v

∞
u∞
X uX
1 Let l2 (N) = {(xn )∞
n=1 : xn ∈ R, x2n < ∞}. Consider d(x, y) = t (xn − yn )2 .
n=1 n=1

Let x, y ∈ l2 (N) s.t. x 6= y. Then v for some j, xj 6= yj . Thus (xj − yj )2 > 0. Since
u∞
uX
for all k (xk − yk )2 is nonnegative, t (xn − yn )2 > 0. Furthermore, since for all k
n=1
(xk − xk )2 = 0, d(x, x) = 0. Thus d(x, y) = 0 iff x = y.
Since for all k (xk − yk )2 = (yk − xk )2 , d(x, y) = d(y, x).
SHOW HERE THAT d(x, y) + d(y, z) ≥ d(x, z)
∴ d is well-defined and (l2 (N), d) is a metric space.
Now let {xn } be a Cauchy sequence in l2 (N), i.e. ∀ ε ∃ N s.t. d(xm , xn ) < ε if m, n > N .
X∞
Each xn can be written as {xnj }, xnj ∈ R, where x2nj < ∞. So for any m, n > N ,
j=1
v
u∞
uX
d(xm , xn ) = t (xnj − xmj )2 < ε.
j=1
∞
X
So (xnj − xmj )2 < ε2
j=1

So for any j, (xnj − xmj )2 < ε2 . So |xmj − xnj | < ε.

By definition, {x1j , x2j , x3j , ...} is a Cauchy sequence and therefore converges to yj ∈ R
Thus for any k, for each j there is some Nj s.t. for n > Nj , |yj − xnj | < k1j . By taking
N = sup Nj , for n > N |yj − xnj | < k1j for all j, so (yj − xnj )2 < k1j for all j. Since
∞ ∞
X 1 1 X
2 1 q
1
j
= , (y j − x nj ) < . For any ε, there is k s.t. k−1 < ε, so there is
j=1
k k − 1 j=1
k − 1
N s.t. for n > N d(xn , y) < ε. Therefore {xn } converges to y.
v
∞
u∞
X uX
2
Now let Z = {0, 0, 0, ...}. For each xn , since xn < ∞, d(xn , Z) = t (xn − 0)2 < ∞
n=1 n=1

By the triangle inequality, d(y, Z) ≤ d(y, xn )+d(xn , Z). Then since for n > N d(xn , y) < ε
and d(xn , Z) < ∞, d(y, Z) ≤ d(xn , y) + d(xn , Z) < ∞
v
∞
u∞ 2
X uX
2
So (yn − 0) < ∞. Then t yn < ∞. By definition, y ∈ l2 (N)
n=1 n=1

Since any Cauchy sequence in l2 (N) converges to such a y, l2 (N) is complete.

2 (i) Let X be path-connected, i.e. ∀x, y ∈ X ∃ f : [0, 1] 7→ X s.t. f (0) = x and f (1) = y.
Assume X is not connected, i.e. X = A t B, where A and B are both open and
closed.
Let x ∈ A, y ∈ B. Then f −1 (A) and f −1 (B) are non-empty. Since for any z ∈ [0, 1]
f (z) ∈ A or f (z) ∈ B, [0, 1] = f −1 (A) ∪ f −1 (B). Since f (z) ∈ A =⇒ f (z) ∈ / B,
[0, 1] = f −1 (A) t f −1 (B). By Rudin Theorem 4.8 f −1 (A) and f −1 (B) are closed, and
by the corrollary f −1 (A) and f −1 (B) are open. Thus [0, 1] is not connected. But by
Theorem 2.47, [0, 1] is connected. So the assumption was false and X is connected.

