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Abstract: Starting from the action function, we have derived a theoretical background that leads to
the quantization of gravity and the deduction of a correlation between the gravitational and the inertial
masses, which depends on the kinetic momentum of the particle. We show that the strong equivalence
principle is reaffirmed and, consequently, Einstein's equations are preserved. In fact, such equations
are deduced here directly from this new approach to Gravitation. Moreover, we have obtained a
generalized equation for the inertial forces, which incorporates the Mach's principle into Gravitation.
Also, we have deduced the equation of Entropy; the Hamiltonian for a particle in an electromagnetic
field and the reciprocal fine structure constant directly from this new approach. It was also possible to
deduce the expression of the Casimir force and to explain the Inflation Period and the Missing Matter,
without assuming existence of vacuum fluctuations. This new approach to Gravitation will allow us to
understand some crucial matters in Cosmology.
Contents
1. Introduction 3
2. Theory 3
Quantization of Velocity 7
Quantization of Time 7
Gravitational Motor 28
A Creator’s need 63
Appendix A 71
Appendix B 74
References 75
3
1. INTRODUCTION
b
S = −α ∫a ds
Quantum Gravity was originally
studied, by Dirac and others, as the where α is a quantity which
problem of quantizing General characterizes the particle.
Relativity. This approach presents In Relativistic Mechanics, the
many difficulties, detailed by Isham action can be written in the following
[1]. In the 1970's, physicists tried an form [3]:
t2 t2
even more conventional approach: S = ∫ Ldt = − ∫ αc 1 − V 2 c 2 dt
t1 t1
simplifying Einstein's equations by
assuming that they are almost linear, where
and then applying the standard L = −αc 1 − V 2 c 2
methods of quantum field theory to is the Lagrange's function.
the thus oversimplified equations. But In Classical Mechanics, the
this method, too, failed. In the 1980's Lagrange's function for a free-particle
a very different approach, known as is, as we know, given by: L = aV 2
string theory, became popular. Thus where V is the speed of the particle
far, there are many enthusiasts of
and a is a quantity hypothetically [4]
string theory. But the mathematical
given by:
difficulties in string theory are
formidable, and it is far from clear that
a=m 2
they will be resolved any time soon. where m is the mass of the particle.
At the end of 1997, Isham [2] pointed However, there is no distinction about
out several "Structural Problems the kind of mass (if gravitational
Facing Quantum Gravity Theory". At mass, m g , or inertial mass mi ) neither
the beginning of this new century, about its sign (±) .
the problem of quantizing the The correlation between a and
gravitational field was still open. α can be established based on the
In this work, we propose a new
fact that, on the limit c → ∞ , the
approach to Quantum Gravity.
relativistic expression for L must be
Starting from the generalization of the
reduced to the classic expression
action function we have derived a
theoretical background that leads to L = aV 2 .The result [5] is: L = αV 2 2c .
the quantization of gravity. Einstein's Therefore, if α = 2 ac = mc , we obtain
General Relativity equations are L = aV 2 . Now, we must decide if
deduced directly from this theory of m = mg or m = mi . We will see in this
Quantum Gravity. Also, this theory work that the definition of m g includes
leads to a complete description of the
Electromagnetic Field, providing a mi . Thus, the right option is m g , i.e.,
consistent unification of gravity with a = mg 2 .
electromagnetism.
Consequently, α = m g c and the
2. THEORY generalized expression for the action
of a free-particle will have the
We start with the action for a following form:
(1)
b
free-particle that, as we know, is S = −m g c ∫ ds
a
given by
or
4
t2
S = − ∫ mg c 2 1 − V 2 c 2 dt (2) sign if m g < 0 . Consequently, we will
t1 r
express the momentum p in the
where the Lagrange's function is
following form
L = −mg c 2 1 − V 2 c 2 . (3) r
r
m gV r
t2 p = = M gV (4)
The integral S = ∫t m g c 2 1 − V 2 c 2 dt , 1−V 2 c2
1
r
preceded by the plus sign, cannot The derivative dp dt is the
have a minimum. Thus, the integrand inertial force Fi which acts on the
of Eq.(2) must be always positive.
Therefore, if m g > 0 , then necessarily particle. If the force is perpendicular
to the speed, we have r
t > 0 ; if m g < 0 , then t < 0 . The r mg
possibility of t < 0 is based on the Fi =
dV
(5)
1 − V 2 c 2 dt
well-known equation t = ± t0 1 − V 2 c 2
However, if the force and the speed
of Einstein's Theory. have the same direction, we rfind that
Thus if the gravitational mass r mg
of a particle is positive, then t is also Fi =
dV
(6)
(1 − V c )
3
2 2
2
dt
positive and, therefore, given by
t = +t0 1−V 2 c2 . This leads to the From Mechanics [6], we know that
r r
well-known relativistic prediction that p ⋅ V − L denotes the energy of the
the particle goes to the future, if particle. Thus, we can write
V → c . However, if the gravitational r r mg c 2
mass of the particle is negative, then Eg = p ⋅ V − L = = M g c2 (7)
t is negative and given by 1 −V 2 c2
t = − t0 1 −V 2 c2 . In this case, the Note that Eg is not null for V =0, but
prediction is that the particle goes to that it has the finite value
the past, if V → c . Consequently,
m g < 0 is the necessary condition for E g 0 = mg 0 c 2 (8)
the particle to go to the past. Further Equation (7) can be rewritten in
on, a correlation between the the following form:
gravitational and the inertial masses mg c 2
will be derived, which contains the E g = mg c −
2
− mg c 2 =
possibility of m g < 0 . 1−V c 2 2
p + Δp =
(m g − Δm g ) V expression above for ni . Thus we have
1 − (V c )
2
m i 0 = n i2 m i 0 (min ) (44 )
By considering that the particle is initially
at rest ( p = 0) , the equation above gives
9
⎢⎣
(
= M i − 2⎡ 1 − V 2 c 2 )
− 12
− 1⎤ M i
⎥⎦
(45 ) Let us now consider a planet in
the Sun’s gravitational field to which,
in the absence of external forces, we
By expanding in power series apply Lagrange’s equations. We
and neglecting infinitesimals, we arrive at the well-known equation:
2 2
2 ⎛ dϕ ⎞
arrive at: ⎛ dr ⎞ 2GM i
⎜ ⎟ +r ⎜ ⎟ − =E
⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ r
⎛ V2 ⎞
M g = ⎜1 − 2
⎜
⎟M i
⎟
(46) r2
dϕ
=h
⎝ c ⎠ dt
where M i is the inertial mass of the
Thus, the well-known expression for Sun. The term E = − GM i a , as we
the simple pendulum know, is called the energy constant;
period, T =2π (Mi Mg )(l g) , can be rewritten a is the semiaxis major of the Kepler-
in the following form: ellipse described by the planet
l ⎛⎜ V2 ⎞ around the Sun.
T = 2π 1+ 2 ⎟ for V << c By replacing M i into the
g ⎜⎝ 2c ⎟
⎠
differential equation above for the
Now, it is possible to learn why expression given by Eq. (46), and
Newton’s experiments using simple expanding in power series, neglecting
penduli do not find any difference infinitesimals, we arrive, at:
between M g and M i . The reason is
due to the fact that, in the case of ⎛ dr ⎞
2
2 ⎛ dϕ ⎞
2
2GM g 2GM g ⎛ V 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ +r ⎜ ⎟ − =E + ⎜ ⎟
penduli, the ratio V 2 2c 2 is less than ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ r r ⎜⎝ c 2 ⎟⎠
10 −17 , which is much smaller than the
accuracy of the mentioned Since V = ωr = r (dϕ dt ) , we get
experiments.
Newton’s experiments have 2 2 2
⎛ dr ⎞ 2 ⎛ dϕ ⎞ 2GM g 2GM g r ⎛ dϕ ⎞
been improved upon (one part in ⎜ ⎟ +r ⎜ ⎟ − =E + ⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ r c 2 ⎝ dt ⎠
60,000) by Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel
which is the Einsteinian equation of the
(1784–1846). In 1890, Eötvos planetary motion.
confirmed Newton’s results with
10
GM g M ′g
U (r ) = − = whence we recognize the
r
Schwzarzschilds’ equation. Note in
Gmg M g′ this equation the presence of m g ,
=−
r 1−V 2 c2 whose value, according to Eq. (41)
can be reduced or made negative. In
Since Φ = U (r ) M g′ and g = ∂Φ ∂r
then, we get
11
Assuming that Ne χemie <<2Np χ pmip and In the case of Earth, for example,
ρ Earth << ρ p . Consequently the
Np ΔE c2 <<2Npχpmip Eq. (55d) reduces to
curvature of the space inside the Earth is
approximately null (space approximately
mg ≅ mi0 − 2Npχpmip = mi − χpmi (55e) flat). Then V Earth ≅ 3 π r Earth .
