessel called pulmonary aorta which ascends
upward and outside heart gets divided into longer, right and shorter, left pulmonary arteries
running to the respective lungs where oxygenation of blood takes place.
(iii) Systemic circulation: In this, circulation of blood occurs between heart and body organs. The left
ventricle pumps the oxygenated blood into systemic arch which supplies it to the body organs
other than lungs through a number of arteries.

Lympahtic System
The lymphatic system is an extension of the circulatory system. It consists of a fluid known as lymph,
lymph capillaries and lymph ducts.

(a) Lymph: It can be defined as blood minus RBC's. In addition to the blood vascular system all
vertebrate possess a lymphatic system. It is colourless or yellowish fluid present in the lymph
vessels. It is a mobile connective tissue like blood and is formed by the filtration of blood.
(b) Lymph capillaries: Small, thin, lined by endothelium resting on a basement membrane and fine
whose one end is blind and other end unites to form lymphatic ducts.
(c) Lymphatic ducts or vessels: Numerous, present in various parts of body. These vessels are like
veins as they have all the three layers – tunica externa, tunica media and tunica interna, and are
provided with watch pocket or semilunar valves but valves are more in number than veins.

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 Reproduction in Plants &
Animals
Reproduction in Organisms

Reproduction:
(1) Reproduction is defined as a biological process in which every living organism give rise to new
organisms similar to themselves.

(2) Basic features of reproduction:

(i) Replication of DNA

(ii) Cell division (only mitotic, or both mitotic and meiotic)

(iii) Formation of reproductive bodies or units.

(iv) Development of reproductive bodies into offsprings.

Difference between Asexual and Sexual Reproduction

S.No. Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

1) Offsprings are produced by single parents. Involvement of single or two individual.

2) New individual develops from one cell or a New individual develops from zygote or fusion
vegetative body part of one parent. product of two gametes, which may or may not be
produced by two parents.

3) Offsprings are genetically identical to their parents. The offsprings are not genetically identical with their
parents.

4) Involves only mitotic divisions. Involves meiosis at one or the other stage.

5) It does not require the formation of sex organs. Formation of sex organs is a pre-requisite for sexual
reproduction.

6) It does not introduce variability. Hence has no It introduces variability and is, hence of evolutionary
evolutionary importance. importance.

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Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction in plants
In flowering plants there are two main types of asexual reproduction:

(a) Agamospermy – The formation of embryo without fertilization and meiotic division. There are
three different types of agamospermy:
(i) Diplospory

(ii) Adventive embryony

(iii) Apospory

(b) Vegetative propagation –

(i) Plants belonging to this category propagates by a part of their body other than a seed. The
structural unit that is employed in place of seed for the propagation of new plants is
called propagule.

(ii) In angiosperms any parts of the plants – roots, stemsand leaves can be used for vegetative
propagation.

(5) Following are the asexual reproductive structures:

(a) Zoospores: aquatic fungi, Chlamydomonas

(b) Conidia: Penicillium
(c) Bud: Hydra
(d) Gemmules: sponges

(6) Below given are the vegetative propagation units in plant: (Vegetative propagules)

Runner, rhizome, sucker, tuber, offset, bulb

Sexual reproduction:
Sexual reproduction involves fusion of male and female gametes by the process of fertilization.

Features of sexual reproduction:

(a) The period between birth and sexual maturity is called juvenile phase.

(b) Juvenile phase is also known as vegetative phase in plant.

(c) Oestrus cycle: The cyclical changes during reproduction in non-primate mammals like cows,
sheep, rats, deers, dogs, tiger etc.
(d) Menstrual cycle: The cyclical changes during reproduction in primate mammals like monkeys,
ape, and humans.
(e) Seasonal breeders: The reproductive cycle takes place only in favorable seasons as in wild
animals.
(f) Continuous breeders: They are reproductively active throughout their reproductive phase.

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(g) Gametogenesis is the process of gamete formation.
(h) Isogametes are one of a pair of conjugating gametes, exhibiting no differences in form, size,
structure, or sex.
(i) Gametes produced of two morphologically distinct types are called heterogametes.

(j) Male gamete is called antherozoid or sperm and the female gamete is called ovum or egg.

Sexuality in organism:
(a) Plants having only one sex organ is called heterothallic or dioecious.

(b) Plants having both male and female sex organ called homothallic or monoecious.

(c) In flowering plants, the unisexual male flower is staminate (bearing stamens), while the female
is pistillate (bearing pistils).

(d) Animals having one type of reproductive system are called unisexual.

(e) Animals having both male and female reproductive system are called hermaphrodite or bisexual.

Cell division during gamete formation:

(a) Gametes in all heterogametic species are of two types namely male and female.

(b) Gametes are always haploid irrespective of parent’s ploidy.

(c) Gametes are produced by a haploid parent by mitotic division.

(d) Gametes are produced by a deploid parent by meiotic division.

(e) In diploid organisms specialized cells called meiocytes undergo meiosis to produce haploid
gametes.

Gamete transfer:
(a) Male and female gamete must be physically brought together to facilitate fusion called
fertilization.

(b) In most cases female gametes are non-motile , male gametes are motile.

(c) In case of few fungi and algae, both male and female gametes are motile.

(d) In most cases the medium for gamete transfer is water.

(e) Number of male gametes are produced is several thousand times the number of female gametes
produced to compensate the loss during transfer.

Fertilization:
The process of fusion of male and female gamete is called fertilization or syngamy.

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Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Flower
Flower is a modified stem which functions as a reproductive organ and produces ova and/or pollen

(1) Structure of the flower:

The flower is commonly borne on short or long stalk called the pedicel. It has an upper swollen
region known as receptacle (thalamus or torus).

(2) Parts of a flower:

A typical angiospermic flower consists of four whorls of floral appendages attached on the
receptacle: calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium.

(i) Calyx: It is the outermost whorl of the flower. It is composed of leaf like green sepals. The
sepals are essentially green in colour but in some cases they are coloured like petals. Such a
condition of calyx is called petaloid.

(ii) Corolla: This is the second whorl of the flower and consists of a number of petals. Petals are
generally brightly coloured and sometimes fragrant which make the flower to become
attractive.

(iii) Androecium: It is the third whorl of flower and is the male reproductive organ consisting of
stamens. Each stamen is made of filament and anther. The filament supports anther at its
tip.

(iv) Gynoecium: This is the last and the fourth whorl of flower and is the female reproductive
organ of the flower. It occupies the central position on the receptacle and composed of
ovary, style and stigma and the component parts are called carpels.

(3) Functions of a flower

(i) Flowers are modifications of shoot to perform the function of sexual reproduction.

(ii) Flowers of most of the angiosperms are shaped variously to help diverse modes of
pollination.

(iii) Flowers provide seat for germination of pollen, development of pollen tube, formation of
gametes and fertilization.

(iv) The ovary part of the carpel gets transformed into fruit and the ovules are transformed into
seeds after fertilization.

(v) Some floral parts like calyx and various modifications in ovaries help in the dispersal of fruits
and seeds.

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Microsporogenesis
The process of the formation and differentiation of microspores (pollen grains) from microspore
mother cells (MMC) by reductional division is called microsporogenesis.

Microsporogenesis is well studied under following heads:

(1) Structure of anther:

The fertile portion of stamens is called anther. Each anther is usually made up of two lobes
connected by a connective. In turn each anther lobe contains two pollen chambers placed
longitudinally. Each pollen chamber represents a microsporangium and is filled with a large
number of pollen grains or microspores.

The pollen sacs are surrounded by following 4 layers :

(i) Epidermis: This is the outermost single layered and protective. In Arceuthobium, cells of
epidermis develop a fibrous thickening and the epidermis is designated as exothecium.

(ii) Endothecium: Inner to epidermis, there is a single layer of radially elongated cells. Cells of
endothecium develop fibrous thickening (made up of cellulose with a little pectin and lignin)
which help in the dehiscence of anther. In between these cells, a few cells without
thickening are also present. These thick walled cells collectively form the stomium.

(iii) Middle layer: Three to four layers of thin walled cells situated just below the endothecium
are known as middle layers. Cells of this layer are ephemeral and degenerate to provide
nourishment to growing microspore mother cells.

(iv) Tarentum: This is the innermost layer of the wall. The cells are multinucleate (undergo
endopolyploidy) and polyploid. Tapetal cells are nutritive.

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(2) Development of anther and formation of microspores (Pollen grains):

(a) The young anther consists of homogenous mass of paranchymatous cells surrounded by
epidermis. It soon becomes four lobed.

(b) In each of the four lobes, some of the hypodermal cells begin to act as archesporial initials.

(c) Each archesporial initial divides into an outer primary parietal cell and an inner primary
sporogenous cell.

(d) The primary parietal cell divides to form 3-5 wall layers, i.e., endothecium, middle layers and
tapetum.

(e) The primary sporogenous cells divide to produce a mass of sporogenous cells or
microsporocytes.

(f) Each microspore mother cell divides meiotically to form four haploid microspores or pollen
grains and remains arranged in tetrads.

(3) Development of male gametophyte (Microgametogenesis):

(a) Microspore or pollen grain is the first cell of male gametophyte (partially developed).

(b) The wall of the pollen grain is made of two layers.The outer layer is called exine. It is made
up of sporopollenin (derived from carotenoid). The inner intine is thin, delicate and is made
of cellulose and pectose.

(4) Pre-pollination development:

(a) Microspores start germinating in situ (i.e. while enclosed inside the microsporangium or pollen
sac) and are called precocious.

(b) Microspore nucleus divides mitotically to form a smaller generative cell lying next to spore wall
and a much larger vegetative cell (or tube cell).

(c) A callose layer is deposited around the generative cell. The generative cell loses its contact with
the wall of microspore and becomes free in the cytoplasm.

(d) The callose layer then dissolves. The pollen grains are shed from the anther at this bicelled stage
(rarely three celled).

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(5) Post-pollination development:

(a) The liberated pollen grains are transferred to the receptive surface of the carpel (i.e., stigma)
by the process called pollination.

(b) On the stigma, the pollen grain absorbs water and swells within a few minutes.

(c) The vegetative (or tube) cell enlarges and comes out through one of the apertures in the
form of a pollen tube.

(d) The wall of pollen tube is the extension of intine. The tube secretes exogenous pectinases
and other hydrolytic enzymes to create a passage for its entry.

(e) The vegetative and generative nuclei are carried by the pollen tube, the farmer lying at its
tip.

(f) The generative cell divides to form two non-motile male gametes.

(g) The tube nucleus has no important function and may disintegrate.

Megasporogenesis

The process of formation of megaspore from megaspore mother cell by meiotic division is known as
megasporogenesis. This process takes place in ovule.

(1) Structure of ovule:

Ovule is considered to be an integumented megasporangium. The ovule consists of the stalk and the
body. The stalk is called funicle. One end of the funicle is attached to placenta and the other end to
the body of the ovule. The point of attachment of funicle with the body is called hilum. Sometimes
funicle gets fused with the body of the ovule one side and forms a ridge known as raphe. The body
of the ovule shows two ends: the basal end, often called the chalazal end and the upper end is called
micropylar end. The main body of the ovule is covered with one or two envelopes called
integuments. These leave an opening at the top of the ovule called micropyle. The integuments
enclose a large parenchymatous tissue known as nucellus.

(2) Development of female gametophyte (Megagametogenesis):

The process of development of female gametophyte or embryo sac from megaspore is called
megagametogenesis.

(i) Monosporic type (Polygonum): In this type, only one megaspore situated towards chalazal end
takes part in the development of embryo sac.

(ii) Bisporic type: In this type two megaspore nuclei take part in embryo sac formation.

(iii) Tetrasporic type: This type of embryo sac develops from four megaspore nuclei.

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Pollination
(1) The process of transfer of pollen grains from an anther to the stigma of the same flower or of
different flower.