1
 (ii) Let A and B be separated subsets of some Rk , suppose a ∈ A, b ∈ B, and define
p(t) = (1 − t)a + tb for t ∈ R. Put A0 = p−1 (A), B0 = p−1 (B). (Thus t ∈ A0 iff
p(t) ∈ A).
(a) Suppose A0 and B0 are not separated. Then for some t ∈ A0 t ∈ B̄0 or vice
versa; assume WLOG the former. Since by Theorem 4.9 p is continuous, for any
c ∈ B0 , for all ε there is δ s.t. |p(t) − p(c)| < ε if |t − c| < δ. Because t ∈ B̄0 ,
there is some c ∈ B0 s.t. |t − c| < δ. Thus p(t) ∈ B̄. But p(t) ∈ A, contradicting
that A and B are separated.
(b) Assume ∀ t ∈ (0, 1), t ∈ A0 ∪ B0 ; then since A0 and B0 are not separated, for
some t ∈ A0 t ∈ B̄0 or vice versa. But in part (a) it was demonstrated that
this contradicts that A and B are separated, so there must be t ∈ (0, 1) s.t.
t∈/ A0 ∪ B0
(c) Assume X is a convex subset of Rk , i.e. for any a, b ∈ X p(t) = (1 − t)a + tb ∈ X
when t ∈ (0, 1). If X = A ∪ B and A and B are separated, for some t ∈ (0, 1) by
part (b) t ∈/ (p−1 (A) ∪ p−1 (B), contradicting the assumption. Thus any A and
B s.t. X = A ∪ B are not separated, so X is connected if X is convex.
(iii) Let D ⊂ R2 be countable. Let x, y ∈ DC . Let l ⊂ R2 be a line through x. Since
there are uncountable such lines intersecting only at x and only countable elements in
D, there is at least one such l ⊂ DC . Now let m ⊂ R2 be a line through y and some
point of l. Again, since there are uncountable such lines intersecting only at y and
only countable elements in D, there must be such a line m ⊂ R2 Then let p = m ∩ l.
So the segments [x, p] and [p, y] are contained in DC .
(x1 + 2(p1 − x1 )t, x2 + 2(p2 − y2 )t), t < 12

Setting f (t) = , we see f : [0, 1] 7→ DC
(p1 + 2(y1 − p1 )t, p2 + 2(y2 − p2 )t), t ≥ 21
is a continuous path, so DC is path-connected.

1, x 6= 0
3 Rudin Ch 4 no 1 Let f : R 7→ R s.t. f (x) =
0, x = 0
For x > 0, ∃ δ s.t. ∀ h < δ, x − h > 0 and x + h > 0.
So |f (x + h) − f (x − h)| = |1 − 1| = 0 ∀ h < δ.
∴ lim |f (x + h) − f (x − h)| = 0 for x > 0
h→0
Similarly, ∀ x < 0, ∃ δ s.t. ∀ h < δ, x + h < 0 and x − h < 0.
So |f (x + h) − f (x − h)| = |1 − 1| = 0 ∀ h < δ.
∴ lim |f (x + h) − f (x − h)| = 0 for x < 0
h→0
For ε > 0 ∃ h s.t. 0 < h < ε. So |f (0 + h) − f (0 − h)| = 0.
∴ lim |f (0 + h) − f (0 − h)| = 0
h→0
Thus for every x ∈ R, lim |f (x + h) − f (x − h)| = 0 for x < 0
h→0
But ∀ δ > 0, |f (0 + δ) − f (0)| = |1 − 0| = 1. So f (x) is discontinuous at 0.
∴ lim |f (x + h) − f (x − h)| = 0 does not imply that f is continuous.
h→0
Rudin Ch 4 no 3 Let f : X 7→ R be continuous, and Z(f ) = {p ∈ X : f (p) = 0}.
Let Y (f ) = X − Z(f ), and x ∈ Y (f ), i.e., f (x) 6= 0.
For ε < | f (x)
2 |, ∃ δ s.t. f (B(x, δ)) ⊂ B(f (x), ε).
Since 0 ∈/ B(f (x), ε), 0 ∈
/ f (B(x, δ)). So B(x, δ) ⊂ Y (f ).
∴ Y (f ) is open. By definition, Z(f ) is closed.
Rudin Ch 4 no 6 Let E ⊂ R and f : E 7→ R. Let g(x) = (x, f (x)) ∈ R2
(⇒) Suppose E is compact, and f is continuous on E.
Let A be a limit point of g(E). Then ∃ {an } ⊂ g(E) s.t. an → A.