4 3
or
For rp = 1.4 ×10−15 m we then get
18
mp ⎡ 2⎤
ρp = ≅ 3 × 1016 kg / m 3 ⎛ ω 2 ⎞
Vp χ = 2⎢1 − 1 − ⎜⎜
* 4 ⎟ ⎥ = 0.84 × 10−4
⎢ * 2 ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ μ 0G ρ c ⎠ ⎥
Starting from the London moment ⎦
it is easy to see that by precisely From this equation we then obtain
measuring the magnetic field and the
angular velocity of the
superconductor, one can calculate the
ρ * ≅ 3 × 1016 kg / m 3
mass of the Cooper-pairs. This has Note that ρ p ≅ ρ * .
been done for both classical and high-Tc Now we can calculate the
superconductors [17-20]. In the
graviphoton mass, m gr , inside the
experiment with the highest precision to
date, Tate et al, op.cit., reported a Cooper-pairs fluid (coherent part of the
disagreement between the theoretically superconductor) as
predicted Cooper-pair mass in Niobium
of m* 2me = 0.999992 and its m gr = μ 0G ρ * h c ≅ 4 × 10 −52 kg
experimental value of 1.000084(21) ,
Outside the coherent matter (ρ c = 0 ) the
where me is the electron mass. This
graviphoton mass will be zero
anomaly was actively discussed in the
literature without any apparent solution (m gr = μ 0 G ρ c h c = 0 . )
−1
[21-24]. Substitution of ρp, ρc =ρ and ω ≈ 500rad.s
*
If we consider that the apparent
mass increase from Tate’s into the expression of χ p gives
measurements results from an increase
in the gravitational mass m*g of the χ p ≈ 1 × 10 −4
Cooper-pairs due to BG , then we can
write Compare this value with that one
obtained from the Tajmar experiment.
m *g m *g
= * = 1.000084 Therefore, the decrease in the
2m e mi gravitational mass of the superconductor,
expressed by (55e), is
Δm *g = m *g − m *g (initial ) = m *g − m i* =
m g ,SC ≅ mi ,SC − χ p mi ,SC
= 1.000084 m i* − mi* =
≅ mi ,SC − 10 − 4 mi ,SC
−4
= +0.84 × 10 mi* =χ *
m i* This corresponds to a decrease of the
−4
where χ = 0.84 × 10 .
* −2
order of 10 % in respect to the initial
From (55c) we can write that gravitational mass of the superconductor.
However, we must also consider the
⎡ 2⎤ gravitational shielding effect, produced
⎢ ⎛ 4ω 2 ⎞ ⎥ * −2
m*g = mi* + 2 1− 1− ⎜ ⎟ mi = by this decrease of ≈ 10 % in the
⎢ ⎜ μ ρ*c2 ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 0G ⎠ ⎥ gravitational mass of the particles inside
⎦ the superconductor (see Fig. II).
= mi* + χ * mi* Therefore, the total weight decrease in
the superconductor will be much greater
−2
than 10 % . According to Podkletnov
where ρ * is the Cooper-pair mass
experiment [25] it can reach up to 1% of
density. the total weight of the superconductor
(5000rpm) . In this
Consequently we can write −1
at 523.6rad .s
experiment a slight decrease (up to
≈ 1% ) in the weight of samples hung
above the disk (rotating at 5000rpm) was
19
‡ g′ = χ g
The quantization of the gravitational mass
(Eq.(33)) shows that for n = 1 the gravitational This is the gravity acceleration inside m ′g .
mass is not zero but equal to mg(min).Although the Figure II (b) shows the gravitational
gravitational mass of a particle is never null,
shielding effect produced by two particles
Eq.(41) shows that it can be turned very close to
zero.
at the same direction. In this case, the
20
gravity acceleration inside and above the flux on the surface α returns from O′ to
second particle will be χ 2 g if m g 2 = m i1 . O and is detected by the
These particles are representative galvanometer G . That is, there is no
of any material particles or material deflection for the cathodic rays. Then it
r r
substance (solid, liquid, gas, plasma, follows that eVB = eEy since FB = FE .
electrons flux, etc.), whose gravitational
mass have been reduced by the Then, we get
factor χ . Thus, above the substance, the Ey
V =
gravity acceleration g ′ is reduced at the B
same proportion χ = m g mi 0 , and, This gives a measure of the velocity of
the electrons.
consequently, g ′ = χ g , where g is the Thus, by means of the
gravity acceleration below the substance. experimental set-up, shown in Fig. III, we
Figure III shows an experimental can easily obtain the velocity V of the
set-up in order to check the factor χ electrons below the body β , in order to
above a high-speed electrons flux. As we calculate the theoretical value of χ . The
have shown (Eq. 43), the gravitational experimental value of χ can be obtained
mass of a particle decreases with the
by dividing the weight, Pβ′ = m gβ g ′ of
increase of the velocity V of the particle.
~
Since the theory says that the the body β for a voltage drop V across
factor χ is given by the correlation the anode and cathode, by its
m g mi 0 then, in the case of an electrons weight, Pβ = m gβ g , when the voltage
flux, we will have that χ = mge mie where ~
V is zero, i.e.,
m ge as function of the velocity V is Pβ′ g′
χ = =
given by Eq. (43). Thus, we can write Pβ g
that
According to Eq. (4), the gravitational
mass, M g , is defined by
m ge ⎧⎪ ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎫⎪
χ= = ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ − 1⎥ ⎬ mg
mie ⎪⎩ ⎢
⎣ 1−V c
2 2
⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ Mg =
1 − V 2 c2
Therefore, if we know the velocity V of
the electrons we can calculate χ . ( mie is While Eq. (43) defines m g by means of
the electron mass at rest). the following expression
When an electron penetrates the ⎧⎪ ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎫⎪
electric field E y (see Fig. III) an electric m g = ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ − 1⎥ ⎬mi 0
r r ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 1 − V 2 c 2 ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
force, FE = −eE y , will act upon the
r In order to check the gravitational mass
electron. The direction of FE will be of the electrons it is necessary to know
r the pressure P produced by the
contrary to the direction of E y . The
r electrons flux. Thus, we have put a
magnetic force FB which acts upon the piezoelectric sensor in the bottom of the
r glass tube as shown in Fig. III. The
electron, due to the magnetic field B , is electrons flux radiated from the cathode
r r
FB = eVBμ̂ and will be opposite to FE is accelerated by the anode1 and strikes
because the electron charge is negative. on the piezoelectric sensor yielding a
By adjusting conveniently B we pressure P which is measured by
r r means of the sensor.
can make FB = FE . Under these
circumstances in which the total force is
zero, the spot produced by the electrons
21
g g′ < g g′ < 0
mg = mi mg < mi mg < 0
g g g
(a)
Particle 2 P2 = mg 2 g′ = mg 2 ( x g )
mg 2
g′ < g due to the gravitational
g′ shielding effect produced by mg 1
mg 1 = x mi 1 ; x < 1
Particle 1
mg 1 P1 = mg 1 g = x mi 1 g
g
(b)
M ge = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
V2
⎝ ne ⎠ where n is the number of holes in the
The amount of electrons, ne , is given grid. By means of the piezoelectric
sensor we can measure F and
by ne = ρSd where ρ is the amount of
consequently obtain M ge .
electrons per unit of volume
We can use the equation
(electrons/m3); S is the cross-section
above to evaluate the magnitude of
of the electrons flux and d the
the force F to be measured by the
distance between cathode and
piezoelectric sensor. First, we will find
anode.
the expression of V as a function of
In order to calculate ne we will ~
V since the electrons speed V
start from the Langmuir-Child law and ~
the Ohm vectorial law, respectively depends on the voltage V .
given by We will start from Eq. (46)
~ 3 which is the general expression for
and J = ρ cV , (ρ c = ρ e )
V2
J =α Lorentz’s force, i.e.,
r
( )
d dp r r r mg
where J is the thermoionic current = qE + qV × B
− 32
dt mi 0
density; α = 2.33 × 10 − 6 A.m −1 .V is
~ When the force and the speed
the called Child’s constant; V is the have the same direction Eq.
r r (6) gives
voltage drop across the anode and dp mg dV
=
cathode electrodes, and V is the dt (1 − V 2 c 2 )2 dt
3
αV
3
1 − V 2 c 2 2 dt
2
ρ= 2
ed V In the case of electrons accelerated
Thus, we can write that by a sole electric field (B = 0) , the
~ 3
αV S 2
equation above gives
ne = r r ~
( )
edV r dV eE 2eV
and a= = 1−V c
2 2
dt mie mie
⎛ 2ed 2 ⎞
M ge = ⎜⎜ ~ 3 ⎟⎟ P Therefore, the velocity V of the
⎝ α VV 2 ⎠ electrons in the experimental set-up
Where P = F S , is the pressure to be is
~
measured by the piezoelectric
( 2eV
)
3
V = 2ad = 1 − V 2 c 2 4
sensor. mie
In the experimental set-up the
From Eq. (43) we conclude that
total force F acting on the
23
Dynamometer (D)
d
~
Collimators g’= χ g ↓g + Vy
Grid d Collimators B
O’ +
α γ
F
e V
y Ey O⋅ e
~
V
+ −
Fig. III – Experimental set-up in order to check the factor χ above a high-speed electrons flux.