(2) It is of two types:

(i) Self pollination: This process involves the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers to the
stigma of the same flower or of another flower borne by the same plant.

(ii) Cross pollination: Cross pollination involves the transfer of pollen grains from the flower of
one plant to the stigma of the flower of another plant. It is also called xenogamy.

Fertilization
The fusion of two dissimilar sexual reproductive units (gametes) is called fertilization. This process
was discovered by Strasburger (1884).

Germination of pollen grain on stigma and growth of pollen tube:

Pollen grains reach the receptive stigma of the carpel by the act of pollination.

Human Reproduction
(1) Reproduction is the formation of new individuals of their own kind by living organisms.

(2) The Male Reproductive System consists of:

(a) Primary sex organs i.e. a pair of testes suspended in a scrotum.

(b) Secondary sorgans i.e. a pair of ducts each differentiated into an epididymis, a vas deferens
and an ejaculatory duct.

(c) A male urethra passing through an erectile penis.

(d) Three types of Glands - a pair of seminal vesicles, a prostate gland and a pair of Cowper’s
glands.

(3) The Female Reproductive system consists of:

(a) Primary sex organ i.e. a pair of ovaries

(b) Secondary sex organs i.e. a pair of fallopian tubes (oviducts) , a uterus (womb), a vagina.

(4) Ovaries produce female gametes called ova.

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Phases of embryonic development.
(1) Gametogenesis : It involve the formation of haploid sex cells or gametes called sperms and ova
from diploid primary germ cells called gametogonia present in the reproductive organs called
gonads (testes and ovary). It is of two types;

(i) Spermatogenesis: Formation of sperm.

(ii) Oogenesis : Formation of ova

(2) Fertilization: It involves the fusion of haploid male and female gametes to form diploid zygote.
The fusion of gametic pronuclei is called Karyogamy while the mixing of two sets of
chromosomes of two gametes is called amphimixis.

(3) Cleavage: It includes the rapid mitotic division of the zygote to form a single layered hollow
spherical larva called blastula and its formation is called blastulation.

(4) Implantation: The process of attachment of the blastocyst (mammalian blastula) on the
endometrium of the uterus is called implantation.

(5) Gastrulation: It includes the mass and orderly migration of the organ specific areas from the
surface of blastula to their predetermined position which finally produces a 3 layered gastrula
larva. It is with 3 primary layers.

(6) Organogenesis: It includes the formation of specific organs system from three primary germ
layers of gastrula and also includes the morphogenesis and differentiation.

Fertilization
(1) Definition: Fusion of a haploid male gamete (spermatozoon) and a haploid female gamete
(ovum) to form a diploid cell, the zygote, is called fertilization or syngamy.

(2) Site of fertilization: Fertilization in human female is internal as in other mammals. It takes place
usually in the ampulla of the fallopian tube.

(3) Steps of fertilization

(i) Approach of sperm to ovum:

(a) Male discharges semen (3.5 ml) in the female’s vagina close to the cervix during coitus.
This is called ejaculation or insemination. This ejaculation contains as many as 400
million sperms but only about 100 sperms reach the fallopian tube because many
sperms are either killed by the acidity of female genital tract or engulfed by the
phagocytes of the vaginal epithelium.

(b) The sperm swim in the seminal fluid at the rate of 1-4 mm per minute by the aspiratory
action of the uterus and peristaltic movement of the fallopian tube.

(c) Capacitation is the phenomenon of physiological maturation of sperms by breaking of

acrosome membrane inside the female genital tract. It takes about 5-6 hours.

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 (d) Ovum is released on the 14th day of menestrual cycle trapped by the fimbriae of the
ampulla of fallopian tube and move towards the uterus by peristalsis and ciliary action.

(e) At the time of ovulation, egg is at secondary oocyte stage.

(f) Fertilizability of human sperm in the female genital tract is of 12 to 24 hours while its
survival value is upto 3 days and of ovum is only 24 hours though it can live for about 72
hours.

(ii) Penetration of sperm:

(a) The ovum secretes a chemical substance called fertilizin, which has a number of
spermophillic sites on its surface where the sperm of species specific type can be bound
by their antifertilizin site.

(b) This fertilizin-antifertilizin interaction causes agglutination (sticking together) of egg and
sperm.

(c) The sperm generally comes in contact with ovum in the animal pole (side of ovum with
excentric nucleus) while the opposite side of ovum is called vegetal pole.

(d) Ovulation in the human female occurs at secondary oocyte stage in which meiosis-I have
been complted and first polar body has been released but second maturation is yet to
complete.

(e) Penetration of sperm is a chemical mechanism.

(f) In this acrosome of sperm undergoes acrosomal reaction and releases certain sperm
lysins which dissolve the egg envelopes locally and make the path for the penetration of
sperm.

(g) These sperm lysins contain a lysing enzyme hyaluronidase which dissolves the hyaluronic
acid polymers in the intercellular spaces which holds the granulosa cells of corona
radiata together; corona penetrating enzyme (that dissolves the corona radiata) and
acrosin (which dissolves the zona pellucida). Then it dissolves the zona pellucida.

(h) Only sperm nucleus and middle piece enter the ovum. The tail is lost.

(iii) Cortical reaction:

(a) Immediately after the entry of a sperm into the egg, the later shows a cortical reaction
to check the entry of more sperms.

(b) In this reaction, the cortical granules present beneath the egg’s plasma membrane
release chemical substance between the ooplasm and the plasma membrane (vitelline
membrane).

(c) These substances raise the vitelline membrane above the egg surface. The elevated
vitelline membrane is called fertilization membrane.

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 (d) The increased space between the ooplasm and the fertilization membrane and the
chemical present in it effectively check the entry of other sperm.

(e) If polyspermy occurs, that is more than one sperm enter the secondary oocyte, the
resulting cell has too much genetic material to develop normally.

(iv) Fusion of gametic nuclei:

(a) Entrance of spermatozoon serves to acts as stimulus which causes the second
maturation division.

(b) As the head and middle piece of the sperm advance into the egg, those parts rotate
through an angle of 180° so that the mitochondria and proximal centriole of the
associated middle piece assume the leading position.

(c) Beside this rotation, the chromatin itself starts swelling by absorbing fluid from the
surrounding cytoplasm and becomes vesicular.

(d) It is now called male pronucleus. This direction of movement of male pronucleus is
called penetration path.

(e) The centriole brought in by the spermatozoon subdivides into two and as achromatic
spindle is established in the center of the active cytoplasm.

(f) With the production of the second polar body, the egg nucleus or female pronucleus is
ready for union with the male pronucleus provided by the sperm head.

(g) The male pronucleus which has been advancing the penetration path, now moves
directly toward the female pronucleus. This in many cases involves a slight change in the
course of sperm.

(h) In such cases, the later portion of its course is called the copulation path.

(i) The centrioles of middle piece of sperm form a spindle.

(j) The nuclear membrane of the gametic nuclei degenerates and two sets of chromosomes
initially lie on two poles of the spindle but later these sets of chromosomes mix up and
the process is called amphimixis.

(k) The fertilized egg is now called zygote and the zygote nucleus is called synkaryon.

Significance of fertilization
(a) It provides stimulus for the egg to complete its maturation.

(b) It activates the ovum to develop into a new individual by repeated mitotic division.

(c) Fertilization restores the diploid number of chromosomes (46 in man) in the zygote by adding
male’s haploid set of chromosomes.

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(d) It makes the egg more active metabolically.

(e) It combines the character of two parents and introduces variations. So help in evolution.

(f) Sex chromosomes of sperm is either X or Y and helps in sex determination.

(g) Fertilization membrane formed after sperm entry, checks the entry of additional sperms.

(h) Copulation path sets the axis of division.

Menstrual Cycle
(1) Menstruation occurs in human, apes and old world monkeys.

(2) Menstruation is bleeding from the uterus of adult females at intervals of one lunar month.

(3) Beginning of menstruation or first menstruation is called menarche.

(4) The beginning of menstruation varies. It usually occurs between 12 and 15 years.

(5) The cycle of events starting from one menstruation till the next one is called Menstrual Cycle.

(6) In human females, menstruation is repeated at an average interval of about 28/29 days.

(7) One ovum is released (ovulation) during the middle of each menstrual cycle.

(8) It is regulated by certain hormones, some of which are secreted by the pituitary gland.

(9) The pituitary gland is stimulated by releasing factors produced in the hypothalamus.

(10)The menstural cycle consists of changes in the ovaries and uterine wall(endometrium).
Gonadotropins like FSH and LH regulate these changes

(11)During each cycle of 28 days, only one ovum from either of the ovary is released.

On a average 13 eggs per year 32 years maximum 416 eggs mature

(12)The ceasing of menstrual cycle is called menopause and occurs by the age of 45-58 years.

Reproductive Health
Reproductive health – problem and strategies
(a) India was amongst the first countries in the world to initiate to the programme “family planning”
initiated in 1951.

(b) Reproductive health in a society forms a crucial part of general health.

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Population explosion and birth control
(a) The rapid increase in human population size over a relatively short period is called human
population-explosion.

(b) Population growth rate depends on factors like fertility, natality, mortality, migration, age and
sex structure.

(c) Increased health facilities and better living conditions are the cause behind population
explosion.

(d) Out of 6 billion world population 1.3 billion populations is of Indians.

(e) Rapid decline in death rate, maternal mortalility rate (MMR) and infant mortality rate (IMR) are
major cause of population growth.

(f) Growth rate of Indian population is around 1.7 percent.

(g) Most of the urban people are uneducated.

(h) The regulation of conception by preventive methods or devices to limit the number of offsprings
is called birth control.

(i) A birth control method which deliberately prevents fertilization are referred to as contraception.

(i) Contraceptive methods are preventive methods and are of two types – temporary and
permanent.

Characteristics of an ideal contraceptive are:-

(a) User friendly

(b) Easily available

(c) Nor or least side – effects

(d) No way interferes with sexual drive

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 Methods of Birth Control

S. No. Method Action

(1) Rhythm Method No intercourse during woman’s fertility period (day 12-20).

(2) Withdrawl Penis is withdrawn before ejavculation.

(3) Tubectomy / Tubal ligation Women’s fallopian tubes are cut and tied, permanently blocking sperm release.

(4) Vasectomy Man’s vasa deferentia are cut and tied permanently blocking sperm passage.

(5) Intrauterine device (IUD) Small plastic or metal device placed in the uterus to prevent implantation.
Some contain copper, other release hormones.

(6) Oral Contraceptive Synthetic estrogens and progestrones prevent normal menstrual cycle,
primarily prevent ovulation.

(7) Male condom Thin rubber sheath on erect penis collects ejaculated semen.

(8) Female condom Plastic pouch inserted into vagina catches semen.

(9) Diaphragm Soft rubber cup covers entrance to uterus, prevents sperm from reaching egg
and holds spermicide.

(10) Cervical cap Miniature diaphragm covers cervix closely, prevents sperm from reaching egg
and holds spermicide.

(11) Foams, creams, jellies etc. Chemical spermicides inserted in vagina before intercourse, prevent sperm
from entering uterus.

(12) Implant (Norplant) Capsules surgically implanted under skin, slowly release hormone that blocks
ovulation.

(13) Injectable contraceptive Injection every 3 months of a hormone that is lowly released and prevents
(Depo-Provera) ovulation.

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Amniocentesis
(a) During pregnancy, the fetus is surrounded by amniotic fluid which is a water-like substance.

(b) Amniotic fluid contains live fetal skin cells and other substances, such as alpha-fetoprotein (AFP).

(c) These substances provide important information about baby's health before birth.

(d) These days amniocentesis is being misused also, i.e., for detecting the sex of the foetus.

(e) Normal foetus is being aborted if it is a female.