2
 Then each an = (xn , yn ), xn ∈ E, yn = f (xn ).
Since p{an } converges, ∀ε ∃N s.t. m, n > N =⇒ |am − an | < ε.
Thus (xm − xn )2 + (ym − yn )2 < ε.
So |xm − xn | < ε. Therefore xn → x. Since E is compact, x ∈ E.
For all ε, ∃ δ s.t. |f (x) − f (c)| < ε if |x − c| < δ, and ∃ N s.t. |x − xn | < δ if
n > N.
Thus for n > N |f (xn ) − f (x)| = |yn − f (x)| < ε. So yn → f (x).
Therefore A = (x, f (x)) ∈ g(E).
Since A is any limit point, g(E) is closed.
E is compact, and by Theorem 4.14 f (E) is compact. So E and f (E) are bounded.
Then ∃ M, N s.t.p ∀ x ∈ E, |x| < M and |f (x)| < N .
Then |g(x)| = x2 + f (x)2 < x + f (x) < M + N. So g(E) is bounded.
Since g(E) is a closed, bounded subset of R2 , g(E) is compact.
(⇐) Let E and g(E) be compact. Assume f is not continuous on E.
For any x, let {an } ⊂ E s.t. an → x, and an > x. By the compactness of g(E)
there is some subsequence {bn } s.t. g(bn ) converges to a point in g(E).
Thus g(bn )p= (bn , f (bn )) → some (c, f (c)). Then for any ε, for some N if n > N
|bn − c| < (bn − c)2 + (f (bn ) − f (c))2 < ε, so bn → c.
Since bn → x, g(bn ) →p g(x).
Then |f (bn ) − f (x)| < (bn − x)2 + (f (bn ) − f (x))2 < , so f (bn ) → f (x).
Hence f (x+) = f (x).
Letting an < x instead, we see that f (x−) = f (x) as well. Since both the right-
hand and left-hand limits exist, there is no discontinuity of the second kind at x.
Since f (x−) = f (x+) = f (x), there is no simple discontinuity at x. Therefore f
is continuous at x. Since x is arbitrary, f is continuous at all points in E.
xy 2 xy 2
Rudin Ch 4 no 7 Let f (x, y) = x2 +y 4 and g(x, y) = x2 +y 6
Since (x − y 2 )2 = x2 − 2xy 2 + y , x + y = (x − y ) + 2xy 2 , so x2 + y 4 ≥ 2xy 2
4 2 4 2 2

xy 2 xy 2
Substituting, x2 +y 4 ≤ 2xy 2 = 12 . So f (x, y) is bounded by 1
2
1 2
( n13 )( n ) 1
Now consider the series (xn , yn ) = ( n13 , n1 ). g(xn , yn ) = ( n13 )2 +( n
1 6
)
= n5
2 = n
2. For
n6
any ε, δ ∃ N s.t. for n > N , |(xn , yn )| < δ and g(xn , yn ) > ε. So g(x, y) is unbounded
in all neighborhoods of (0, 0).
1 2
( n12 )( n ) 1
Now instead let (xn , yn ) = ( n12 , n1 ). f (xn , yn ) = ( n12 )2 +( n
1 4
) )
= n4
2 = 12 . For any ε, δ
n4
1
∃ N s.t. for n > N , |(xn , yn )| < δ and g(xn , yn ) = 2 > g(0, 0)
+ ε. So g(x, y) is not
continuous at (0, 0).
Let E be a line in R2 . i.e., either E = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : y = ax + b} for some a 6= 0, b,
or E = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x = c} for some c.
Let E = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x = c}. If c 6= 0, since (0, 0) ∈ / E, for all (x, y) ∈ E
cy 2 2 4
f (x, y) = c2 +y4 . Since c + y > 0, f (x, y) is continuous by Theorem 4.9. Similarly,
2
g(x, y) = c2cy 0
+y 6 which is also continuous by the same theorem. If c = 0, f (x, y) = y 4 =
0
0 and g(x, y) = y6 = 0 for (x, y) 6= (0, 0), and f (x, y) = g(x, y) = 0 for (x, y) = (0, 0).
Therefore f (x, y) = g(x, y) = 0 for all (x, y), so f and g are continuous at all points
in E.
Now let E = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : y = ax + b}, a 6= 0. If b 6= 0, (0, 0) ∈ / E. So for all
x(ax+b)2 x(ax+b)2
(x, y) ∈ E, f (x, y) = x2 +(ax+b)4 and g(x, y) = x2 +(ax+b)6 are continuous by Theorem
a2 x3 a2 x
4.9. Otherwise y = ax for all (x, y) ∈ E. So f (x, y) = x2 +a4 x4 = 1+a4 x2 < a2 x
2 3 2
and g(x, y) = x2a+ax6 x6 = 1+a
a x 2
6 x4 < a x, so f and g are continuous by Theorem