The set-up may also check the velocities and the gravitational masses of the electrons.
24
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ μσσ 3
⎞ ⎪ 10 −3% in respect to the initial
⎢ − 1⎥⎬mi0 (58a)
⎜ hT ⎟
mg = ⎨1 − 2 1 + B
⎢ ⎜ 4πκρ c ⎟ ⎥ gravitational mass of the
⎪
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭ superconductor, due to the local
Starting from this equation, we can thermal radiation only. However, here
evaluate the effect of the thermal we must also consider the
radiation upon the gravitational mass gravitational shielding effect
of the Copper-pair fluid, m g ,CPfluid . produced, in this case, by the
Below the transition temperature, Tc , decrease of ≈ 10 − 3% in the
gravitational mass of the particles
(T Tc < 0.5) the conductivity of the inside the superconductor (see Fig.
superconducting materials is usually II). Therefore the total weight
larger than 10 22 S / m [26]. On the decrease in the superconductor will
26
r r
be much greater than ≈ 10 − 3% . This J = Δ eVd
can explain the smaller effect on the where Δe is the density of the
order of 0.1% observed in the
free electric charges ( For cooper
Podkletnov measurements when the
disk is not rotating. conductors Δe = 1.3 × 1010 C / m 3 ).
Let us now consider an electric Therefore increasing Vd produces an
current I through a conductor increase in the electric current I .
subjected to electromagnetic Thus if mge is reduced 10 times
radiation with power density D and
frequency f .
(m ge ≈ 0.1me ) the drift velocity Vd is
Under these circumstances the increased 10 times as well as the
gravitational mass mge of the electric current. Thus we conclude
that strong fluxes of ELF radiation
electrons of the conductor, according upon electric/electronic circuits can
to Eq. (58), is given by suddenly increase the electric
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ currents and consequently damage
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ μσD ⎞ ⎪
m ge = ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬m e these circuits.
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ 4πfρc ⎠ ⎥⎪ Since the orbital electrons
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
−31 moment of inertia is given
where me = 9.11 × 10 kg .
by I i = Σ (mi ) j rj , where mi refers to
2
⎩ ⎢⎣
( )
mg(sm) =⎧⎨1−2⎡ 1+ 5.71×10−12i04 f 3 sin42πft −1⎤⎫⎬mi(sm)
⎥⎦⎭
Substitution of this expression into
(41) gives
Some oscillators like the HP3325A ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ P2 ⎞ ⎪
(Op.002 High Voltage Output) can mg = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ 2 3 ⎟ −1⎥⎥⎬mi 0 (60)
generate sinusoidal voltages with ⎜ 2ρ cv ⎟
⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
extremely-low frequencies down to ⎩
f = 1 × 10 −6 Hz and amplitude up to This expression shows that in the
case of sound waves the decreasing
20V (into 50Ω load). The maximum
of gravitational mass is relevant for
output current is 0.08 App . very strong pressures only.
Thus, for i0 = 0.04 A (0.08 A pp ) It is known that in the nucleus
and f < 2.25 × 10 −6 Hz the equation of the Earth the pressure can reach
values greater than 1013 N / m 2 . The
above shows that the gravitational
mass of the rod becomes negative at equation above tells us that sound
waves produced by pressure
2πft = π 2 ; for f ≅ 1.7 × 10−6 Hz at
variations of this magnitude can
t = 1 4 f = 1.47 × 10 5 s ≅ 40.8h it shows cause strong decreasing of the
that m g ( sm ) ≅ − mi ( sm ) . gravitational mass at the
This leads to the idea of the surroundings of the point where the
Gravitational Motor. See in Fig. IV a sound waves were generated. This
type of gravitational motor (Rotational obviously must cause an abrupt
Gravitational Motor) based on the decreasing of the pressure at this
possibility of gravity control on a place since pressure = weight /area =
ferromagnetic wire. mgg/area). Consequently a local
It is important to realize that instability will be produced due to the
this is not the unique way of opposite internal pressure. The
decreasing the gravitational mass of conclusion is that this effect may
a body. It was noted earlier that the cause Earthquakes.
expression (53) is general for all Consider a sphere of radius r
types of waves including non- around the point where the sound
electromagnetic waves like sound waves were generated (at ≈ 1,000km
waves for example. In this case, the depth; the Earth's radius is 6 ,378km ).
velocity v in (53) will be the speed of If the maximum pressure, at the
sound in the body and D the intensity explosion place ( sphere of radius r0 ),
of the sound radiation. Thus from (53) is Pmax ≈ 1013 N / m 2 and the pressure
we can write that
at the distance r = 10km is
Δp V D D
= = Pmin = (r0 r ) Pmax ≈ 10 N / m then we can
2 9 2
mi c mi c ρcv 2
consider that in the sphere
It can easily be shown that
D = 2π 2 ρf 2 A 2 v where A = λP 2πρv 2 ; P = PmaxPmin ≈ 10 N / m .Thus assuming
11 2
⎧ ⎡ i4μ ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎪
α = ⎨1 − 2 1 + − 1⎥ ⎬
⎪⎩ ⎢ 64π c ρ S f σ
3 2 2 4 3
⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭
Axis
of the
Rotor
Ferromagnetic wire F = mg g = α mi g
P = mi g
Several plates of
ferromagnetic wire
r
force, Fi , is given by Eq.(6), and from
Δmg = mg (initial) − mg = Eq.(13) we can obtain the
r r r
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ gravitational force, Fg . Thus, Fi ≡ Fg
⎪ ⎛ P2 ⎞ ⎪
= mi 0 − ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜⎜ 2 3 ⎟⎟ − 1⎥⎬mi 0 = leads to
⎢
⎪⎩ ⎢ ⎝ 2ρ cv ⎠ ⎥⎪
⎣ ⎦⎭ mg r m′g mg
a ≡G ≡
⎡
⎛ P2 ⎞
2 ⎤ 1−V c (
2 2 2
3
) ⎛
⎜ r′ 1−V c ⎟
2 2 ⎞
2
1 −V 2 2
c
= 2⎢ 1 + ⎜⎜ 2 3 ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ ρV ≈ 1011 kg ⎝ ⎠
⎢ ⎝ 2 ρ cv ⎠ ⎥ ⎛ m′g ⎞ mg mg
⎣ ⎦ r
≡ ⎜⎜G 2 ⎟⎟ ≡g (61)
The transitory loss of this great ( )
⎝ r′ ⎠ 1−V 2 c2 2
3
( 3
)
1−V 2 c2 2
amount of gravitational mass may whence results
r r
evidently produce a strong pressure a≡g (62 )
variation and consequently a strong
Consequently, the equivalence is
Earthquake.
evident, and therefore Einstein's
Finally, we can evaluate the
equations from the General Relativity
energy necessary to generate those
continue obviously valid.
sound waves. From (48) we can write
The new expression for Fi
D max = Pmax v ≈ 10 16 W / m 2 . Thus, the
released power is P0 = Dmax(4πr02 ) ≈ 1021W
(Eqs. (5) and (6)) shows that the
inertial forces are proportional to the
and the energy ΔE released at the gravitational mass, m g . This means
time interval Δt must be ΔE = P0 Δt . that these forces result from the
Assuming Δt ≈ 10 s we readily obtain
−3
gravitational interaction between the
ΔE = P0 Δt ≈ 1018 joules ≈ 10 4 Megatons particle and the other gravitational
This is the amount of energy released masses of the Universe, just as
by an earthquake of magnitude 9 Mach’s principle predicts. Therefore
(Ms =9) , i.e., E = 1.74×10(5+1.44Ms ) ≅ 1018 joules. the new expression for the inertial
forces incorporates the Mach’s
The maximum magnitude in the principle into Gravitation Theory, and
Richter scale is 12. Note that the sole furthermore reveals that the inertial
releasing of this energy at 1000km effects upon a particle can be
depth (without the effect of reduced because, as we have seen,
gravitational mass decreasing) the gravitational mass may be
cannot produce an Earthquake, since reduced. When m g = mi 0 the
the sound waves reach 1km depth
with pressures less than 10N/cm2. nonrelativistic equation for inertial
r r
Let us now return to the Theory. forces, Fi = mg a , reduces to
The equivalence between r r
Fi = mi 0 a . This is the well-known
frames of non-inertial reference and
gravitational fields assumed m g ≡ mi Newton's second law for motion.