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)

Diseases which are transmitted sexually through sexual intercourse are collectively called as
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) or Venereal Diseases (VDs) or reproductive tract infections
(RTI). STDs can be classified as viral, bacterial, protozoan, fungal, etc.

Causes of STD’s
STDs can be spread with any type of sexual activity, depending on the disease. STDs are most often
caused by viruses and bacteria. Types of Sexually Transmitted DiseasesThe various types of sexually
transmitted diseases include genital herps, chancroid, gonorrhoea, syphilis and most common HIV
leading to AIDS.
(i) Chlamydiasis
(a) Chlamydiasis is a sexually transmitted disease in humans caused by the bacterium Chlamydia
trachomatis.
(b) It is a major infectious cause of human genetial and eye diseases.
(ii) Gonorrhoea
(a) Gonorrhoea is transmitted sexually, by oral, anal or genital sex.
(b) Gonorrhea is caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae

Prevention
STDs are a major threat to a healthy society.
(i) Avoid sex with unknown partners as well as multiple partners.
(ii) Always use condoms during coitus.
(iii) In case of any doubt, go to a qualified doctor for early detection and get complete treatment if
diagnosed with disease.

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Infertility
(a) Inability to conceive or produce children even after 2 years of unprotected sexual cohabitation is
called infertility.
(b) A large no of couples all over India are infertile.
(c) The reasons for this could be many-physical, congenital, diseases, drugs, Immunological or even
Psychological.

Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART)

Includes all fertility symptoms in which both sperms and eggs are handled. These are special
techniques that assist couples to have children.

The main ART- techniques include:

(i) In-vitro fertilisation (IVF) or test tube baby
(ii) GIFT(gamete intra fallopian transfer)

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 Genetics & Evolution
Inheritance and Variation
Mendel’s Law of Inheritance
(1) Mendelism means experiments performed by Mendel on genetics.

(2) Mendel’s experiment involved 4 steps as selection, hybridization, selfing and calculations. His
results led to the formation of laws of genetics later.

(3) Mendel performed monohybrid and dihybrid crosses and gave three principles of inheritance.

(4) Mendel’s three principles of inheritance are:

(i) Law of dominance

(ii) Law of segregation or law of purity of gametes

(iii) Law of independent assortment

(4) Law of Dominance – The dominant characters are expressed when factors are in heterozygous
condition.

(5) The recessive characters are only expressed in homozygous conditions. The characters never
blend in heterozygous condition. A recessive character that was not expressed in heterozygous
condition may be expressed again when it becomes homozygous.

(6) Law/Principle of segregation states that when a pair of contrasting factor or gene is brought
together in a hybrid, these factors do not blend or mix up but simply associate themselves and
remain together and separate at the time of gamete formation.

(7) Principle of independent assortment states that genes of different characters located in
different pairs of chromosomes are independent of one another in this segregation during
gamete formation.

(8) Test Cross: A cross between F1 hybrid (Aa) and its homozygous recessive parent (aa) is called
Test Cross. This cross is called test cross because it helps to find out whether the given dominant
phenotype is homozygous or heterozygous.

(9) Monohybrid cross – When we consider the inheritance of one character at a time in a cross, this
is called monohybrid cross.

(10) Dihybrid Cross – A cross made to study the inheritance of two pairs of contrasting traits.

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Exceptions of Conclusions of Mendel
Incomplete Dominance
(1) When neither of the alleles of a character is completely dominant over the other and the F1
hybrid is intermediate between the two parents, the phenomenon is called incomplete
dominance.

(2) Incomplete dominance was first discovered by Correns in Mirabilis jalapa. The plant is called as
4’O clock plant or ‘Gul-e-Bans’. Homozygous red (RR) flowered variety of the plant was crossed
with white (rr) flowered variety. F1 offspring had pink flowers (Rr). This is called incomplete
dominance.

(3) Incomplete dominance is also known to occur in snapdragon. The phenotypic ratio and
genotypic ratio in F2 generation in case of incomplete dominance is 1:2:1.

Co-dominance
(1) In co-dominance both the gene expressed for a particular character in F1 hybrid progeny. There
is no blending of characters, whereas both the characters are expressed equally.

(2) Co-dominance is seen in animals for coat colour. When a black parent is crossed with white
parent, a roan color in F1 progeny is produced.

Sex determination
(1) Fixing the sex of an individual as it begins life is called sex determination. The various genetically
controlled sex-determination mechanisms have been classified into following categories

(2) Chromosomal theory of sex determination: The X-chromosome was first observed by German
biologist, Henking in 1891 during the spermatogenesis in male bug and was described as X-body.
The chromosome theory of sex determination was worked out by E.B. Wilson and Stevens
(1902-1905).

(3) They named the X and Y chromosomes as sex-chromosomes or allosomes and other
chromosomes of the cell as autosomes.

(4) Sex chromosomes carry genes for sex. X-chromosomes carries female determining genes and Y-
chromosomes has male determining genes.

(5) The number of X and Y chromosomes determines the female or male sex of the individual,
Autosomes carry genes for the somatic characters. These do not have any relation with the sex.

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Sex Determination by chromosomes:
Those chromosomes which are involved in the determination of sex of an individual are called sex
chromosomes while the other chromosomes are called autosomes.

1) XX – XY type: In most insects including fruit fly Drosophila and mammals including human
beings the females possess two homomorphic sex chromosomes, named XX. The males contain
two heteromorphic sex chromosomes, i.e., XY. Hence the males produce two types of gametes /
sperms, either with X-chromosome or with Y-chromosome, so they are called Heterogamety.

2) ZZ – ZW type: In birds and some reptiles, the males are represented as ZZ (homogamety) and
females are ZW (heterogamety).

3) XX – XO type: In round worms and some insects, the females have two sex chromosomes, XX,
while the males have only one sex chromosomes X. There is no second sex chromosome.
Therefore, the males are designated as XO. The females are homogametic because they
produce only one type of eggs. The males are heterogametic with half the male gametes
carrying X-chromosome while the other half being devoid of it.

Numerical aberrations of chromosomes:

Each species has a characteristic number of chromosome. Variations or numerical changes in
chromosomes (Heteroploidy) can be mainly of two types:

(1) Turner’s syndrome: Such persons are monosomic for sex chromosomes i.e. possess only one X
and no Y chromosome (XO). In other words they have chromosome number 2n – 1 = 45. They
are phenotypic females but are sterile because they have under developed reproductive organs.
They are dwarf about 4 feet 10 inches and are flat chested with wide spread nipples of
mammary glands which never enlarge like those in normal woman. They develop as normal
female in childhood but at adolescence their ovaries remain under developed. They lack female
hormone estrogen. About one out of every 5,000 female births results in Turner’s syndrome.

(2) Klinefelter’s syndrome: Since 1942, this abnormality of sex is known to geneticists and
physicians. It occurs due to Trisomy of sex chromosomes which results in (XXY) sex
chromosomes. Total chromosomes in such persons are 2n + 1 = 47 in place of 46. Klinefelter
(1942) found that testes in such male remain under developed in adulthood. They develop
secondary sex characters of female like large breasts and loss of facial hair. Characters of male
develop due to Y chromosome and those like female due to XX chromosomes. About one male
child out of every 5,000 born, develops Klinefelter’s syndrome.

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Molecular Basis of Inheritance
DNA
(1) DNA is a long polymer of deoxyribonucleotides.
(2) The length of the DNA depends on the number of nucleotide pairs present in it.
(3) Bacteriophage lambda has 48,502 base pairs.

Central dogma of molecular biology

(1) Crick proposed the Central dogma in molecular biology
(2) It states that the genetic information flows from DNA à RNA à Protein.
(3) In some viruses like retroviruses, the flow of information is in reverse direction, which is from
RNA à DNA à mRNA à Protein.

Structure of polynucleotide chain:

(1) A nucleotide has three components-
(a) A nitrogen base
(b) A pentose sugar (ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA)
(c) A phosphoric acid.
(2) There are two types of nitrogen bases:
(a) Purines (Adenine and Guanine)
(b) Pyrimidines (Cytosine, Uracil and Thymine)
(3) Adenine, Guanine and Cytosine are common in RNA and DNA.
(4) Uracil is present in RNA and in DNA in place of Uracil, Thymine is present.
(5) In RNA, Pentose sugar is ribose and in DNA, it is Deoxyribose.
(6) Based on the nature of pentose sugar, two types of nucleosides are formed - ribonucleoside and
deoxyribonucleotides.
(7) Two nucleotides are joined by 3’-5’ Phosphodiester linkage to form dinucleotide.
(8) More than two nucleotides join to form polynucleotide chain.
(9) The two strands of DNA (called DNA duplex) are antiparallel and complementary, i.i., one in
5’->3’ direction and the other in 3”->5” direction.

History of DNA
(1) DNA is an acidic substance in the nucleus.
(2) It was first identified by Friedrich Meischer in 1869. He named it as ‘Nuclein”
(3) In 1953 double helix structure of DNA was given by James Watson and Francis Crick, based on X-
ray diffraction data produced Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin.

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Packaging of DNA Helix
(1) The basic unit into which DNA is packed in the chromatin of eukaryotes.
(2) Nucleosome is the basic repeating structural (and functional) unit of chromatin, which contains
nine histone proteins.
(3) Distance between two conjugative base pairs is 0.34nm
(4) The length of the DNA in a typical mammalian cell will be 6.6 X109 bp X 0.34 X10-9 /bp, it comes
about 2.2 meters.
(5) The length of DNA is more than the dimension of a typical nucleus (10-6m)

DNA Replication
(1) DNA is the only molecule capable of self duplication so it is termed as a living molecule.
(2) All living beings have the capacity to reproduce because of DNA.
(3) DNA replication takes place in S-phase of the cell cycle. At the time of cell division, it divides in
equal parts in the daughter cells.
(4) Delbruck suggested three methods of DNA replication i.e.
(i) Dispersive
(ii) Conservative
(iii) Semi-conservative
(5) The process of DNA replication takes a few minutes in prokaryotes and a few hours in
eukaryotes.

RNA
(1) RNA is the first genetic material.
(2) RNA is a non hereditary nucleic acid except in some viruses (retroviruses).
(3) RNA used to act as a genetic material as well as catalyst.
(4) It is a polymer of ribonucleotide and is made up of pentose ribose sugar, phosphoric acid and
nitrogenous base (A,U,G,C).
(5) RNA may be of two types – genetic and non-genetic.

Genetic Code
(1) Term genetic code was given by George Gamow (1954). He was the first to propose the triplet
code (one codon consists of three nitrogen bases).
(2) The relationship between the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain and nucleotide
sequence of DNA or mRNA is called genetic code.
(3) There occur 20 types of amino acids which participate in protein synthesis. DNA contains
information for the synthesis of any types of polypeptide chain. In the process of transcription,
information transfers from DNA to m-RNA in the form of complementary N2-base sequence.
(4) A codon is the nucleotide sequence in m-RNA which codes for particular amino acid; whereas
the genetic codeis the sequence of nucleotides in m-RNA molecule, which contains information
for the synthesis of polypeptide chain.

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(5) 61 out of 64 codons code for only 20 amino acids.
(6) The main problem of genetic code was to determine the exact number of nucleotide in a codon
which codes for one amino acid.