4.9 for x 6= 0. For any ε, ∃ δ = a2 s.t. if |(x, y)| < δ, |x| < |(x, y)| < aε2 , and
ε

3
 |f (x, y)| = |f (x, ax)| < |a2 aε2 | = ε and |g(x, y)| = |g(x, ax)| < |a2 aε2 | = ε. Therefore
f and g are continuous at (0, 0), so f and g are continuous at all points in E.
Rudin Ch 4 no 11 Suppose f : X 7→ Y is uniformly continuous, and {xn } ⊂ X is a
Cauchy sequence.
By the uniform continuity of f , for any ε there is δ s.t. if d(p, q) < δ, d(f (p), f (q)) < ε.
Since xn is Cauchy, there is N s.t. if m, n > N , d(xm , xn ) < δ. So d(f (xm ), f (xn )) <
ε. Thus {f (xn )} is a Cauchy sequence in Y .
Now let E ⊂ X be a dense subset, and f : E 7→ R be uniformly continuous. By
definition, any point x ∈ X = lim{xn }, xn ∈ E. Define g : X 7→ R s.t. g(x) =
lim{f (xn )} Since f is continuous on E, for any {en } → e ∈ E, since e is not a
discontinuity g(e) = lim{f (en )} = f (e), so g is an extension of f to X.
Let x = {xn } be any point in X, and y be a point in E. Since f is continuous, for any ε
there is δ s.t. if |xn −y| < δ, |f (xn )−f (y)| < ε. If |x−y| < δ, there is N s.t. for n > N ,
|xn − y| = δ, so |f (xn ) − f (y)| < ε. Then by definition | lim{f (xn )} − f (y)| < ε. Since
|g(x) − g(y)| = | lim{f (xn )} − lim{f (y)}| = | lim{f (xn )} − f (y)| < ε, |g(x) − g(y)| < ε
if |x − y| < δ. Therefore g is continuous.
Rudin Ch 4 no 15 Let f : R 7→ R be continuous and open, i.e. f (V ) is open if V is
open.
Assume f is not monotonic. Then for some a, b ∈ R, a < b, where V is the open
interval (a, b), sup f (V ) > f (b) and inf f (V ) < f (b) by Theorem 4.29. By Theorem
4.16, for some p, q ∈ [a, b] f (p) = sup f (V ) and f (q) = inf f (V ). Since f (p) > f (b)
and f (q) < f (b), p 6= b and q 6= b.
If p = q = a, then for all x ∈ V , f (x) = f (a). Therefore f (V ) = {f (a)}, contradicting
that f (V ) is open.
If p > a, then p ∈ V , so f (p) ∈ f (V ). By the openness of V , for some ε B(f (p), ε) ⊂
f (V ). Then f (p) + 2ε ∈ f (V ), contradicting that f (p) = sup f (V ).
Therefore q > a. Similarly, q ∈ V , so f (q) ∈ f (V ). By the openness of V , some
B(f (p), ε) ⊂ f (V ). Then f (q) − 2ε ∈ f (V ), contradicting that f (q) = inf f (V ).
Therefore the assumption that f is not monotonic must be false.
Rudin Ch 4 no 20 Let E ⊂ X 6= ∅, x ∈ X, and define ρE (x) = inf d(x, z).
z∈E