In Einstein's Special Relativity
because the inertial forces were given Theory the motion of a free-particle is
r r
by Fi = mi a , while the equivalent described by means of δS = 0 [29].
r r Now based on Eq. (1), δS = 0 will be
gravitational forces, by Fg = mg g .
given by the following expression
Thus, to satisfy the equivalence
r r r δS = − m g cδ ∫ ds = 0. (63 )
( a ≡ g and Fi ≡ Fg ) it was necessary
which also describes the motion of
that m g ≡ mi . Now, the inertial the particle inside the gravitational
31
∫( )
c3 length d min of Eq. (29) is given by
δSg = Rik − 12 gik R δg ik − g dΩ (64)
16πG ( )
1
≈ 10 −34 m (70)
~ ~
d min = k l planck = k Gh c 3 2
1
(65 )
2c ∫
δS m =− Tik δg ik − g dΩ (See Eq. (100)). On the other hand,
where Rik is the Ricci's tensor; g ik the we will find in the Eq. (129) the length
scale of the initial Universe, i.e.,
metric tensor and Tik the matter's dinitial ≈10−14m. Thus, from the Eq. (29)
energy-momentum tensor:
we get: n = dinitial dmin = 10−14 10−34 ≈ 1020
Tik = (P + ε g )μ i μ k + Pg ik (66 )
this is the quantum number of the
where P is the pressure and εg = ρgc2 spacetime at initial instant. That
is now, the density of gravitational quantum number is sufficiently large
energy, E g , of the particle; ρ g is then for the spacetime to be considered
the density of gravitational mass of approximately “continuous” starting
the particle, i.e., M g at the volume from the beginning of the Universe.
Therefore Einstein's equations can be
unit. used even at the Initial Universe.
Substitution of (64) and (65) into Now, it is easy to conclude why
δS m + δS g = 0 yields the attempt to quantize gravity
c3
16πG
( 8πG
)
∫ Rik − 2 gik R − c 4 Tik δg − g dΩ = 0
1 ik
starting from the General Relativity
was a bad theoretical strategy.
Since the gravitational
whence,
interaction can be repulsive, besides
⎛⎜ R − 1 g R − 8πG T ⎞⎟ = 0 (67)
⎝ ik 2 ik c4
ik
⎠
attractive, such as the
electromagnetic interaction, then the
because the δg ik are arbitrary.
graviton must have spin 1 (called
Equations (67) in the following form graviphoton) and not 2.
Rik − 12 g ik R = 8π4G Tik (68) Consequently, the gravitational forces
c
are also gauge forces because they
or
are yielded by the exchange of the
Rik − 12 gδ ik R = 8π4G Tik . (69) so-called "virtual" quanta of spin 1,
c
are the Einstein's equations from the such as the electromagnetic forces
General Relativity. and the weak and strong nuclear
It is known that these equations forces.
are only valid if the spacetime is Let us now deduce the Entropy
continuous. We have shown at the Differential Equation starting from Eq.
beginning of this work that the (55). Comparison of Eqs. (55) and
spacetime is not continuous it is (41) shows that Unr = Δpc . For small
quantized. However, the spacetime velocities, i.e., (V << c ) , we have
can be considered approximately
Unr << mi 0 c 2 . Under these
“continuous” when the quantum
32
t2
S = −∫t mgc2 1 − V 2 c2 dt = complete description of the
1 electromagnetic field. This means
t2
( )
= ∫t − mi + 2Unr c2 c2 1 −V 2 c2 dt = that from the present theory for
[ ]
1
gravity we can also derive the
= ∫t − mic2 1 − V 2 c2 + 2Unr 1 − V 2 c2 dt. (84)
t2
equations of the electromagnetic
1
field.
The integrant function is the Due to Un r = Δpc ≅ M i c 2 the
Lagrangean, i.e.,
second term on the right hand side of
L = −mi0c2 1−V 2 c2 + 2Unr 1−V 2 c2 (85) Eq.(86) can be written as follows
Starting from the Lagrangean we can
find the Hamiltonian of the particle, by Δpc⎢
(
⎡ 4V 2 c 2 − 2 ⎤
⎥=
)
means of the well-known general ⎢⎣ 1 − V 2 c 2 ⎥⎦
formula:
H = V (∂L ∂V ) − L.
=⎢
( )
⎡ 4V 2 c 2 − 2 ⎤
⎥M i c 2 =
The result is ⎢⎣ 1 − V c ⎥⎦
2 2
H=
mi0c2
+ Unr ⎢
(
⎡ 4V 2 c2 − 2 ⎤
⎥.
)
(86) = Qϕ =
QQ′
=
QQ′
1−V c2 2
⎢
⎣ 1−V c ⎦
2 2
⎥ 4πε0 R 4πε0 r 1 − V 2 c 2
The second term on the right hand whence
QQ ′
side of Eq.(86) results from the
particle's interaction with the (4V 2
)
c 2 − 2 M ic 2 =
4πε 0 r
electromagnetic field. Note the
similarity between the obtained (
The factor 4V 2 c 2 − 2 becomes )
Hamiltonian and the well-known equal to 2 in the ultra-relativistic case,
Hamiltonian for the particle in an then it follows that
QQ ′
electromagnetic field [32]: 2M i c 2 = (88 )
4πε 0 r
H = mi0c2 1 − V 2 c2 + Qϕ. (87) From (44), we know that there is a
minimum value for M i given by
in which Q is the electric charge and M i (min) = mi (min) . Eq.(43) shows that
ϕ , the field's scalar potential. The mg (min) = mi0(min) and Eq.(23) gives
quantity Q ϕ expresses, as we mg (min) = ± h cLmax 8 = ± h 3 8 cdmax .
know, the particle's interaction with
Thus we can write
the electromagnetic field in the same
way as the second term on the right Mi(min) = mi0(min) = ± h 3 8 cdmax (89)
hand side of the Eq. (86). According to (88) the value 2M i (min )c 2
It is therefore evident that it is
the same quantity, expressed by is correlated to (QQ′ 4πε0r)min =Qmin2
4πε0 rmax,
different variables. i.e.,
2
Thus, we can conclude that, in Q min
= 2 M i (min )c 2 (90 )
ultra-high energy conditions 4πε 0 rmax
( 2 2
)
Unr ≅ M i c > mi 0 c , the gravitational where Qmin is the minimum electric
and electromagnetic fields can charge in the Universe ( therefore
be described by the same equal to minimum electric charge of
Hamiltonian, i.e., in these
the quarks, i.e., 13 e ); rmax is the
circumstances they are unified !
It is known that starting from maximum distance between Q and
that Hamiltonian we may obtain a Q ′ , which should be equal to the so-
34
⎣π (Δr ) ⎦ (Δr ) ⎝ c ⎠
4
The previous assumption that
(
A 0 = 960 π l planck
2 2
) shows that
( ) 1
The amount Gh c 3 2 = 1.61 × 10 −35 m ~2
δ A k = 960 π 2 what means that
is called the Planck length, l planck ,( the ~
5 .6 < k < 14 .9
length scale on which quantum
fluctuations of the metric of the space Therefore we conclude that
time are expected to be of order
~
d min = k l planck ≈ 10 −34 m. (100 )
unity). Thus, we can write the The n − esimal area after A0 is
expression of ΔF as follows
36
It can also be easily shown that the Hubble's law and (22) we have
the minimum volume related to d min that
( )
is the volume of a regular tetrahedron
Vmax = Hlmax = H (d max 2 ) =
~ ~ ~
of edge length d min , i.e., 3 2 HLmax
( )
Ω min = 122 d min3
( ) ~
= 122 k 3 l 3planck ~
where H = 1.7 × 10−18 s −1 . Therefore we
The maximum volume is the volume
obtain
of a sphere of radius d min , i.e.,
Vmax ≅ 1012 m / s .
Ω max = ( 43π )d min = ( 43π )k 3l 3planck
3 ~
Thus, the elementary volume This is the speed upper limit imposed
~3 3
Ω 0 = δ V d min = δ V k l planck must have a
3
by the quantization of velocity (Eq.
36). It is known that the speed upper
value between Ω min and Ω max , i.e.,
( )< δ
limit for real particles is equal to c .
2
12< 43π V However, also it is known that
On the other hand, the n − esimal imaginary particles can have
volume after Ω 0 is velocities greater than c
(Tachyons). Thus, we conclude that
Ω = δ V (ndmin )3 = n3Ω0 n = 1,2,3,...,nmax . Vmax is the speed upper limit for
The existence of nmax given by imaginary particles in our ordinary
(26), i.e., space-time. Later on, we will see that
nmax = Lmax Lmin = d max d min = also exists a speed upper limit to the
= (3.4 × 1030 ) k l planck ≈ 1064
~ imaginary particles in the imaginary
space-time.
shows that the Universe must have a Now, multiplying Eq. (98) (the
finite volume whose value at the expression of F 0 ) by n 2 we obtain
present stage is
Ω 0 = (d p d min )3 δ V d min
⎛ πn2 A0 ⎞ hc ⎛ πA ⎞ hc
Ω Up = nUp = δ V d 3p F = n2 F0 = −⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 4 = −⎜ ⎟ 4 (102)
3 3
⎝ 480 ⎠ r ⎝ 480 ⎠ r
where d p is the present length scale
This is the general expression of the
of the Universe. In addition as
( )
Casimir force.