Characteristics of genetic code

(1) Triplet in nature
(a) A codon is composed of three adjacent nitrogen bases which specify one amino acid in
polypeptide chain.
(b) For example- In m-RNA if there are total 90 N2 – bases. Then this m-RNA determines 30
amino acids in polypeptide chain.
(2) Univerality
(a) The genetic code is applicable universally.
(b) The same genetic code is present in all kinds of living organism including viruses, bacteria,
unicellular and multicellular organisms. In all these organisms, triplet code for specific amino
acid.
(3) Non-ambiguous
(a) Genetic code is non ambiguous i.e. one codon specifies only one amino acid and not any
other.
(b) In this case one codon never code two different amino acids. Exception GUG codon which
code both valine and methionine amino acid.
(4) Non-overlapping
(a) A nitrogen base is a constituent of only one codon.
(5) Comma less
(a) There is no punctuation (comma) between the adjacent codon i.e. each codon is
immediately followed by the next codon.
(b) If a nucleotide is deleted or added, the whole genetic code read differently.
(c) A polynucleotide chain having 50 amino acids shall be specialized by a linear sequence of
150 nucleotides. If a nucleotide is added in the middle of this sequence, the first 25 amino
acids of polypeptide will be same but next 25 amino acids will be different.
(6) Degeneracy of genetic code
(a) Only two amino acids – tryptophan and methionine are specified by single codon.
UGG for tryptophan, AUG for methionine
(b) All the other amino acids are specified or coded by 2 to 6 codons.
(c) Leucine, serine and arginine are coded or specified by 6-codons.
(d) Degeneracy of genetic code is related to third position (3’-end of triplet codon) of codon.
The third base is described as ‘Wobble base’.

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Genomics and Human Genome project:
(1) The term genome has been introduced by Winkler in 1920 and the genomics is relatively new,
coined byThomas Rodericks in 1986.
(2) Genomics is the subdiscipline of genetics devoted to the mapping, sequencing and functional
analysis of genomes. Genomics is subdivided into following types:
(a) Structural genomics: It is the study of genome structure deals with the complete nucleotide
sequences of the organisms.
(b) Functional genomics: It is the study of genome function which includes transcriptome and
proteome. Transcriptome is a complete set of RNAs transcribed from a genome while
proteome is a complete set of proteins encoded by a genome and aims the determination of
the structure and function of all the proteins in living organisms.
(3) The human genome project, sometimes called “biology’s moon shot”, was launched on october
1, 1990 for sequencing the entire human genome of 2.75 billion (2.75 ´ 109 or 2750000 bp or
2750000 kilobase pairs or 2750 megabase pairs) nucleotide pairs.
(4) Two important scientist associated with human genome are Francis Collins, director of the
Human Genome Project and J. Craig Venter, founding president of Celera genomics.
(5) The complete sequencing of the first human chromosome, small chromosome 22, was published
in December 1999.

Genome of Model organisms

S. No. Organism No. of base pair No. of genes

(1) Bacteriophage 10 thousand –

(2) E. coli 4.7 million 4000

(3) Saccharomyces cerevisiae 12 million 6000

(4) Caenorhabditis elegans 97 million 18,000

(5) Drosophila melanogaster 180 million 13,000

(6) Human 3 billion 30,000

(7) Lily 106 billion –

DNA finger printing

(1) Alec Jeffreys et al (1985) developed the procedure of genetic analysis and forensic medicine,
called DNA finger printing.
(2) It is individual specific DNA identification which is made possible by the finding that no two
people are likely to have the same number of copies of repetitive DNA sequences of the regions.
(3) It is also known as DNA profiling.

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(4) The chromosomes of every human cell contain scattered through their DNA short, highly
repeated 15 nucleotide segments called “mini-satellites” or variable-number Tandem Repeat
(VNTR).

Technique for DNA fingerprinting

(1) Only a small amount of tissues like blood or semen or skin cells or the hair root follicle is needed
for DNA fingerprinting.
(2) Typically DNA content of about 100,000 cells or about 1 microgram is sufficient.
(3) The procedure of DNA fingerprinting involves the following major steps:
(i) DNA is isolated from the cells in a high-speed refrigerated centrifuge.
(ii) If the sample of DNA is very small, DNA can be amplified by Polymerase Chain Reaction
(PCR).
(iii) DNA is then cut up into fragments of different length using restriction enzymes.
(iv) The fragments are separated according to size using gel electrophoresis through an agarose
gel. The smaller fragments move faster down the gel than the larger ones.
(v) Double stranded DNA is then split into single stranded DNA using alkaline chemicals.
(vi) These separated DNA sequences are transferred to a nylon or nitrocellulose sheet placed
over the gel. This is called ‘Southern Blotting’ (after Edward Southern, who first developed
this method in 1975).
(vii) The nylon sheet is then immersed in a bath and probes or makers that are radioactive
synthetic DNA segments of known sequences are added. The probes target a specific
nucleotide sequence which is complementary to VNTR sequences and hybridizes them.
(viii)Finally, X-ray film is exposed to the nylon sheet containing radioactive probes. Dark bands
develop at the probe sites which resemble the bar codes used by grocery store scanners to
identify items.

Applications of DNA fingerprinting

This technique is now used to:
(i) Identify criminals in forensic laboratories.
(ii) Settle paternity disputes.
(iii) Verify whether a hopeful immigrant is, as he or she claims, really a close relative of already an
established resident.
(iv) Identify racial groups to rewrite biological evolution.

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Evolution
(i) Ancient theories of origin of life:
(a) Theory of special creation.
(b) Theory of spontaneous generation or Abiogenesis.
(c) Biogenesis
(d) Cosmozoic theory
(e) Theory of sudden creation from inorganic material.
(f) Naturalistic theory
(ii) Oparin's Modern Theory:
(a) Oparin (1924) proposed that “life could have originated from non-living organic molecules.”

(b) He believed in Biochemical origin of life. Haldane (1929) also stated similar views. Oparin
greatly expanded his ideas and presented them as a book “The origin of life” in 1936.

(c) According to this theory, the Earth originated about 4,500 million years ago. When the earth
was cooling down, it had a reduced atmosphere. In this primitive atmosphere nitrogen,
hydrogen, ammonia, methane, carbon mono-oxide and water were present. Energy was
available in the form of electric discharges by lightening and ultraviolet rays. As soon as the
earth crust was formed, it was very much folded. Torrential rains poured over the earth for
centuries and were deposited in deep places.

(d) Miller's Experiment: An American scientist (Biologist) Stanley Miller (1953) performed an
experiment under support Oparin's theory of origin of life. He believed that basic
compounds which are essential for life can be synthesised in the laboratory by creation in
the laboratory, on a small scale, the conditions which must have existed at the time of origin
of life on earth.
(e) Miller took a flask and filled it with methane, ammonia and hydrogen in proportion of 2:1:2
respectively at 0°C. This proportion of gases probably existed in the environment at time of
origin of life. This flask was connected with a smaller flask, that was filled with water, with
the help of glass tubes. In the bigger flask, two electrodes of tungsten were fitted. Then a
current of 60,000 volts was passes, through gases containing bigger flask for seven days. At
the end of seven days, when the vapours condensed, a red substance was found in the U-
tube. When this red substance was analyzed, it was found to contain amino acids, Glycine
and nitrogenous bases which are found in the nucleus of a cell.

(f) The entire process of the origin of life, as proposed by Oparin, can be summarised as under –

(i) The Chemical Evolution:

(1) Step 1: Formation of simple molecules
(2) Step 2: Formation of Simple organic compounds
(3) Step 3: Formation of complex organic compounds
(4) Step 4: Formation of nucleic acids and nucleoproteins

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 (ii) Organic Evolution:
(1) Step 5: Formation of Coacervates

(2) Step 6: Formation of Primitive cell

(3) Step 7: Origin of autotrophism

(4) Step 8: Origin of Eukaryotic cells

Evidences of Organic Evolution

The following are the evidences in favour of Organic Evolution:

(i) Evidences from Classification

(ii) Evidences from Comparative Anatomy

(a) Analogy and Homology

(b) Vestigeal organs

(iii) Evidences from Physiology

(iv) Evidences from Serology

(v) Evidences from Embryology

(vi) Evidences from Palaeontology

(vii) Evidences from geographic distribution

(viii) Evidences from Genetics

(i) Evidences from Classification: All the known living animals and plants have been classified into
various species, genera, families, order, classes, phyla and kingdoms. The classification of a
particular animal is attempted only after its extensive study.
(ii) Evidences from Comparative Anatomy: In all the living animals, the basic substance of life is
Protoplasm. If the species had been created separately, then there should be no relationship in
the various organs and systems of animals. But on the contrary, we see that large number of
animals although unlike in appearance show most of the systems and organs made on the same
plan. The resemblance is very close in the members of the same group.
(iii) Evidences from Physiology: Various types of chemical tests exhibit many basic similarities in
physiological and chemical properties that show a physiological relationship among animals.
(iv) Evidences from Serology: This is a method by which the reactions of blood serum are observed.
From the blood are also extracted the crystals of Oxyhaemoglobin. The structure differs in
different vertebrates, but in a definite order. The reaction is nearly identical in man and
anthropoid monkeys, but slightly less identical with other mammals.
(v) Evidences from Embryology: With the exception of a few, every multi-cellular animal originates
from a zygote. The development from zygote to adult shows many similarities in various
organisms. The development is termed as ontogeny

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(vi) Evidences from Palaeontology: The study of fossils and their interpretation forms one of the
great evidences of evolution. An Italian scientist, Leonardo da Vinci, was the first person to
recognize their importance and said they were either remains of organisms of their impressions
on some sort of clay or rock.

Important living fossils

1. Peripatus (Arthropoda) 2. Limulus (Arthropoda)

3. Nautilus (Mollusca) 4. Neopilina (Mollusca)

5. Lingula (Brachiopoda) 6. Latimeria (Coelacanth fish)

7. Sphenodon (Reptilia) 8. Didelphis (Opossum)

(vii) Evidences from geographic distribution: If the study of horizontal distribution of animals on the
face of this earth is made, it would be seen that animals are not evenly distributed. Two identical
places with the same climate and vegetation may not have same sort of animal fauna
(viii)Evidences from Genetics: Johan Gregor Mendel in 1866 published his work on experimental
breeing. He bred two individuals differing in certain well-defined characters, and observed the
ratio in which various contrasting parental characters appeared in successive generations.

(c) Connecting links: Intermediate or intergrading forms between two groups of organisms:

Organism Connecting link between

1. Viruses Living and nonliving

2. Euglena (Protozoa) Plants and animals

3. Proterospongia (Protozoa) Protozoa and Porifera

4. Peripatus (Arthropoda) Annelida and Arthropoda

5. Neopilina (Mollusca) Annelida and Mollusca

6. Balanoglossus (Chordata) Nonchordata and Chordata

7. Dipnoi (Lungfish) Pisces and Amphibia

8. Archaeopteryx (Aves) Reptiles and Birds

9. Prototheria (Mammalia) Reptiles and Mammals

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Theories of organic evolution
(i) Lamarckism: Lamarck (1744 –1829) was one of the most brilliant stars on the horizon of the
history of evolution. He was the first naturalist to put forward a general theory of evolution in
his famous book. Philosophic Zoologique published in 1809. His evolutionary theory may be
summarised in the form of following laws:
(a) The internal forces of life tend to increase the size of an organism.

(b) The necessity in animals to produce new structures.

(c) The effect of use and disuse.

(d) Inheritance of acquired characters.