(a) (⇒) Let ρE (x) = 0. Then for any ε, ∃ z ∈ E s.t. d(x, z) < ε. Therefore x is a
limit point of E. By definition, x ∈ Ē.
(⇐) Let x ∈ Ē. Then either x ∈ E or x is a limit point of E. If x ∈ E, since
d(x, x) = 0, ρE (x) = inf d(x, z) = 0. If x is a limit point of E, for any ε ∃ z
z∈E
s.t. d(x, z) < ε. So ρE (x) = inf d(x, z) = 0.
z∈E
(b) Let x, y ∈ X, and let z ∈ E s.t. d(y, z) = inf d(y, a). By definition, ρE (x) ≤
a∈E
d(x, z). By the Triangle Inequality, d(x, z) ≤ d(x, z) + d(y, z) = d(x, z) + ρE (y).
So ρE (x) − ρE (y) ≤ d(x, y), proving that ρE is continuous, since if d(x, y) ≤ ε
then ρE (x) − ρE (y) ≤ ε
Rudin Ch 4 no 23 Let f be convex on (a, b), i.e. f (λx + (1 − λ)y) ≤ λf (x) + (1 − λ)f (y)
for λ ∈ (0, 1) and x, y ∈ (a, b). Then f is convex on any subinterval of (a,b), since
any x, y in that subinterval are in (a, b)
Let la,b (x) be the line from (a, f (a)) to (b, f (b)). Then la,b (x) = f (b)−f
b−a
(a)
(x−a)+f (a).
Rearranging, la,b (x) = (f (b) − f (a)) x−a
b−a + f (a) = f (b) x−a
b−a + f (a)(1 − x−a
b−a )
Then la,b (x) ≥ f ( x−a x−a x−a b−x
b−a b+(1− b−a )a) = f ( b−a b+ b−a a) = f (
bx−ab+ab−ax
b−a ) = f ( bx−ax
b−a )
x−a
∴ f (x) ≤ la,b (x) when b−a ∈ (0, 1), which is true when x ∈ (a, b).

4
 Let c ∈ (a, b), and let x ∈ (c, b) s.t. f (x) < la,c (x) Then la,x (x) = f (x) < la,c (x). So
for all y > a, la,x (y) < la,c (y). Hence la,x (c) < la,c (c) = f (c). But since c ∈ (a, x),
f (c) ≤ la,x (c). Therefore for all x ∈ (c, b) f (x) ≥ la,c (x)
Similarly, let c ∈ (a, b), and let x ∈ (a, c) s.t. f (x) < lc,b (x) Then lx,b (x) = f (x) <
lc,b (x). So for all y < b, lx,b (y) < lc,b (y). Hence lx,b (c) < lb,c (c) = f (c). But since
c ∈ (x, b), f (c) ≤ lx,b (c). Therefore for all x ∈ (a, c) f (x) ≥ lc,b (x)
Since la,c and lc,b are continuous, for any ε ∃ δ s.t. if |x − c| < δ |la,c (x) − f (c)| =
|la,c (x) − la,c (c)| < ε and |lc,b (x) − f (c)| = |lc,b (x) − lc,b (c)| < ε.
Thus if x > c, f (c) − ε < la,c (x) ≤ f (x) ≤ lc,b (x) < f (c) + ε
Otherwise, f (c) − ε < lc,b (x) ≤ f (x) ≤ la,c (x) < f (c) + ε
∴ |f (x) − f (c)| < ε, so f is continuous at x. Since x is arbitrary, f is continuous on
(a, b)
Now let f be convex and g be convex and monotone increasing.
Then f (λx + (1 − λ)y) ≤ λf (x) + (1 − λ)f (y) by the convexity of f
Since g is increasing, g(f (λ + (1 − λ)y)) ≤ g(λf (x) + (1 − λ)f (y))
Since g is convex g(f (λ + (1 − λ)y)) ≤ λg(f (x)) + (1 − λ)g(f (y))
∴ f ◦ g is convex
Now let f be convex in (a, b) and a < s < t < u < b
f (t)−f (s) f (u)−f (s)
Assume t−s > u−s . Then ls,t (x) > ls,u (x) for x > s. But for t < x < u,
f (t)−f (s) f (u)−f (s)
ls,t (x) ≤ f (x) ≤ lt,u (x). So the assumption was false and t−s ≤ u−s
f (u)−f (t) f (u)−f (s)
Now assume u−t < u−s . Then lt,u (x) > ls,u (x)4 for x < u. But for s <
f (u)−f (t) f (u)−f (s)
x < t, lt,u (x) ≤ f (x) ≤ ls,u (x). So the assumption was false and u−t ≥ u−s
f (t)−f (s) f (u)−f (s) f (u)−f (t)
∴ t−s ≤ u−s ≤ u−t
f (x)+f (y)
Rudin Ch 4 no 24 Let f : (a, b) 7→ R be continuous and let f ( x+y 2 ) ≤ 2 for
x, y ∈ (a, b).
Then let m and n be any two points s.t. a ≤ m < n ≤ b. Then for any x, y ∈ (m, n)
f (x)+f (y)
it is true that x, y ∈ (a, b). Therefore it is true that f ( x+y
2 )≤ 2 .
Then as in problem 23 let lm,n (x) be the line from (m, f (m)) to (n, f (n)). Then
lm,n (x) = f (m)−f
m−n
(n) x−m
(m − n) + f (m) = f (n) n−m x−m
+ f (m)(1 − n−m ).
If x = m+n x−m 1
2 , then b−n = 2 , so lm,n (x) ≥ f (x) by the same manipulation as in
problem 23. Thus f ( 2 ) ≤ lm,n ( m+n
m+n
2 ) for all a ≤ m < n ≤ b.
Let x ∈ [p, q], a ≤ p < q ≤ b, and set p1 = p and q1 = q.
If x = p1 or x = q1 f (x) = lp1 ,q1 (x).
Otherwise if x < p1 +q 2 , then set p2 = p1 and q2 =
1 p1 +q1
2 . Since lp2 ,q2 (q2 ) = f (q2 ) ≤
lp1 ,q1 (q2 ), for all y ∈ [p2 , q2 ] lp2 ,q2 (y) ≤ lp1 ,q1 (y). Note that q2 − p2 = q1 −p2 .
1