12 < δ V < 3
2 4π
we conclude that the Thus, we conclude that the
Universe must have a polyhedral Casimir effect is just a gravitational
space topology with volume between effect related to the uncertainty
the volume of a regular tetrahedron principle.
of edge length d p and the volume of Note that Eq. (102) arises only
the sphere of diameter d p . when Δmi and Δmi′ satisfy Eq.(94). If
A recent analysis of only Δ m i satisfies Eq.(94), i.e.,
astronomical data suggests not only Δmi <<h Δrc but Δmi′ >> h Δrc then
that the Universe is finite, but also Δm g and Δm′g will be respectively
that it has a dodecahedral space
given by
topology [33,34], what is in strong
accordance with the previous
Δ m g ≅ − 2 h Δ rc and Δ m ′g ≅ Δ mi
theoretical predictions.
From (22) and (26) we have
that Lmax = dmax 3 = nmaxdmin 3 . Since Consequently, the expression (96)
becomes
(100) gives dmin ≅ 10−34 m and nmax ≅ 10 64
37
⎛ 1 ⎞ whence
=
hc
3 planck ⎜
l2 ⎟ (105) ⎛ πA ⎞ hc
(Δr ) ⎝ πΔt ′c ⎠
F = −⎜⎜ ⎟ 4 (107)
From the General Relativity Theory ⎟r
⎝ 1920⎠
we know that dr = cdt − g 00 . If the The force will be attractive and its
field is weak then g 00 = −1 − 2φ c and 2 intensity will be the fourth part of the
dr = cdt (1 + φ c 2 ) = cdt (1 − Gm r 2c 2 ) .
intensity given by the first expression
(102) for the Casimir force.
For Gm r 2 c 2 <<1 we obtain dr ≅ cdt . We can also use this theory to
Thus, if dr = dr′ then dt = dt ′ . This explain some relevant cosmological
means that we can change (Δt ′c ) by phenomena. For example, the recent
(Δr ) into (105). The result is discovery that the cosmic expansion
of the Universe may be accelerating,
hc ⎛ 1 2 ⎞ and not decelerating as many
ΔF = 4 ⎜
l planck ⎟ =
(Δ r ) ⎝ π ⎠ cosmologists had anticipated [35].
We start from Eq. (6) which
⎛ π ⎞ hc ⎛ 480 2 ⎞ r
= ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 2 l planck ⎟ =
⎝ 480 ⎠ (Δ r )
shows that the inertial forces, Fi ,
⎝1π4 2 4 3⎠
4
1
A0
whose action on a particle, in the
2
case of force and speed with same
⎛ π A 0 ⎞ hc direction, is given by
= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 960 ⎠ (Δ r ) r
4
mg r
Fi = a
or (1 − V 2 c 2 )3
2
⎛ π A 0 ⎞ hc
F0 = ⎜ ⎟ 4 Substitution of m g given by (43) into
⎝ 960 ⎠ r
the expression above gives
whence
r ⎛ ⎞
⎛ πA ⎞ hc Fi = ⎜
3
−
2 ⎟ m ar
F = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 4 (106) ⎝ (
⎜ 1−V 2 c2 )3
2
(1 − V 2
c )
2 2 ⎟ i0
⎠
⎝ 960⎠ r
Now, the Casimir force is repulsive, whence we conclude that a particle
and its intensity is half of the intensity with rest inertial mass, mi 0 , subjected
r
previously obtained (102). to a force, Fi , acquires an
Consider the case when both Δmi r
acceleration a given by
and Δmi′ do not satisfy Eq.(94), and
38
r
r Fi
a =
⎛ 3 2 ⎞
⎜ − ⎟m
⎝ (
⎜ 1−V 2 c2 )
3
2
(1 − V 2
c2 )
2 ⎟ i0
⎠
δ
By substituting the well-known
β
expression of Hubble’s law for
~ ~ S C β
velocity, V = Hl , ( H = 1.7 × 10 −18 s −1 is
the Hubble constant) into the Photons
r
expression of a , we get the
acceleration for any particle in the
expanding Universe, i.e., Fig. V – Gravitational deflection of light about
r
r Fi the Sun.
a= Since δ and β are very small we can
⎛ ⎞
⎜ 3
−
2 ⎟ write that
~ 2 2 2 2 ⎟mi 0
⎝(
⎜ 1− H l c ) (
~ 2 2 2 32
1− H l c ⎠ ) δ = 2β and β =
Vy
Obviously, the distance l increases c
with the expansion of the Universe. Then
Under these circumstances, it is easy 2V y
to see that the term δ=
c
⎛ ⎞
⎜ 3
−
2 ⎟ Consider the motion of the
⎝ (
⎜ 1− H~2 2 2 2
l c
3
) ( ~2 2 2 2 ⎟
1− H l c ⎠ ) photons at some time t after it has
passed the point of closest approach.
decreases, increasing the acceleration of We impose Cartesian Co-ordinates
the expanding Universe. with the origin at the point of closest
Let us now consider the approach, the x axis pointing along its
phenomenon of gravitational path and the y axis towards the Sun.
deflection of light. The gravitational pull of the Sun is
A distant star’s light ray, M gS M gp
under the Sun’s gravitational force P = −G
field describes the usual central force r2
hyperbolic orbit. The deflection of the where M gp is the relativistic
light ray is illustrated in Fig. V, with gravitational mass of the photon and
the bending greatly exaggerated for a M gS the relativistic gravitational mass
better view of the angle of deflection.
The distance CS is the of the Sun. Thus, the component in a
distance d of closest approach. The perpendicular direction is
angle of deflection of the light ray, δ , F y = −G
M gS M gp
sin β =
is shown in the Figure V and is r2
δ = π − 2β . M gS M gp d
where β is the angle of the = −G
d +c t
2 2 2
d + c 2t 2
2
asymptote to the hyperbole. Then, it
follows that According to Eq. (6) the expression of
tan δ = tan(π − 2 β ) = − tan 2 β the force Fy is
From the Figure V we obtain ⎛ ⎞ dV
⎜ m gp ⎟ y
Vy Fy = ⎜ ⎟⎟ dt
tan β = ⎜ (1 − V 2 c 2 )2
3
.
c ⎝ y ⎠
By substituting Eq. (43) into this
expression, we get
39
⎛ ⎞ m gp = +
4 ⎛ hf ⎞
⎜ 3 2 ⎟ dV y ⎜ ⎟i
Fy = ⎜ −
⎜ (1 − V y c ) (1 − V 2 c 2 )2 ⎟
2 2 3
⎟ M ip 3 ⎝ c2 ⎠
dt
⎝ y ⎠ This means that the gravitational and
For V y << c , we can write this inertial masses of the photon are
imaginaries, and invariants with
expression in the following form
F y = M ip (dV y dt ). This force acts on
respect to speed of photon, i.e.
M ip = mip and M gp = m gp .On the other
the photons for a time t causing an
hand, we can write that
increase in the transverse velocity
2 ⎛ hf ⎞
Fy mip = mip (real ) + mip (imaginary ) = ⎜ ⎟i
dV y = dt 3 ⎝ c2 ⎠
M ip
and
Thus the component of transverse 4 ⎛ hf ⎞
velocity acquired after passing the mgp = mgp(real ) + mgp(imaginary) = ⎜ ⎟i
3 ⎝ c2 ⎠
point of closest approach is
M gp (
d − GM gS ) This means that we must have
Vy = ∫ dt = mip (real ) = m gp (real ) = 0
(d )
3
M ip 2
+ c 2t 2 2 The phenomenon of gravitational
− GM gS ⎛ M gp ⎞ − GM gS ⎛ m gp ⎞ deflection of light about the Sun
= ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ shows that the gravitational
dc ⎜⎝ M ip ⎟ dc ⎜ mip ⎟
⎠ ⎝ ⎠ interaction between the Sun and the
Since the angle of deflection δ photons is attractive. Thus, due to the
is given by gravitational force between the Sun
2V y and a photon can be expressed by
δ = 2β =
c F = −G M g (Sun ) m gp (imaginary ) r 2 , where
we readily obtain m gp (imaginary ) is a quantity positive and
2V y − 2GM gS ⎛ m gp ⎞
δ= = ⎜ ⎟ imaginary, we conclude that the
c 2 ⎜ m ⎟
c d ⎝ ip ⎠ force F will only be attractive if the
If m gp mip = 2 , the expression above matter ( M g (Sun ) ) has negative
gives imaginary gravitational mass.
4GM gS The Eq. (41) shows that if the
δ =− inertial mass of a particle is null then its
c2d gravitational mass is given by
As we know, this is the correct m g = ± 2Δp c
formula indicated by the experimental where Δp is the momentum variation due
results.
to the energy absorbed by the particle. If
Equation (4) says that
the energy of the particle is invariant,
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ then Δp = 0 and, consequently, its
⎛ Δp ⎞
m gp
⎪ ⎢
= ⎨1 − 2 ⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎪⎬mip
⎜ mip c ⎟ ⎥ gravitational mass will also be null. This
⎪
⎩ ⎢
⎣
⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭ is the case of the photons, i.e., they have
Since m gp mip = 2 then, by making an invariant energy hf and a momentum
(momentum) to the particle, and making the vortex (particle) gain or lose
consequently its gravitational mass will mass. If real motion is what makes real
be increased. This means that the mass then, by analogy, we can say that
motion generates gravitational mass. imaginary mass is made by imaginary
On the other hand, if the motion. This is not only a simple
gravitational mass of a particle is null generalization of the process based on
then its inertial mass, according to Eq. the theory of the imaginary functions, but
(41), will be given by also a fundamental conclusion related to
2 Δp the concept of imaginary mass that, as it
mi = ± will be shown, provides a coherent
5 c explanation for the materialization of the
From Eqs. (4) and (7) we get fundamental particles, in the beginning of
⎛ Eg ⎞ ⎛p ⎞ the Universe.