(iii) Darwinism: Charles Robert Darwin was undoubtedly the first naturalist who put the idea of
organic evolution on sound footing. His statements and theories were based upon practical
experiences and large number of proofs which he collected directly from the nature.
His main ideas about the evolution are given below –

(a) Over – production of offspring

(b) Limited supply of food and shelter

(c) Struggle for existence:

(i) Intra –specific

(ii) Inter –specific

(iii) Environment

(d) Survival of the fittest

(e) Universal occurrence of variations

(f) Inheritance

(g) Natural selection

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 Difference between Darwinism and Neo–Darwinism
Darwinism (Natural Selection)
(1) It is the original theory given by Charles Darwin
(1859) to explain the origin of new species.
(2) According to this theory accumulation of
continuous variations causes changes in
individuals to form new species.
(3) It believes in the selection of individuals on the
basis of accumulation of variation.
(4) Darwinism does not believe in isolation.
(5) It can explain the origin of new characters.
(6) Darwinism cannot explain the persistence of
certain forms in the unchanged condition.
Neo–Darwinism
(1) Neo–Darwin is a modification of the original theory of
Darwin to remove its short–comings.
(2) Instead of continuous variations, mutations are believed
to help form new species.
(3) Variations accumulate in the gene pool and not in the
individuals.
(4) Neo–Darwinism incorporates isolation as an essential
component of evolution.
(5) The theory can explain the occurrence of unchanged
forms over millions of years.
(6) Normally only those modifications are transferred to
next generation which influence germ cells or where
somatic cells give rise to germ cells.
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 Enhancement in Food
Production
Enhancement in Food Production
Poultry
Poultry includes the birds like chicken (hen), ducks, geese and turkey. Poultry farming deals with the
rearing of them for their eggs and meat. it has become an important small scale industry due to
modern need for palatable and nutritive food which it provides in the form of eggs as well as adult
animal. An egg laying poultry bird is called layer and the poultry birds groomed for obtaining meat
are called chicken or broilers.

Livestock
The word livestock refers to the domestic animals kept or dealt in for use or profit. It includes cattle,
buffaloes, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, mules, donkeys and camels. The most important of these are
cattle and buffaloes.

Importance of cattle and Buffaloes: Cattle and buffalo are most important forms of domesticated
animals. They are next to land in use for farmers. They are widely used for:
(a) Agricultural Operations:
(b) Milk:
(c) Transport:
(d) Manure and fuel:
(e) Leather: .
(f) Glue and gelatin:
(g) Meat:
(h) Hair:
(i) Hybridisation:

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 Breed Distribution

Murrah Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh

Bhadawari Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh

Jaffrabadi Gujrat

Surti Rajasthan, Gujrat

Mehsana Gujrat

Nagpuri or Ellichpuri Central and South India

Nili Ravi Punjab, Haryana

Some Breeds of Indian Cattle

Milch Breeds Distribution

1. Gir Gujrat, Rajasthan

2. Sahiwal Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh

3. Red Sindhi Andhra Pradesh

4. Deoni Andhra Pradesh

Some Breeds of Indians Buffaloes

Apiculture
(1) Apiculture is the science of rearing honeybees for obtaining honey, wax and venom. It is a
profitable money-making hobby. It forms a cottage industry, when carried out on a large scale.

(2) Three species of honey bees are commonly found in india vig. Apis indica (The small indian
bee). Apis florea(The little indian bee) and. Apis dorsata (the giant bee) other important species
include Apis milifera (the common European bee.

(i) Honeybee-Apis: Like termites, honeybees are social insects known for producing honey and
beeswax, and for living in very highly organized colonies. These feed upon nectar and pollen
of flowers, possess “sucking and chewing” mouth parts, and undergo complete
metamorphosis. Each colony has its own nest called honeycomb or beehive.
(ii) Division of labour and polymorphism: Each beehive harbours a colony of thousands of
polymorphic bees belonging to a single family. The polymorphic individuals are of three
main types (i) a single queen (fertile female)(ii) one to a few hundred drones (fertile males)
and (iii) thousands (upto 60,000) of worker bees (sterile females).

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 (iii) Life History: Queen lays about 2,000 eggs a day. The eggs are laid in the comb, one in each
cell. They hatch out into larvae in three days. They are fed on royal jelly for a few days. But
the larva which develops into the queen will be fed on royal jelly continuously.
During breeding, the queen bee flies in the air along with the males. This phenomenon is
called nuptial flight. During nuptial flight the queen copulates with a male Copulation occurs
in the air. Then the bees return to the comb and the queen starts laying eggs.

(iv) Bee-Hive: Honey bee is one of the few domesticated insects. In modern days bee colonies
are reared in artificial wooden boxes for maximum production of honey and wax. The
artificial box where the bee colony is maintained and managed is called hive. The place
where hives are kept and managed is called apiary.
(v) Honey extraction: Honey is stored in combs of super frames. It is extracted from the comb
by a simple machine called honey extractor. It has a drum containing a rack inside to hold
the super frames. It is made to rotate by a set of two-gear wheels, operated by a handle.
The super frames are removed from the hive. The caps of the comb cells are cut off by a
double edged knife. Then the frames are fixed in the rack and the rack is made to rotate by
operating the handle. The honey is forced out into the drum from the comb cells. From the
drum the honey is collected in vessels through an exit present in the drum.

(vi) Location of Apiary

(a) The hives should be set, in places where there are plenty of flowering plants.

(b) They should be placed in shady places.

(c) The place should be neat and clean and free from any obnoxious smell.

(d) There should be clean drinking water nearby because each bee colony requires two
glasses of water per day for their survival

(viii)Chemical composition: Honey contains nearly 80 different substances of importance to

human beings. The important chemicals are as follows:
It contains a large amount of glucose or fructose.

Fisheries
(i) Fishes are a valuable and easily accessible source of food, rich in protein, highly nutritious and
easily digestible. By the aquatic animals, they are abundantly available from sea, rivers, lakes,
ponds and marshes.

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 (ii) Classification of cultivable fish species

Zoological name Common Name Areas of availability

(a) Fresh water fishes

1. Catla catla Catla All over India common in Krishna and

Godavari rivers
2. Labeo rohita Rohu North, East and South India

3. Labeo calbasu Calbasu North and South India

4. Cirhinus mrigala Mrigal North and South India

5. Mystus singhala Singhala All over India

6. Heteropneustes fossilaris Singhi All over India

7. Wallago attu Malli North, east and South India

8. Clarius batrachus Fresh water shark magur All over India

(b) Brackish water fishes

9. Chanos chanos Milk fish A.P.coast

10. Mugil cephalus Grey mullet East coast

11. Laters calcorifer Perch East coast

(c) Marine fishes

12. Sardinella longiceps Oil sardine West and south coasts

13. Harpodon heherius Bombay duck Maharastra coast

14. Hilsa ilisha Hilsa/ Indian shed Coastal India

15. Stromateus sinensis Pomfret Indo pacific coast

16. Anguilla anguilla Eel Coastal India

17. Aluitheronema Salmon East and west coast

18. Cyano-glossus semifas- ciatus Flat fish East coast of India

(iii) Culture method: The success in fish culture and the high production of table - size fish through
carp culture depends largely on the designing and construction of ponds. The basic principles
involved in designing and construction of carp culture ponds are of very specialized nature and
vary from region to region depending upon several factors like topography, soil types, water
supply etc. The requirements with regard to the designing and construction of fish farm are
entirely different from those attributed to agriculture and animal husbandry farms.

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 Health & Diseases
Types of Diseases
The diseases may be broadly classified into two types: Congenital and acquired.

(i) Congenital Diseases: These are anatomical or physiological abnormalities present from birth.
They may be caused by (i) a single gene mutation (alkaptonuria, phenylketonuria, albinism,
sickle-cell anaemia, haemophilia, colour blindness); (ii) chromosomal aberrations (Down’s
syndrome, Klinefelter’s syndrome, Turner’s syndrome); or (iii) environmental factors (cleft
palate, harelip). Unlike the gene-and chromosome-induced congenital defects, environmentally
caused abnormalities are not transmitted to the children.
(ii) Acquired Diseases: These diseases develop after birth. They are further of two types:
communicable and non-communicable.
(a) Communicable (Infectious) Diseases: These diseases are caused by viruses, rickettsias,
bacteria, fungi, protozoans and worms.
(b) Noncommunicable (Noninfectious) Diseases: These diseases remain confined to the person
who develops them and do not spread to others. The non-communicable diseases are of
four kinds –
(1) Organic or Degenerative Diseases: These diseases are due to malfunctioning of some of the
important organs, e.g, heart diseases, epilepsy. Heart diseases result from the abnormal working
of some part of this vital organ. Epilepsy may result from abnormal pressure on regions of the
brain.
(2) Deficiency Diseases : These diseases are produced by deficiency of nutrients, minerals, vitamins,
and hormones, e.g., kwashiorkor, beriberi, goitre, diabetes are just a few from a long list.
(3) Allergies: These diseases are caused when the body, which has become hypersensitive to certain
foreign substance, comes in contact with that substance. Hay fever is an allergic disease.
(4) Cancer: This is caused by a uncontrolled growth of certain tissues in the body.

Bacterial diseases and their pathogens

Disease Causative Bacterium

Cholera Vibrio comma (Vibrio cholerae)

Pneumonia Diplococcus pneumoniae
Typhoid Salmonella typhi
Tetanus Clostridium tetani
Diphtheria Corynebacterium diphtheriae
Whooping cough Bordetella pertussis
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis

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 Plague Pasteurella pestis
Leprosy Mycobacterium leprae
Syphilis Treponema pallidium
Gonorrhoea Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Diarrhoeal Diseases Escherichia coli, Shigella dysenteriae, Campylobacter, Salmonella
Anthrax Bacillus anthracis
The Immune System
(1) Immunity – The ability of the body to protect against all types of foreign
bodies like bacteria, virus, toxic substances etc. which enter the body.
(2) The science dealing with the various phenomena of immunity, induced
sensitivity and allergy is called immunology.

(3) Immune Response - Third line of defence. Involve production of

antibodies and generation of specialized lymphocytes against specific
antigens.
(4) Antigens – Substances which stimulate the production of antibodies,
when introduced into the body.
(5) Antibodies – Immunoglobulins (Igs) which are produced in the body in
response to the antigen or foreign bodies.
(6) All antibodies are immunoglobulins but all immunoglobulins are not
antibodies.

(7) There are two major types of immunity: Innate or Natural or Non-specific immunity and
Acquired or Adaptive or Specific Immunity.

Innate Immunity Acquired Immunity

1. Includes all defence elements with which an 1. The immunity which is acquired after the birth.
individual is born.

2. Consists of various types of barriers that prevent 2. Consists of specialized cells (T-cells and B-cells) and
the entry of foreign agents. antibodies that circulate in the body fluid.

3. It remains throughout life. 3. It can be short lived or life long.

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Malaria:
Malaria has been for thousands of years a very serious disease of the tropical and temperate
regions. It was almost eliminated a few years back with the efforts of World Health Organization
(WHO) and our National Malaria Eradication Programme (NMEP), but unfortunately, it has appeared
again.

(a) Symptoms: The attack of malaria is preceded by yawning, tiredness, headache and muscular
pain. During the fever, the patient feels chilly and shivers, and has acute headache, nausea and
high temperature. After a few hours, the body perspires freely and the temperature becomes
normal. The cycle is repeated if no medicine is taken. Blood smear made during fever shows the
malarial parasites. No parasites are seen at other times. In chronic cases, there is general
weakness and anaemia (paleness) due to large-scale destruction of red blood corpuscles. This is
also accompanied by enlargement of spleen and liver.
(b) Cause: Malaria is caused by the toxins produced in the human body by the malarial
parasites, Plasmodium.
(c) Transmission: The malarial parasites are carried from the infected to the healthy persons by the
femaleAnopheles mosquito. The mosquito picks up the parasites with the blood, when it bites an
infected person. When this infected mosquito bites a healthy person, parasites migrate into his
blood with the saliva, which the mosquito injects before sucking up blood to prevent its clotting.
(d) Types: There are four species of Plasmodium, which cause different kinds of human malaria –
(1) P. Vivax : It causes benign tertian malaria, which attacks every third day, i.e., after 48 hours.
The fever is mild and seldom fatal. This species is wide-spread in the tropical and temperate
regions.
(2) P. ovale : It also causes benign tertian malaria, which recurs every 48 hours. This species is
found only in West Africa and South America.