p1 +q1
Otherwise set p2 = 2 and q2 = q1 . Since lp2 ,q2 (q2 ) = f (q2 ) ≤ p1 , q1 , for all
y ∈ [p2 , q2 ] lp2 ,q2 (y) ≤ lp1 ,q1 (y). Again, note that q2 − p2 = q1 −p 2 .
1

Repeating this construction, create the sequences pn and qn .

Note that for any j, by induction lpj ,qj (y) ≤ lp,q (y) for y ∈ [p, q]
If x = pj or x = qj for any j, then f (x) = lpj ,qj (x) ≤ lp,q (x).
Otherwise, since for each j pj < x < qj and qj − pj = 2q−p q−p
j−1 , qj − x < 2j−1 .

Since f is continuous, for any ε there is δ s.t. |f (x) − f (qj )| < ε if qj − x < δ. For
any such δ there is N s.t. 2q−p n−1 < δ for n > N , so for n > N qn − x < δ, and

|f (qn ) − f (x)| < ε.

p,q f (x)−l (x)
Now, assume f (x) > lp,q (x) Then setting ε = 2 , we see that f (qn ) > lp,q (x)
for n > N , contradicting that f (qn ) = lpn ,qn (qn ) ≤ lp,q (qn ).

5
∴ for any x ∈ (p, q) ⊂ (a, b), f (x) ≤ lp,q (x).
Now let x, y ∈ (a, b). WLOG, assume x < y. For any λ ∈ (0, 1), let c = x + λ(y − x).
c−x
Then y−x = λ.
Since λ ∈ (0, 1), c ∈ (x + 0(y − x), x + 1(y − x)) = (x, y) ⊂ (a, b).
c−x c−x c−x
∴ f (c) ≤ lx,y (c) = f (y) y−x + f (x) = y−x f (y) + (1 − y−x )f (x) = λf (y) + (1 − λ)f (x)
yc−xc yc−xy+xy−xc c−x y−c
And c = y−x = y−x = y y−x + x y−x = λy + (1 − λ)x
Combining these two equations, f (λx + (1 − λ)y) = λf (x) + (1 − λ)f (y) for any
x, y ∈ (a, b) and λ ∈ (0, 1)
∴ f is convex.