Δp = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ΔV = ⎜ 0 ⎟ΔV
It is known that the simultaneous
⎝c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
disappearance of a pair
Thus we have (electron/positron) liberates an amount of
⎛ 2p ⎞ 2 ⎛p ⎞ energy, 2mi 0e(real )c 2 , under the form of
mg = ±⎜ 20 ⎟ΔV and mi = ± ⎜⎜ 20 ⎟⎟ΔV
⎝ c ⎠ 5⎝c ⎠ two photons with frequency f , in such a
Note that, like the gravitational mass, the way that
inertial mass is also directly related to the
motion, i.e., it is also generated by the
motion. 2mi 0e(real )c 2 = 2hf
Thus, we can conclude that is the Since the photon has imaginary masses
motion, or rather, the velocity is what associated to it, the phenomenon of
makes the two types of mass. transformation of the energy 2mi 0e(real )c 2
In this picture, the fundamental
particles can be considered as into 2hf suggests that the imaginary
immaterial vortex of velocity; it is the energy of the photon, mip (imaginary )c 2 ,
velocity of these vortexes that causes the
fundamental particles to have masses. comes from the transformation of
That is, there exists not matter in the imaginary energy of the electron,
usual sense; but just motion. Thus, the mi 0e(imaginary )c 2 , just as the real energy of
difference between matter and energy the photon, hf , results from the
just consists of the diversity of the motion
transformation of real energy of the
direction; rotating, closed in itself, in the
electron, i.e.,
matter; ondulatory, with open cycle, in
the energy (See Fig. VI).
Under this context, the Higgs 2m i 0 e (imaginary )c 2 + 2m i 0 e (real )c 2 =
mechanism † appears as a process, by
= 2m i 0 p (imaginary )c 2 + 2 hf
which the velocity of an immaterial vortex
can be increased or decreased by
* Vmax is the speed upper limit for Tachyons with non-null imaginary inertial mass. It has been previously
~
(
obtained starting from the Hubble's law and Eq.(22). The result is: Vmax = 3 2 HLmax ≅ 10 12 m. s −1 . )
**
In order to communicate instantaneously the interactions at infinite distance the velocity of the quanta
(“virtual” photons) must be infinity and consequently their imaginary masses must be null .
=− 2 (h λec) i = − 23 mi0e(real)i
3 mi 0e(im) = − 2 mi 0e(real)i
3
mi 0 proton(imaginary ) = + 2 mi 0 proton(real ) i
3 ⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ U e(im) ⎞ ⎥⎪
The sign (+) in the expression of mge(im) = ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜ ⎟ −
mi 0 proton (imaginary ) is due to the fact ⎜m 2⎟
1⎥⎬mi 0e(im) =
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i 0e(im) ⎠
c ⎥⎪
that mi 0 neutron(imaginary ) and ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
= χ e mi 0e(im)
mi 0 proton (imaginary ) must have contrary
signs, as will be shown later on.
42
−Gχ e2
3
Fee = −G = =
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫ r2 r2
⎪ ⎢ ⎛⎜ U pr(im) ⎞⎟ ⎥⎪
mgpr(im) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1⎥⎬mi0pr(im) = mi20e(real ) + 2.3 ×10 −28
⎜ 2⎟ 4
= + Gχ e2 =
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi0pr(im)c ⎠ ⎥⎪ ( repulsion)
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ 3 r2 r2
= χ prmi0pr(im) 2
2 ⎛⎜ + 2
mi0 pr(real)i ⎞⎟
mgpr(im) 2 ⎝ ⎠
= −Gχ pr
3
where U (real ) and U (im ) are Fprpr = −G 2 2
=
r r
respectively, the real and imaginary 4 mi0 pr(real) + 2.3 ×10−28
2
4πε G (χ )
3
= 0 e
2 mi 0e(real) = −1.6 ×10−19 C derived from Eq. (44a). Thus, we get
3
In the case of the proton, we get q = 4 πε 0 G m g (imaginary ) i =
(
= 4πε 0 G χ pr mi 0 pr(imaginary)i = ) = 4 πε 0 G [n (±2 2 m i 0 (min )i )] i =
( )
3
(
= 4πε 0 G − χ n 2 m i 0 n (real )i 2 = ) q min = m 2 4πε 0 G mi 0(min ) = m3.8 × 10 −83 C
4πε G (χ )
3 3
= 0 n
2 m i 0 n (real )
3
where mi0(min) is the elementary
However, based on the quantization of
the mass (Eq. 44), we can write that quantum of matter, whose value
previously calculated, is
χ n 2 mi0n(real) = n 2 mi0(min) n≠0 −73
3 mi0(min) = ±3.9 ×10 kg .
Since n can have only discrete values
The existence of imaginary mass
different of zero (See Appendix B), we
associated to a real particle suggests
conclude that χ n cannot be null. the possible existence of imaginary
However, it is known that the electric
44
mg χ mi
Mg = = = χM i
1−V 2
c 2
1−V 2
c 2
where
46
Body
χ Ordinary Space-time
0≤V < c
+0.159
0≤V ≤ ∞
Imaginary Body
0 Imaginary Space-time
“Virtual” Photons ( V = ∞ )
−0.159
Ordinary Space-time
Real Photons ( V = c )
Fig. VII – Travel in the imaginary space-time. Similarly to the “virtual” photons,
imaginary bodies can have infinite speed in the imaginary space-time.
47
Δt3
(a)
Δt3
Δt2 Vmax
(speed upper limit)
ΔE
Δt1
Imaginary particle Imaginary particle
(b)
Fig. VIII – “Virtual” Transitions – (a) “Virtual” Transitions of a real particle to the imaginary
space-time. The speed upper limit for real particle in the imaginary space-time is c.
(b) - “Virtual” Transitions of an imaginary particle to the ordinary space-time. The
speed upper limit for imaginary particle in the ordinary space-time is Vmax ≈ 1012m.s−1
Note that to occur a “virtual” transition it is necessary thatΔt=Δt1+ Δt2+ Δt3 <ℏ/ΔE
Thus, even at principle, it will be impossible to determine any variation of energy in
the particle (uncertainty principle).
48
− 43
Thus at t ≅ 10 s (at the first Thus, the gravitational forces
spontaneous breaking of symmetry) between two superparticles ,
according to (13), is given by:
the temperature was T ≈ 10 32 K
(∼1019GeV).Therefore, we can r r M g(sp) M 'g(sp)
assume that the absorbed F12 = −F21 = −G μˆ 21 =
r2
electromagnetic energy by each
⎡⎛ M ⎞ 2 G ⎤
superparticle, before t ≅ 10 −43 s , was ⎟ ⎛⎜ ⎞ 2 hc
= ⎢⎜
i ( sp)
⎟( ηn κT ) ⎥ μˆ 21 (119)
⎢⎜⎝ mi(sp) ⎟⎠ ⎝ c5 h ⎠ ⎥ r2
r
U =ηkT >1×109 J (see Eqs.(71) and ⎣ ⎦
(72)). By comparing with
mi(sp)c ≅ 9×10 J , we conclude that
2 8
Due to the unification of the
U > m i ( sp )c . Therefore, the gravitational and electromagnetic
(
unification condition Unr ≅ Mi c > mi c
2 2
) interactions at that period, we have
is satisfied. This means that, before
t ≅ 10 −43 s ,the gravitational and
electromagnetic interactions were
unified.
From the unification condition
( )
Unr ≅ Mi c2 , we may conclude that
53
total
photons, M gp (imaginary ) , while an where m gp (imaginary ) (the imaginary
amount of real inertial mass of the gravitational mass of the photon) is
a quantity positive and imaginary,
(real) =η MiU c , has been
total 2
matter, Mim
and M gSun (imaginary ) (the imaginary
converted into real energy of the
N gravitational mass associated to the
primordial photons, E p = ∑ hf j , i.e., matter of the Sun) is a quantity
j =1 negative and imaginary.
The fact of the gravitational
interaction between the imaginary
gravitational masses of the
(imaginary) + M im( real) =
total total
M gm
primordial photons and the
= M gp (imaginary) + M ip( real)
total total
imaginary gravitational mass of the
1424 3
Ep matter be attractive is highly
c2 relevant, because it shows that it is
necessary to consider the effect of
this gravitational interaction, which is
(imaginary ) = M gp (imaginary ) and
total total
where M gm
equivalent to the gravitational effect
produced by the amount of real
(real) = M im(real) = ηM iU ≅ 0.11M iU
E p c 2 ≡ M iptotal total
(real) ≅ 0.22M iU ,
total
gravitational mass, M gp
sprayed by all the Universe.