(3) P. malariae : It causes quartan malaria, which recurs every fourth day, i.e., after 72 hours.
This species is found in both tropical and temperate regions, but it is not very common.
(4) P. falciparum : It alone is capable of causing three types of malaria, viz., quotidian malaria,
which attacks almost daily, malignant tertian malaria, which occurs every 48 hours, but is
very severe and often fatal; and irregular malaria. This species is found only in the tropical
region.

(e) Incubation Period: The incubation period for malaria caused by Plasmodium vivax is about 10
days.
(f) Life-history: Plasmodium completes its life cycle in two phases and two hosts: asexual phase in
the human host and sexual phase in the female Anopheles mosquito host.

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Sexually Transmitted diseases
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) :
Symptoms of AIDS: An HIV infection can be divided into 3 stages.
(1) Asymptomatic Carrier: Only 1%-2% of those newly infected have mononucleosis-like symptoms
that may include fever, chills, aches, swollen lymph glands, and an itchy rash. These symptoms
disappear, and there are no other symptoms for 9 months or longer.
(2) AIDS Related Complex (ARC): The most common symptom of ARC is swollen lymph glands in the
neck, armpits, or groin that persist for 3 months or more.
(3) Full-Blown AIDS: In this final stage, there is severe weight loss and weakness due to persistent
diarrhoea and usually one of several opportunistic infections is present.
(4) Treatment of AIDS: The drug zidovudine (also called azidothymidine, or AZT) and dideoxyinosine
(DDI) prevent HIV reproduction in cells. Proteases are enzymes HIV needs to bud from the host
cell; researchers are hopeful that a protease inhibitor drug will soon be available.

AIDS Prevention: Shaking hands, hugging, social kissing, coughing or sneezing and swimming in the
same pool do not transmit the AIDS virus. You cannot get AIDS from inanimate objects such as
toilets, doorknobs, telephones, office machines, or household furniture.
HIV has been isolated from semen cervical secretions, lymphocytes, plasma, cerebrospinal fluid,
tears, saliva, urine and breast milk. The secretions known to be especially infectious are semen,
cervical secretions, blood and blood products. Infection is spread :

(a) By sexual intercourse, vaginal and anal

(b) By infected blood, blood products, donated semen and organs

(c) By contaminated needles used :

(1) During the treatment of patients

(2) When drug abusers share needles

(d) From an infected mother to her child :

(1) Across the placenta before birth

(2) While the baby is passing through the birth canal

(3) Possibly by breast milk

Diagnosis: Once the host is infected by HIV. HIV detected by the ELISA Test. (Enzyme–linked
immunosorbent assay a positive Elisa should be can firmed using another test called the western
blot test.
Cancer: Cancer is an abnormal and uncontrolled division of cells, known as cancer cells that invade
and destroy the surrounding tissues. Generally Cancer is defined as uncontrolled proliferation of
cells without any differentiation.
(i) Neoplasms or Tumours : A neoplasm (new growth) is a mass of tissue that grows in excess of
normal in an uncordinated manner and continues to grow after the initial stimulus has ceased.
Tumours are classified as benign or malignant.

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 (ii) Oncology: (G. onkos – mass, tumour; logos – study of) is the field of biomedicine devoted to the
study and treatment of tumours.
(a) Types of Tumors: There are two types of tumours : benign and malignant.
(1) Benign Tumour – (=Nonmalignant Tumour) : It remains confined to the site of its origin
and does not spread to other parts of the body. It causes limited damage to the body. It
is non-cancerous.
(2) Malignant Tumour (= Cancerous Tumour): It first grows slowly. No symptoms are
noticed. This stage is called the latent stage. The tumor later grows quickly. The cancer
cells go beyond adjacent tissue and enter the blood and lymph. Once this happens, they
migrate to many other sites in the body where the cancer cells continue to divide. It
is metastasis. Only malignant tumours are properly designated as cancer.

Differences between Benign Tumour and Malignant Tumour

Benign Tumour Malignant Tumour

(1) It remains confined to the affected organ. (1) It also spreads to other organs of the body.

(2) Rate of growth is usually slow. (2) Rate of growth is usually rapid.

(3) There is no latent stage. (3) There is latent stage.

(4) It causes limited damage to the body. (4) The cancer cells migrate to other sites of the body.

(5) There is no metastasis. (5) There is metastasis.

(6) It is non-cancerous. (6) It is cancerous.

(b) Types of Cancer (Types of Malignant Tumours) : Malignant tumours are generally classified
into three main types on the basis of cell type from which they arise.
(1) carcinomas: cancer of epithelial tissue
(2) sarcomas: cancer of connective tissue and muscular tissue
(3) Leukemia : cancer of blood

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 Microbes in Human Welfare
Bacteria
(1) Study of bacteria is called bacteriology.

(2) Linnaeous placed them under genus vermes.

(3) Nageli classified bacteria under schizomycetes.

(4) Bacteria are unicellular, microscopic organisms.

(5) These are the smallest cell wall having prokaryotic cell.

(6) They differ from animals in having a rigid cell wall and being capable to synthesize vitamins.

Size:
(i) Bacteria are the smallest of all known cellular organisms which are visible only with the aid of
microscope.

(ii) They are 3 to 5 microns (1 m = 1/1000 millimetre or about 1/25,000 inch) in length.

(iii) A few species of bacteria are approximately 15m in diameter.

Shape:
(i) The shape bacteria usually remain constant.

(ii) Some of them are able to change their shape and size with changes in environmental conditions.
Such bacteria, which change their shape, are called pleomorphic.

(e) Filament: The body of bacterium is filamentous like a fungal mycelia. The filaments are very
small e.g.Beggiota, Thiothrix etc.

(f) Stalked: The body of bacterium posses a stalk e.g. Caulobacter.

(g) Budded: The body of bacterium is swollen at places e.g. Retrodomicrobiom.

Role of Bacteria in nitrogen cycle:

Nitrogen cycle existing in nature, comprises of –

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Nitrogen fixation:
(1) Many free-living soil inhabiting bacteria such as, Azotobacter (aerobic), Clostridium (anaerobic),
etc. have ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia.

(2) The other group of nitrogen fixing bacteria lives in symbiotic association with other plants.

(3) The most important symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria is Rhizobium spp.

(4) The various species of Rhizobium inhabit different leguminous plants. For example, R.
leguminosarium infects soyabeans, etc.

(5) They develop root nodules and fix atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia in symbiotic association
with leguminous plants.

(6) The fixed nitrogen is partly taken up by the leguminous plants and metabolised.

(7) A part of fixed nitrogen is diffused out into the surrounding soil.

Ammonification:
(1) The nitrogenous compounds of the dead remains of plants, animals and their excretory products
are decomposed into ammonia by a number of bacteria and other microorganisms.

(2) The conversion of nitrogenous organic compounds into ammonia is termed as ammonification.

(3) It is carried by many ammonifying bacteria such as Bacillus ramosus, B. vulgaris, B.

mycoides, etc.

Nitrification:
(1) Many bacteria enhance the nitrogen fertility of soil by converting ammonium compounds to
nitrites (e.g., Nitrosomonas) and nitrites into nitrates (e.g., Nitrobacter).

(2) The Nitrosomonas group oxidizes ammonia into nitrite –

(3) The Nitrobacter group oxidizes nitrite to nitrates –

Denitrification:
The nitrates and ammonia are converted to nitrous oxide and finally to nitrogen gas by several
denitrifying bacteria, e.g., Pseudomonas fluorescence, P. denitrificans, Bacillus subtilis, Thiobacillus
denitirficans, etc.

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Useful activities
(i) Decay of organic wastes
(ii) Role in improving soil fertility
(a) Humus: The microbial decomposition of organic matter and mineralization results in the
formation of complex amorphous substance called humus. The humus improves the
aeration, water holding capacity, solubility of soil minerals, oxidation-reduction potential
and buffering capacity of the soil.
(b) Composting: It is conversion of farm refuse, dung and other organic wastes into manure by
the activity of saprotrophic bacteria (e.g., Bacillus stearothermophilus, Clostridium
thermocellum, Thermomonospora spp, etc.)
(c) Adding sulphates: A few sulphur bacteria (e.g., Beggiatoa) add sulphur into the soil by
converting H2S into sulphates.
(iii) Sewage, disposal: Ability of anaerobic bacteria to purify the organic matter is used in the the
sewage disposal system of cities. The faeces are stored in covered reservoirs and allowed to
purify.. The common bacteria involved in sewage disposal are –Coliforms (E. coli), Streptococci,
Clostridium, Micrococcus, Proteus, Pseudomonas, Lactobacillus, etc.
(iv) Role in Industry:
(a) Lactic acid.
(b) Curd
(c) Cheese
(d) Butter
(e) Retting process
(f) Vinegar
(v) Role of bacteria in human being
(vi) Medicinal uses
(a) Vitamins
(b) Serum and vaccines
(c) Enzymes.
(d) Antibiotics

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 List of some common antibiotics, their sources and their applications

S. No. Antibiotic Obtained from Used against

A Streptomycin Streptomyces griseus Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, TB, tularemia

(rabbit fever), influenza, meaningitis, baciltary dysentery, etc.

B Actidine S. griseus Plant diseases caused by fungi.

C Chloromycetin S. venezuelae Gram-positive and Gram- negative bacteria, typhoid, rickettsias

D Tetracycline S. aurefaciens Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, rickettsiae.

E Terramycin S. ramosus Gram positive and Gram-negative bacteria.

F Erythromycin S. erythreus Gram positive bacteria, whooping cough, diphtheria.

G Neomycin S. fradiae Gram- positive, Gram negative and TB bacteria.

H Amphomycin S. carus Gram-positive bacteria,

I Amphotericin B S. nodosus Yeast, fungi

J Leucomycin S. kitasoensis Gram-positive bacteria.

K Trichomycin S. hachijoensis Yeast and fungi.

L Viomycin S. floridae Gram-positive, Gram-negative and TB bacteria.

M Bacitracin Bacillus subtilis Gram-positive bacteria

N Gramicidin B. brevis Gram-positive bacteria.

O Tyrothricin B. brevis Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.

P Polymyxin B Aerobacillus Gram-negative bacteria.

polymyxa

Microbes in production of biogas

Methanogens:
These are strict anaerobic bacteria and mainly occur in muddy areas and also in stomach of cattle,
where cellulose is fermented by microbes. These are responsible for methane gas (CH4 ) formation in
bio-gas plants, because they have capacity to produce CH4 from CO2 or formic acid (HCOOH).

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 Biotechnology & its
Applications
Recombinant DNA technology
Definition:
Genetic engineering, a kind of biotechnology, is the latest branch in applied genetics dealing the
alteration of the genetic makeup of cells by deliberate and artificial means. Genetic engineering
involves transfer or replacement of genes, so also known as recombination DNA technology or gene
splicing.

Tools of genetic engineering:

(1) Two enzymes used in genetic engineering are restriction endonuclease and ligases.

(2) R.E. is used to cut the plasmid as well as the foreign DNA molecules of specific points while ligase
is used to seal gaps or to join bits of DNA.

(3) The ability to clone and sequence essentially any gene or other DNA sequence of interest from
any species depends on a special class of enzymes called restriction endonucleases.

(4) Restriction endonucleases are also called as molecular scissors or ‘chemical scalpels’.

(5) Restriction endonucleases cleave DNA molecules only at specific nucleotide sequence called
restriction sites.

(6) The first restriction enzyme identified from a bacterial strain is designated I, the second II and so
on, thus, restriction endonuclease EcoRI is produced by Escherichia coli strain RY 13.

(7) Restriction enzyme called EcoRI recognizes the sequence

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(8) It then cleaves the DNA between G and A on both strands. Restriction nucleases make staggered
cuts; that is, they cleave the two strands of a double helix at different joints and blunt ended
fragments; that is, they cut both strands at same place.

Steps of recombinant DNA technology

(1) Isolating a useful DNA segment from the donor organism.

(2) Splicing it into a suitable vector under conditions to ensure that each vector receives no more
than one DNA fragment.

(3) Producing of multiple copies of his recombinant DNA.

(4) Inserting this altered DNA into a recipient organism.

(5) Screening of the transformed cells.

Vectors:
Vector in genetic engineering is usually a DNA segment
used as a carrier for transferring selected DNA into living
cells. These are as follows:

(1) Plasmid: Plasmid is extra chromosomal, closed circular

double stranded molecules of DNA present in most
eukaryotes. All plasmid carry replicons pieces of DNA that have the genetic information required
to replicate. Plasmid pBR 322 was one of the first widely used cloning vectors, it contain both
ampicillin and tetracycline resistance genes.
(2) Phage: It is constructed from the phage l chromosomes and acts as bacteriophage cloning
vectors.
(3) Cosmid: The hybrids between plasmid and the phage l chromosome give rise to cosmid vectors.
(4) Beside all these there are artificial chromosomes like

(i) BACs (Bacterial Artificial chromosomes)

(ii) YACs (Yeast Artificial chromosomes)

(iii) MACs (Mammalian Artificial chromosomes) are very efficient vectors for eukaryotic gene

transfers.

Application of recombinant DNA technology:

The technique of recombinant DNA can be employed in the following ways.

(1) It can be used to elucidate molecular events in the biological process such as cellular
differentiation and ageing. The same can be used for making gene maps with precision.

(2) In biochemical and pharmaceutical industry, by engineering genes, useful chemical compounds
can be produced cheaply and efficiently which is shown in table.

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 Applications of recombinant DNA products

Medically useful recombinant products Applications

Human insulin Treatment of insulin-dependent diabetes

Human growth hormone Replacement of missing hormone in short stature people

Calcitonin Treatment of rickets

Chronic gonadotropin Treatment of infertility

Blood clotting factor VIII/IX Replacement of clotting factor missing in patients with Haemophilia
A/B

Tissue plasminogen activator Dissolving blood clots after heart attacks and strokes

Erythropoitin Stimulation of the formation of erythrocytes (RBCs) for patients

suffering from anaemia during kidney dialysis or side effects of AIDS
patients treated by drugs

Platelet derived growth factor Stimulation of wound healing

Interferon Treatment of pathogenic viral infections, cancer

Interleukins Enhancement of action of immune system

Vaccines Prevention of infectious diseases such as hepatitis B, herpes, influenza,

pertussis, meningitis, etc.

Cloning:
Cloning is the process of producing many identical organisms or clones. In this process nucleus of
ovum (n) is removed and replaced by nucleus of diploid cell of same organism. Now the egg with
2n nucleus is transferred to the uterus of mother to have normal pregnancy and delivers clone of
itself.

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Examples of organism cloning
(1) Cloning of sheep was done by Dr. Ian Wilmut (1995) of Roslin Institute, Edinberg U.K. and
normal healthy lamb (DOLLY) was born in Feb, 1996. This lamb was exactly similar to her
mother.
(2) The first cloned calves George and Charlie were born in January 1998.

(3) ANDI was the world’s first genetically altered primate produced by inserting a jelly fish gene into
the embryo of a rhesus monkey.

(4) Scientist at Scotland cloned POLLY and MOLLY. Unlike Dolly, polly and molly were transgenic
(they carried human protein gene) polly and molly were born in july 1997.

(5) Brigitte Boissliar, a 46-year old french chemist announced the creation of the world’s first
cloned human boby nicknamed “Eve” (December 2002).

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR):

(1) It was developed by Kary Mullis in 1983 and won Nobel Prize in 1993.
(2) PCR is a method for amplifying a specific piece of DNA molecule without the requirement for
time-consuming cloning procedure.

(3) This process require Target DNA, a heat stable DNA polymerase, which work at optimum
temperature of 70°C usually Taq DNA and four types of nucleotides with small single stranded
strands of DNA of about 20 nucleotide called primers, produce multiple copy of desired DNA.

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 Environment & Ecosystem
Organisms and Population

Population Dynamics
(1) Population density:
(i) Population density is the number of individuals present per unit area or volume at a given
time.

(ii) For instance, number of animal per square kilometer, number of trees per area in a forest,
or number of plank tonic organism per cubic meter of water.

(iii) If the total number of individuals is represents by letter N and the number of units of space
by Letter S, the population density D can be obtained as D=N/S.

(iv) Space is indicated in two dimensions (m2) for land organisms, and in three dimensions (m3)
for aquatic organisms and for the organisms suspended in space.

(2) Birth rate or Natality:

(i) The birth rate of a population refers to the average number of young ones produced by
birth, hatching or germination per unit time (usually per year).

(ii) In the case of humans, it is commonly expressed as the number of births per 1000
individuals in the population per year.

(iii) The maximum birth rate of a species can achieve under ideal environmental conditions is
called potential natality.

(iv) The actual birth rate under the existing conditions is much less. It is termed realised natality.

(v) Crude birth rate is the number of births per 1000 persons in the middle of a given year i.e.
on July.

(vi) Natality increases the population size (total number of individuals of a population) and
population density.

(3) Death rate or mortality:

(i) The death rate of a population is the average number of individuals that die per unit time
(usually per year).

(ii) In humans it is commonly expressed as the number of death per 1000 persons in a
population per year.

(iii) Lowest death rate for a given species in most favourable conditions is called potential
mortality, while the actual death rate being observed in existing conditions is called realized
mortality.

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 (iv) Crude death rate is the number of deaths per 1000 persons in the middle of a given year i.e.
on July.

(v) Mortality decreases the population size and population density both.

Difference between Natality rate and Mortality rate

Character Natality rate Mortality rate

(1) Definition Number of births per 1,000 Number of deaths per 1,000 individuals of a
individuals of a population per year. population per year.

(2) Population density Increases population size and Decreases population size and population
population density. density.

(4) Vital index:

The percentage ratio of natality over mortality is known as vital index i.e. natality / mortality
×100. It determines the growth of a population.

(5) Immigration:
It is permanent entry of additional person into the existing population of a country or region
from outside. Example; Many Nepalese and Chinese come to settle in India.

(6) Emigration:
(i) It is the permanent departure of some persons from the existing population of a region to a
different state or a foreign country. Example; Many Indians go to Western countries to settle
there.

(ii) Immigration and emigration bring about redistribution of population, and are common in
animals.

(iii) The se occur for various reasons, such as search for food, escape from competition due to
overcrowding, need of shelter etc.

(7) Sex ratio:

The number of females in a population per 1000 males is called sex ratio.

Sex ratio = No. of females/ 1000(males)

(8) Age structure:

(i) The age structure of a population is the percentage of individual of different ages such as
young, adult and old.

(ii) Age-sex structure of a population can be shown by a pyramid-like diagram by plotting the
percentage of population of each sex in each age-group.

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Patterns of Population Growth:
Growth of a population can be expressed by a mathematical expression, called growth curve in
which logarithm of total number of individuals in a population is plotted against the time factor.
Growth curves represent interaction between biotic potential and the environmental resistance.

Two basic types of growth curves:

(a) Sigmoid or S-shaped growth curve: It is shown by yeast cells and most of organisms. It is formed
of five phases:
(1) Lag phase. In which the individuals adapt themselves to the new environment, so there is
no or very little increase in population.
(2) Positive Acceleration phase. It is the period of slow increase in population in the beginning.
(3) Logarithmic or Exponential phase: It is the period of rapid rise in population due to
availability of food and requirements of life in plenty and there being no competition.
(4) Negative Acceleration phase: In which again there is slow rise in population as the
environmental resistance increases.
(5) Stationary (Plateau) phase: Finally, growth rate becomes stable because mortality and
natality rates become equal to each other. So there is zero growth rate. A stable population
is said to be in equilibrium, or at saturation level. This limit in population is a constant K and
is imposed by the carrying capacity of the environment. S-shaped curve is also called logistic
curve. Sigmoid growth curve was described by Verhulst, (1839)
(b) J-shaped Growth curve: It is shown by small population of Reindeer experimentally reared in a
natural environment with plenty of food but no predators. It has only two phases:
(1) Lag phase: It is period of adaptation of animals to new environment so is characterized by
slow or no growth in population.
(2) Logarithmic or Exponential phase: It is characterized by rapid growth in population which
continues till enough food is available. But with the increase in reindeer population, there is
corresponding decrease in the availability of food and space, which finally become
exhausted, which leads to mass starvation and mortality. This sudden increase in mortality is
called population crash. Lemming of Tundra, some insect, algal blooms and annual plants
also show J-shaped curves. The population growth curve is S- shaped in most of the
organisms, Human population also shows S-shaped curve.

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 Difference between S-shaped and J-shaped Growth curves

S.No. S-shaped Growth Curve J-shaped Growth Curve

(1) It is formed of 5 phases: lag phase, positive It is formed of 2 phases: lag phase and exponential
acceleration phase, exponential phase, phase.
negative acceleration phase and stationary
phase.

(2) Finally the population shows zero growth Finally, the population shows a population crash due to
rate as birth rate equals death rate. rapid increase in mortality rate.

(3) Examples. Yeast cells in a culture medium. Examples. Reindeers, algae blooms, lemmings of Tundras

Ecosystem
Ecosystem
(1) The word ecosystem was coined by A.G. Tansley in 1935.
(2) Structure: The structure of any ecosystem is formed of two components, namely:
(i) Abiotic factors
(ii) Biotic factors

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Energy flow:
(1) The transfer of energy from one trophic level to another trophic level is called energy flow.
(2) The flow of energy in an ecosystem is unidirectional. That is, it flows from the producer level to
the consumer level and never in the reverse direction. Hence energy can be used only once in
the ecosystem.
(3) But the minerals circulate and recirculate many times in the ecosystem.
(4) A large amount of enregy is lost at each trophic level.
(5) It is estimated that 90% of the energy is lost when it is transferred from one trophic level to
another.
(6) Only about 10% of the biomass is transferred from one trophic level to the next one is a food
chain. And only about 10% of chemical energy is retained at each trophic level. This is called 10%
law of Lindeman (1942).

Ecological pyramids:
(1) The number, biomass and energy of organisms gradually decrease from the producer level to the
consumer level. This can be represented in the form of a pyramid called ecological pyramid.
(2) Ecological pyramid is the graphic representation of the number, biomass, and energy of the
successive trophic levels of an ecosystem.
(3) The use of ecological pyramid was first described by Charles Elton in 1927.
(4) In the ecological pyramid, the producer forms the base and the final consumer occupies the
apex.
(5) There are three types of ecological pyramids, namely:
(i) The pyramid of number:
The number of individuals at the trophic level decreases from the producer level to the
consumer level. That is, in an ecosystem the number of producers is far high. The number of
herbivores is lesser than the producers. Similarly, the number of carnivores is lesser than the
herbivores.
(i) In a cropland ecosystem: In croplands the crops are more in numbers. The grasshoppers
feeding on crop plants are lesser in number. The frogs feeding on grasshopper are still lesser
in number. The snakes feeding on frogs are fewer in number.
Crop -> Grasshopper -> Frogs -> Snakes -> Hawks
(ii) In a grassland ecosystem: In grassland the grasses are there in large numbers. The
consumers decrease in the following order.
Grass -> Grasshopper -> Lizard -> Hawk
Grass -> Rabbit -> Fox -> Lion
(iii) In a pond ecosystem: The number in a pond ecosystem decreases in the following order.
Phytoplankton -> Zooplankton -> Fishes -> Snakes
(b) The pyramid of biomass:
Biomass refers to the total weight of living matter per unit area. In an ecosystem the biomass
decreases from the producer level to the consumer level.