It was previously shown that, for the This means that this amount,
photons equation: M gp = 2 M ip , is which corresponds to 22% of the
valid. This means that total inertial mass of the Universe,
must be added to the overall
M gp(imagimary) + M gp(real) = computation of the total mass of the
14444244443 matter (stars, galaxies, etc., gas and
M gp
dust of interstellar and intergalactic
(
= 2 M ip(imagimary) + M ip(real)
14444244443
) media). Therefore, this additional
portion corresponds to what has
M ip
been called Dark Matter (See Fig.
By substituting M gp(imaginary) = 2Mip(imaginary) IX).
into the equation above, we get On the other hand, the total
amount of gravitational mass at the
M gp (real ) = 2M ip (real ) initial instant, M gtotal , according to
Eq.(41), can be expressed by
Therefore we can write that M gtotal = χ M iU
(real ) = 2 M ip (real ) = 0.22 M iU
total total
M gp This mass includes the total
The phenomenon of negative gravitational mass of the
total
gravitational deflection of light about matter, M gm (− ) , plus the total
the Sun shows that the gravitational gravitational mass, total
M gp ( real ) ,
interaction between the Sun and the
photons is attractive. This is due to converted into primordial photons.
the gravitational force between the This tells us that we can put
Sun and a photon, which is given by
M gtotal = M gm ( − ) + M gp ( real ) = χ M iU
total total
M iU
Imaginary spacetime
Real spacetime
(imaginary) + Mip( real) ) + Mim(real)
total total total total
Mgp Mgm (imaginary
Primordial Photons
total
M gp (imaginary) + M iptotal
( real )
1
42 43
Ep
c2
∼ 10-14 m
Fig. IX – Conversion of part of the Real Gravitational Mass of the Primordial Universe into
Primordial Photons. The gravitational effect caused by the gravitational interaction of imaginary
gravitational masses of the primordial photons with the imaginary gravitational mass associated to
the matter is equivalent to the effect produced by the amount of real gravitational mass,
(real ) ≅ 0.22 M iU , sprayed by all Universe. This additional portion of mass corresponds to what
total
M gp
has been called Dark Matter.
57
( −) = χ M iU − 0.22M iU (
M g ( sp ) = ⎛⎜1 − 2⎡ 1 − V 2 c 2 ) ⎤ ⎞M
total − 12
M gm
⎝ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎟⎠ i ( sp )
In order to calculate the value
of χ we can start from the By comparing this expression with
expression previously obtained for the equation above, we obtain
χ , i.e.,
1
m g ( sp ) 2η n r kT T ≅ 1 .5
χ= =1− =1− 1− V 2 c2
mi ( sp ) mi ( sp ) c 2 Tcritical
where Substitution of this value into the
expressions of χ and M gmtotal
(− ) results
mi ( sp ) c 2
Tcritical = = 3.3 × 10 32 K in
2ηn r k
χ = −0.5
and
and
⎛ m ⎞
⎜ i(sp) ⎟ 2
2 ⎜ ⎟c
Mi(sp)c ⎜⎝ 1 −V c ⎟⎠
2 2
T
T= = = critical ( − ) ≅ −0.72 M iU
total
M gm
2ηnr k 2ηnr k 1 − V 2 c2
This means that 72% of the total
We thus obtain energy of the Universe ( M iU c 2 ) is
due to negative gravitational mass
1
χ =1− of the matter created at the initial
1 − V 2 c2 instant.
Since the gravitational mass
By substitution of this expression is correlated to the inertial mass (Eq.
total
into the equation of M gm (41)), the energy related to the
(− ) , we get
negative gravitational mass is where
there is inertial energy (inertial
⎛ ⎞ mass). In this way, this negative
⎜ 1 ⎟
total
M gm = ⎜⎜ 0 . 78 − M iU
2 ⎟
(−) gravitational energy permeates all
1 − V 2
c ⎟
⎝ ⎠ space and tends to increase the rate
of expansion of the Universe due to
On the other hand, the Unification produce a strong gravitational
condition ( Unr ≅ Δpc= MiUc2 ) previously repulsion between the material
shown and Eq. (41) show that at the particles. Thus, this energy
initial instant of the Universe, corresponds to what has been
M g (sp ) has the following value: called Dark Energy (See Fig. X).
The value of χ = −0.5 at the
initial instant of the Universe shows
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ Un ⎞ ⎤⎫⎪ that the gravitational interaction was
⎪
Mg(sp) = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ r ⎟ −1⎥⎬Mi(sp) ≅ 0.1Mi(sp)
⎜ Mi(sp) ⎟ ⎥ repulsive at the Big-Bang. It remains
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎪⎭ repulsive until the temperature of the
Universe is reduced down to the
Similarly, Eq.(45) tells us that critical limit, Tcritical . Below this
temperature limit,
58
Negative
Gravitational Mass of Matter
72%
22%
χ ≅ − 0 .5
t =0 t ≈ 15 billion years
t ≈ 10 −43 s
Fig. XI – Inflation Period. The value of χ ≅ −0.5 at the Initial Instant of the Universe shows that the
gravitational interaction was repulsive at the Big-Bang. It remains repulsive until the temperature of
the Universe is reduced down to the critical limit, Tcritical . Below this temperature limit, the
attractive component of the gravitational interaction became greater than the repulsive component,
making attractive the resultant gravitational interaction. Therefore, at beginning of the Universe −
before the temperature to be decreased down to Tcritical , there occurred an expansion of the Universe
that was exponential in time rather than a normal power-law expansion. Thus, there was an evident
inflation period during the beginning of the expansion of the Universe.
61
Light
(a)
Dw
Light
(b)
Dp
Electrons ?
(c)
Fig. XII – A light ray, after going through the holes in the metal sheet, will be detected as a
wave(a) by a wave detector Dw or as a particle if the wave detector is substituted for the wave
detector Dp. Electron ray (c) has similar behavior as that of a light ray. However, before going
through the holes, the electrons must “decide” which one to go through.
63
=− 2 (hf neutron )
c2 i =
F = G M i (imaginary) mi (imaginary) r 2 =
( ΔE ⎞
)
3
⎛
=− 2 mi 0(real )neutron i (142 ) ⎜ me ± m n − m p + 2 ⎟ M
3 ≅⎜ c ⎟G i (real )i mi (real )i
The imaginary gravitational ⎜ ΔE ⎟ r2
⎜ me + m p + m n + 2 ⎟
masses of the atoms must be much ⎝ c ⎠
smaller than their real gravitational Therefore, the total gravity is
masses. On the contrary, the weight of M i (real )
the bodies would be very different of g real + Δg (imaginary ) = −G −
r2
the observed values. This fact shows
that mi (imaginary ) proton and mi (imaginary )neutron
⎛
( ΔE ⎞
)
⎜ me ± m n − m p + 2 ⎟ M
−⎜ c ⎟G i (real )
must have contrary signs. In this way, ⎜ ΔE ⎟ r2
the imaginary gravitational mass of an ⎜ me + m p + m n + 2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠
atom can be expressed by means of
the following expression Thus, the imaginary gravitational mass
of a body produces an excess of
⎛
(ΔE ⎞
mi (imaginary )atom = N ⎜ me ± m n − m p + 2 ⎟i ) gravity acceleration, Δg , given by
⎝ c ⎠
where, ΔE , is the interaction energy.
By comparing this expression with the
⎛
( )
ΔE ⎞
⎜ me ± mn − m p + 2 ⎟ M
following expression Δg ≅ ⎜ c ⎟G i (real )
⎜ ΔE ⎟ r2
⎛ ΔE ⎞ ⎜ e
m + m + m + ⎟
mi (real )atom = N ⎜ me + m p + mn + 2 ⎟ ⎝
p n
c2 ⎠
⎝ c ⎠
Thus,
In the case of soft atoms we can
mi (imaginary )atom << mi (real )atom
consider ΔE ≅ 2 × 10 −13 joules . Thus, in
Now consider a monatomic body with this case we obtain
real mass M i (real ) and imaginary mass Mi
M i (imaginary ) . Then we have
Δg ≅ 6 ×10 −4 G (143)
r2
In the case of the Sun, for example,
⎛ ΔE i ⎞ there is an excess of gravity
Σ⎜ mi (imaginary )atom + 2a ⎟
M i (imaginary ) acceleration, due to its imaginary
= ⎝
c ⎠
= gravitational mass, given by
M i (real ) ⎛ ΔE a ⎞
Σ⎜ mi (real )atom + 2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠ (
Δg ≅ 6 × 10 − 4 G ) M iS
r2
ΔE ΔE ⎞
⎛
(
n⎜ me ± m n − m p + 2 + 2a ⎟i ) At a distance from the Sun of
= ⎝
c c ⎠ r = 1.0 × 1013 m the value of Δg is
≅
⎛ ΔE ΔE a ⎞
n⎜ m e + m p + m n + 2 + 2 ⎟
⎝ c c ⎠ Δg ≅ 8 × 10 −10 m.s −2
⎛
(
⎜ me ± mn − m p + 2 ⎟ )
ΔE ⎞
≅⎜ c ⎟i Experiments in the pioneer 10
⎜ ΔE ⎟ spacecraft, at a distance from the Sun
⎜ me + m p + m n + 2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠ of about 67 AU or r = 1.0 × 1013 m [45],
Since ΔE a << ΔE . measured an excess acceleration
The intensity of the gravitational towards the Sun of
forces between M g (imaginary ) and an
Δg = 8.74 ± 1.33 × 10 −10 m.s −2
imaginary particle with mass
m g (imaginary ) , both at rest, is given by
67
Note that the general expression for electromagnetic interaction which,
the gravity acceleration of the Sun is as we know, is conveyed by the
exchange of “virtual” photons.