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(c) Pyramid of energy:
The energy flows in an ecosystem from the producer level to the consumer level. At each trophic
level 80 to 90% of energy is lost. Hence the amount of energy decreases from the producer level
to the consumer level. This can be represented in a pyramid of energy level to the consumer
level. This can be represented in a pyramid of energy.
Succession
(1) Every community undergoes a series of changes until a group of organisms is established which
can live and reproduce most successfully in the area. This is called biotic succession.
(2) The term succession was coined by Hult (1885).
(3) A biotic community normally undergoes continuous changes. Generally, definite and orderly
sequences of communities gradually appear in an area over a period of time.
(4) A specific sequence of development of a community is related to particular set of physical and
chemical conditions. This is known as sere.
(5) The last succession in a sere is called climax or a climatic climax.
(6) Types: Succession is of two types:
(i) Primary succession: It includes changes which occur when living things become established
on a previously uninhabited area such as a newly exposed sea floor, lake sediments or sand
dunes.
(ii) Secondary succession: It occurs where early communities have been damaged, leaving a few
organisms and considerable organic matter. These remnant species, along with some new
ones, regenerate a new community.
(iii) Life forms: Raunkiaer (1934) has distinguished plants into five forms on the basis of size,
shape, branching, crown, life span and perennation.
(a) Therophytes: Annual plants which perennate in the form of seeds.
(b) Cryptophytes: Buds are occurs very deep in the soil e.g. Bulbs, rhizomes, corm, tubers
etc.
(c) Hemicryptophytes: Perennating structures occur at ground level. Aerial shoots die in the
onset of winter, e.g. rosette plants.
(d) Chemaephytes: Small plants of cold areas where perennating buds or shoot apices lie at
or above the ground level.
(e) Phanerophytes: Perennial herbs, shrubs and trees, epiphytes, succulents, lianas, etc.,
where perennating buds occurs at 10 cm or more height above ground level.

Nutrient Cycling
Carbon Cycle
(1) The cycling of carbon between biotic and abiotic systems is called carbon cycle. It is a gaseous
cycle.
(2) The main source of carbon is the carbon dioxide (CO2).
(3) CO2 is present in the air and water. Air is the main reservoir. CO2 content of air is 0.03%. Its
amount remains constant.

482
(4) Flow of Carbon into the biotic system: Carbon flows into the biotic system in two ways:
(i) Photosynthesis:
Carbon enters the biotic system through photosynthesis. In photosynthesis green plants
utilize CO2 and incorporate the carbon of CO2 in glucose. Glucose is used for the synthesis of
other types of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. These compounds, containing carbon, are
stored up in the plant tissues. When plants are eaten up by herbivores, the carbon flows into
the body of herbivorous animals through food chain. When herbivores are eaten by
carnivores, the carbon enters the body of carnivorus animals.
6CO2 + 6H2O ® C6H12O6 + 6O2
(ii) Formation of shell:
The CO2 dissolved in sea water is utillized by the marine animals like protozoans, corals,
molluscs, algae, etc., for the construction of shell. In these animals CO2 is converted into
calcium carbonate (CaCO3) which is used for the construction of shells.
CO2 + H2O -> H2CO3 (Carbonic acid)
H2CO3 -> H+ + HCO3 (Bicarbonate)
HCO3 + Ca+ -> H+ + CaCO3 (Calcium carbonate)
(5) Flow of Carbon into the abiotic system: The carbon of the biotic system flows into the
abiotic system in five ways:
(i) Respiration:
Plants and animals release CO2 by respiration (biological oxidation).
C6H12O6 -> CO2 + H2O + Energy
(ii) Decomposition:
When plants and animals die, the dead bodies are decomposed into CO2 by
decomposers like bacteria, algae, etc.
(iii) Shells:
After the death of marine animals, CaCO3 stored in the shells is either deposited as
sedimentary rocks or dissolved in water to release CO2 by the reversion of the above
said reactions.
(iv) Coal:
A certain proportion of carbon from plants is deposited as coal. Carbon from coal
returns to air in the form of CO2through combustion and weathering.
(v) Forest fire:
Combustion of wood in the forest releases carbon from plants in the form of CO2.

Phosphorus cycle:
(i) The cycling of phosphorus between biotic and abiotic system is called phosphorus cycle. It is a
sedimentary cycle.
(ii) Phosphorus is an important mineral nutrient.
(iii) The main source of phosphorus is rocks. Through erosion and weathering phosphorus is made
available in the soil.
(iv) Plants absorb ionic phosphate through roots. In plants it is incorporated into the protoplasmic
components like DNA, RNA, AMP, ADP, ATP, GDP, GTP, NADP, phospholipids etc. from plants, it

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 passes into herbivores and animals, the organic molecules containing phosphate are
decomposed and phosphate is liberated as inorganic ion phosphate. It is again used by plants.
(v) The excess of phosphate in the bodies of animals is excreted out through faces. The bird guano
(excreta) contains a large amount of phosphate.
(vi) Phosphate is also released to the soil through the combustion of forest trees and grasses.
(vii) A large amount of phosphate is lost in the sea by sedimentation. A certain amount of
phosphorus gets locked in bones and teeth.

Environmental Issues

Air Pollution:
Air pollution refers to the undesirable change occurring in air causing harmful effects on man and
domesticated species.

(i) Air Pollutants : The common air pollutants are : Dust, Smoke, Carbon monoxide (CO), Ammonia
(NH3), Sulphur dioxide (SO2), Hydrogen sulphide (H2S), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), Hydrogen cyanide,
Hydrogen fluorides, Chlorines, Phosgenes, Arsines, Aldehydes, Ozone, Ionising and
radiations. CO2 is not a normal air pollutant. There is 0.03% CO2 in the air its higher percentage is
the cause of green house effect.

Types of air pollutants: It is two types:

(a) Primary air pollutants: Air is polluted by poisonous gases and undesirable substances. They are
released by burning fossil fuels. These substances are called primary air pollutants. The primary
air pollutants are the following:
- Soot released from unburned fuel.

- Sulphur dioxide (SO2).

- Benzopyrene (hydrocarbon) released from cigarette smoke.

- Ammonia (NH3).

- Oxides of nitrogen.

- Carbon monoxide (CO).

- Lead (Pb).

(b) Secondary air pollutants: Secondary air pollutants are poisonous substance formed from
primary air pollutants. In bright sun light nitrogen, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and O2 interact
to produce more powerful photochemical oxidants like ozone (O3), peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN),
aldehydes, sulphuric acid, peroxides, etc. All these constitute photochemical smog, which retard
photosynthesis in plants.

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(ii) Causes of air pollution
(a) Agriculture
(b) Dust:
(c) Industries
(d) Automobiles.
(e) Ionising radiations
(f) Freons
(g) Aerosols

(iii) Control of air pollution

(a) The emission of exhaust from automobiles can be reduced by devices such as positive crankcase
ventilation valve and catalytic converter.

(b) Electrostatic precipitators can reduce smoke and dust from industries.

(c) Gaseous pollutants arising from industries can be removed by differential solubility of gases in
water.

(d) A finepray of water in the device called scrubber can separate many gases like NH3, SO2, etc.
from the emitted exhaust.

(e) Certain gases can be removed by filtration or absorption through activated charcoal.

(f) Certain gases can be made chemically intert by chemical conversion.

(g) At the Government level pollution can be controlled by framing legislations.

(h) Vehicles based on compressed natural gas (CNG) should be introduced.

Water Pollution:
Water pollution refers to the undesirable change occurring in water which harmfully affect the life
activities of man and domesticated species.

(i) Water Pollutants: The common water pollutants are : Domestic sewage, Industrial effluents,
Pesticides, Herbicides, Fertilizers, Bacteria and Viruses, Plankton blooms and Heavy metals like
Mercury, Temperature, Silt, Radioactivity, Oils etc.
(ii) Causes of water pollution
(a) Domestic sewage
(b) Industrial effluents
(c) Thermal pollution
(d) Agricultural pollution
(e) Pesticides:
(f) Radioactive wastes .
(g) Oil pollution
(h) Eutrophication.

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(iii) Control of water pollution
(a) Sedimentation.
(b) Dilution
(c) Storage.

(iv) Land pollution

(i) Land pollutants.
(ii) Pesticides

(4) Radioactive pollution:

This pollution occurs through radiations. Radiations are of two types:

(i) Non ionising radiations: UV rays, IR rays, etc. UV rays cause skin burning, IR rays increases
atmospheric temperature and leads to the green house effect.
(ii) Ionising radiation: X – rays, x-rays, beta-rays, gamma-rays cause genetic injury on mutation.
Certain elements continuously disintegrate by emitting ionizing radiations. These elements
are called radioactive isotopes. Ecologically important radioactive elements are Strontium-
90, Argon-41, Iodin-131, Cobalt-60, Cesium – 137, Plutonium – 238, etc. Among these Sr-90'
is the most dangerous radioactive pollutant.

Types of ionizing radiations: Radioactive isotopes release three types of radiations:

(a) Alpha particles: These are large particles emitted by radioactive isotopes (as U238). They travel
only short distances. They cannot penetrate the organisms. They cause ionization.
(b) Beta particles: These are small particles emitted by radioactive isotopes. They can travel long
distances. They can easily penetrate the body tissues and cause ionization.
(c) Gamma rays: These are short wavelength rays emitted by radioactive isotopes. They can travel
long distances. They can easily penetrate the body tissues and cause ionization. On the basis of
the biological effects produced, the radioactive radiations can be grouped into two types,
namely internal emitters and external emitters.

(5) Noise pollution

Global Warming
Increase in atmospheric concentrations of green house gases (CO2, CH4, CFCs, N2O) causes global
warmingenhanced green house effect), changes in sea level, weather and climate change etc.

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Biodiversity and Conservation
Diversity ranges from macromolecules to biomes.
Biodiversity on earth exists in three levels of organization:
(i) Genetic diversity
(ii) Species diversity

Genetic diversity
(i) It is related to the variations of genes within species.

Speciesdiversity

(i) it is related to the variety of species within a region.

(ii) Species richness refers to the number of species per unit area.

Biodiversity in India
(1) Out of the twelve mega biodiversity counties, India is one.

(2) India has 10 biogeographical regions, 89 national parks, 500 wild life sanctuaries, 14 biosphere
reserves, 6 westlands and 35 world heritage sites.

(3) There are about 45,000 species of plants and about 90,000-1,00,000 species of animals.

Patterns of Biodiversity

(1) Biodiversity changes with change in latitude or altitude.

(2) It is minimum at the poles and maximum near or at equator. Similarly, as one moves down from
higher to lower altitudes, biodiversity is increased.

Loss of bio-diversity:
(1) Caused by three factors - Population, Urbanisation and Industrialisation.

(2) The colonisation of tropical Pacific Islands by human has led to the extinction of more than 2000
species of native birds.

(3) Loss of bio-diversity in a region leads to:

(i) Decrease in plant production.

(ii) Less resistance to environmental disturbances such as droughts.

(iii) Increase in variability in ecosystem processes like plant productivity, water use, pest and
disease cycles etc.

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Biodiversity Conservation
In situ conservation
The most appropriate method to maintain species of wild animals and plants in their natural
habitats. This approach includes conservation and protection of the total ecosystems and its
biodiversity through a network of protected areas.

Hot spot of biodiversity are those regions of rich biodiversity which have been declared sensitive due
to direct or indirect interference of human activities.

There are 25 terrestrial hot spots in the world including two from India.

Exsitu conservation
Threatened animals and plants are taken out from their natural habitat and placed in special setting
where they can be protected and given special care.

Convention on Biodiversity:
(1) “The earth Summit” held in Rio de Jeneiro in 1992 called upon all nations to take appropriate
measures for conservation of biodiversity and sustainable utilization of its benefits.
(2) Second international Conference on Sustainable development held in 2002 in Johannesburg,
South Africa, 190 countries pledged their commitment to achieve by 2010 a significant reduction
in the current rate of biodiversity loss at global, regional and local level.

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