(
g = 1+ ≈ 6 × 10 − 4 G ) M iS If electrons, protons and neutrons
have psychic mass, then we can infer
r2
Therefore, in the case of the that the psychic mass of the atoms are
gravitational deflection of light about Phase Condensates *** . In the case of
the Sun, the new expression for the the molecules the situation is similar.
deflection of the light is More molecular mass means more
(
δ = 1+ ≈ 6 ×10 − 4 ) 4GM iS
(144)
atoms and consequently, more psychic
mass. In this case the phase
c2d
Thus, the increase in δ due to the condensate also becomes more
excess acceleration towards the Sun structured because the great amount
can be considered negligible. of elementary psyches inside the
Similarly to the collapse of the condensate requires, by stability
real wave function, the collapse of the reasons, a better distribution of them.
psychic wave function must suddenly Thus, in the case of molecules with
also express in reality all the very large molecular masses
possibilities described by it. This is, (macromolecules) it is possible that
therefore, a point of decision in which their psychic masses already constitute
there occurs the compelling need of the most organized shape of a Phase
realization of the psychic form. Thus, Condensate, called Bose-Einstein
this is moment in which the content of Condensate ††† .
the psychic form realizes itself in the The fundamental characteristic of
space-time. For an observer in space- a Bose-Einstein condensate is, as we
time, something is real when it is in the know, that the various parts making up
form of matter or radiation. Therefore, the condensed system not only behave
the content of the psychic form may as a whole but also become a whole,
realize itself in space-time exclusively i.e., in the psychic case, the various
under the form of radiation, that is, it consciousnesses of the system
does not materialize. This must occur become a single consciousness with
when the Materialization Condition is psychic mass equal to the sum of the
not satisfied, i.e., when the content of psychic masses of all the
the psychic form is undefined consciousness of the condensate. This
(impossible to be defined by its own obviously, increases the available
psychic) or it does not contain enough knowledge in the system since it is
psychic mass to materialize §§ the proportional to the psychic mass of the
respective psychic contents.
Nevertheless, in both cases, ***
Ice and NaCl crystals are common examples of
there must always be a production of imprecisely-structured phase condensates. Lasers,
“virtual” photons to convey the psychic super fluids, superconductors and magnets are
interaction to the other psychic examples of phase condensates more structured.
†††
particles, according to the quantum Several authors have suggested the possibility of
field theory, only through this type of the Bose-Einstein condensate occurring in the
brain, and that it might be the physical base of
quanta will interaction be conveyed, memory, although they have not been able to find a
since it has an infinite reach and may suitable mechanism to underpin such a hypothesis.
be either attractive or repulsive, just as Evidences of the existence of Bose-Einstein
condensates in living tissues abound (Popp, F.A
Experientia, Vol. 44, p.576-585; Inaba, H., New
§§
By this we mean not only materialization proper Scientist, May89, p.41; Rattermeyer, M and Popp,
but also the movement of matter to realize its F. A. Naturwissenschaften, Vol.68, Nº5, p.577.)
psychic content (including radiation).
68
consciousness. This unity confers an correlated to Ψ and Ψ 2
Ψ1 . Only 2
Ψ2
‡‡‡
r r
becomes χ 2 g S . This means that χ 2 g S ≅ g ⊕ − 9.6 × 10 − 4 m.s − 2 =
r
has the same direction of g S . In (
= 1 − 9.7 × 10 − 5 g ⊕) (4 A )
addition, right after the lunar (Sh2) This decrease in g increases the
r
gravity becomes χg moon . Therefore, the pendulum’s period by about
total gravity acceleration in the Earth g⊕
T′ =T = 1 .000048 T
will be given by ( )
1 − 9 .4 × 10 − 5 g ⊕
r r r r
g ′ = g ⊕ − χ 2 g S − χg moon (2 A) This corresponds to 0.0048% increase
in the pendulum’s period. Jun’s
abstract [53] tells us of a relative
Since g S ≅ 5.9 × 10 −3 m / s 2 and change less than 0.005% in the
−5
g moon ≅ 3.3 × 10 m / s Eq. (2A), gives
2 pendulum’s period associated with the
1990 solar eclipse.
For example, if the density of the
g ′ = g ⊕ − (− 1 .1) g S − (− 1 .1)g Moon =
2
top layer of the lunar atmosphere
≅ g ⊕ − 7 .1 × 10 − 3 m .s − 2 = increase up to 2.0917 × 10−18 k g m 3 , the
(
= 1 − 7 .3 × 10 − 4 g ⊕ ) (3 A ) value for χ becomes
g⊕
T′ = T = 1.00037 T
(
1 − 7.3 × 10 − 4 g ⊕ ) ≅ g ⊕ − 6.3 × 10−8 m.s −2 =
This corresponds to 0.037% increase ( )
= 1 − 6.4 × 10−9 g ⊕ (5 A)
in the period, and is roughly the value So, the total gravity acceleration in the
(0.0372%) obtained by Saxl and Allen Earth will decrease during the solar
during the total solar eclipse in March eclipses by about
1970 [48].
As we have seen, the density of 6.4 × 10 −9 g ⊕
the interplanetary medium near the
Moon is highly variable and can reach The size of the effect, as measured
values up to ~ 100 protons / cm 3 with a gravimeter, during the 1997
(1.7 ×10−19 k g m3 .) eclipse, was roughly (5 − 7 ) × 10 −9 g ⊕
When the density of the [54, 55].
interplanetary medium increases, the The decrease will be even
top layer of the lunar atmosphere can smaller forρ ≳ 2.0917 ×10-18kg.m-3. The
also increase its density, by absorbing lower limit now is set by Lageos
particles from the interplanetary satellites, which suffer an anomalous
medium due to the lunar gravitational
acceleration of only about 3 × 10 −13 g ⊕ ,
attraction. In the case of a density
increase of roughly 30% during “seasons” where the satellite
( )
1.7 × 10 k g m , the value for χ
−18 3 experiences eclipses of the Sun by the
Earth [56].
becomes
χ = − 0 .4
Consequently, we get
73
Fig. 1A – Schematic diagram of the Gravitational Shielding around the Moon – The top layer of the
Moon’s atmosphere with density of the order of 10-18 kg.m-3 , produces a gravitational shielding
r r
when subjected to the radiation from the Sun. Thus, the solar gravity g S becomes χ g S after the
r r
first shielding Sh1 and χ 2 g S after the second shielding Sh 2 . The Moon gravity becomes χ g Moon
after Sh 2 . Therefore the total gravity acceleration in the Earth will be given by
r r r r
g ′ = g ⊕ − χ 2 g S − χg moon .
74
means that the gravity can have only other hand, the Eq. (2B) shows that the
discrete values different of zero. exclusion of η = 0 means the exclusion
Equation (33) shows that the of m g = 0 as a possible value for the
gravitational mass is quantized and
given by gravitational mass. Obviously, this also
means the exclusion of M g = 0
M g = n 2 mg (min ) (Relativistic mass). Equation (33) tells
us that M g = n 2 m g (min ) , thus we can
Since Eq. (43) leads to conclude that the exclusion of Mg = 0
implies in the exclusion of n = 0 since
mg(min) = mio(min)
mg(min) = mi0(min) = finite value (elementary
quantum of mass). Therefore Eq. (3B)
where
is only valid for values of n and η
different of zero. Finally, from the
mi0(min) = ± h 3 8 cdmax = ±3.9×10−73kg
quantized gravity equation (Eq. 34),
GM g ⎛ Gm g (min ) ⎞
is the elementary quantum of inertial g =− = n 2
⎜− ⎟=
r2 ⎜ (r )2 ⎟
mass. Then the equation ⎝ max n ⎠
for M g becomes = n 4 g min
we conclude that the exclusion of n = 0
M g = n 2 mg (min ) = n 2 mi (min ) means that the gravity can have only
discrete values different of zero.
On the other hand, Eq. (44)
shows that
M i = ni2 mi 0(min )
Thus, we can write that
2
Mg ⎛n ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ or M g = η 2 M i (1B)
M i ⎝ ni ⎠
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