HUMAN BODY

Introduces cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems in humans.

 Outline the levels of organization of the human body.
 Distinguish between cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems.
 List the types of tissues in the human body.
 Give examples of the roles of organ systems.
How is the human body similar to a
well-tuned machine?
Many people have compared the human body to a machine. Think about some
common machines, such as drills and washing machines. Each machine consists of
many parts, and each part does a specific job, yet all the parts work together to
perform an overall function. The human body is like a machine in all these ways.
In fact, it may be the most fantastic machine on Earth.
The human machine is organized at different levels, starting with the cell and
ending with the entire organism (see Figure below). At each higher level of
organization, there is a greater degree of complexity.
Cells
The most basic parts of the human machine are cells—an amazing 100 trillion
of them by the time the average person reaches adulthood! Cells are the basic
units of structure and function in the human body, as they are in all living things.
Each cell carries out basic life processes that allow the body to survive. Many
human cells are specialized in form and function, as shown in Figure below.
Each type of cell in the figure plays a specific role. For example, nerve cells
have long projections that help them carry electrical messages to other cells.
Muscle cells have many mitochondria that provide the energy they need to move
the body.
Different types of cells in the human body are specialized for specific jobs. Do
you know the functions of any of the cell types shown here?

Tissues
After the cell, the tissue is the next level of organization in the human body. A tissue is a group of connected cells that
have a similar function. There are four basic types of human tissues: epithelial, muscle, nervous, and connective tissues.
The human body consists of these four tissue types.
1.Connective tissue is made up of cells that form the body’s structure.
Examples include bone and cartilage.
2.Epithelial tissue is made up of cells that line inner and outer body
surfaces, such as the skin and the lining of the digestive tract. Epithelial
tissue protects the body and its internal organs, secretes substances such as
hormones, and absorbs substances such as nutrients.
3.Muscle tissue is made up of cells that have the unique ability to contract
or become shorter. Muscles attached to bones enable the body to move.
4Nervous tissue is made up of neurons, or nerve cells, that carry electrical
messages. Nervous tissue makes up the brain and the nerves that connect the
brain to all parts of the body.
 Organs and Organ Systems
After tissues, organs are the next level of organization of the human
body. An organ is a structure that consists of two or more types of
tissues that work together to do the same job. Examples of human
organs include the brain, heart, lungs, skin, and kidneys. Human
organs are organized into organ systems, many of which are shown in
Figure below. An organ system is a group of organs that work together
to carry out a complex overall function. Each organ of the system does
part of the larger job.
Many of the organ systems that make up the human body are
represented here. What is the overall function of each organ system?
Your body’s 12 organ systems are shown below (Table below). Your
organ systems do not work alone in your body. They must all be able
to work together. For example, one of the most important functions of
organ systems is to provide cells with oxygen and nutrients and to
remove toxic waste products such as carbon dioxide. A number of
organ systems, including the cardiovascular and respiratory systems,
all work together to do this.

Organ Major Tissues and Organs Function

System
Cardiovascular Heart; blood vessels; blood Transports oxygen, hormones, and nutrients to the body
cells. Moves wastes and carbon dioxide away from cells.
Lymphatic Lymph nodes; lymph vessels Defend against infection and disease, moves lymph between
tissues and the blood stream.
Digestive Esophagus; stomach; small Digests foods and absorbs nutrients, minerals, vitamins,
intestine; large intestine and water.
Endocrine Pituitary gland, Produces hormones that communicate between cells.
hypothalamus; adrenal glands;
ovaries; testes
Integumentary Skin, hair, nails Provides protection from injury and water loss, physical
defense against infection by microorganisms,
and temperature control.
Muscular Cardiac (heart) muscle; skeletal Involved in movement and heat production.
muscle; smooth muscle; tendons
Nervous Brain, spinal cord; nerves Collects, transfers, and processes information.
Reproductive Female: uterus; vagina; fallopian Produces gametes (sex cells) and sex hormones.
tubes; ovaries
Male: penis; testes; seminal
vesicles
Respiratory Trachea, larynx, pharynx, lungs Brings air to sites where gas exchange can occur between the
blood and cells (around body) or blood and air (lungs).
Skeletal Bones, cartilage; ligaments Supports and protects soft tissues of body; produces blood
cells; stores minerals.
Urinary Kidneys; urinary bladder Removes extra water, salts, and waste products from blood
and body; controls pH; controls water and salt balance.
Immune Bone marrow; spleen; white blood Defends against diseases.
cells
Further Reading
Carcinogens and Cancer Air Pollution and Illness Bioterrorism

Summary
The human body is organized at different levels, starting
with the cell.
Cells are organized into tissues, and tissues form organs.
Organs are organized into organ systems such as the
skeletal and muscular systems.
Review
What are the levels of organization of the human body?
Which type of tissue covers the surface of the body?
What are the functions of the skeletal system?
Which organ system supports the body and allows it to
move?
Explain how form and function are related in human
cells. Include examples.

Resources
 CUERPO HUMANO
Introduce células, tejidos, órganos y sistemas de órganos en humanos
 Esquema de los niveles de organización del cuerpo humano.
 Distinguir entre células, tejidos, órganos y sistemas de órganos.
 Listar los tipos de tejidos en el cuerpo humano.
 Dar ejemplos de los roles de los sistemas de órganos.

¿En qué se parece el cuerpo humano

a una máquina bien afinada?
Muchas personas han comparado el cuerpo humano con una máquina. Piense
en algunas máquinas comunes, como taladros y lavadoras. Cada máquina
consta de muchas partes, y cada parte realiza un trabajo específico, aunque
todas las partes trabajan juntas para realizar una función general. El cuerpo
humano es como una máquina en todas estas formas. De hecho, puede ser la
máquina más fantástica de la Tierra.
La máquina humana está organizada en diferentes niveles, comenzando con la
célula y terminando con todo el organismo (ver la Figura a continuación). En
cada nivel superior de organización, hay un mayor grado de complejidad.
El organismo humano tiene varios niveles de organización.
Células
Las partes más básicas de la máquina humana son las células: ¡un increíble 100
trillones de ellas para cuando la persona promedio llega a la edad adulta! Las
células son las unidades básicas de estructura y función en el cuerpo humano, como
lo son en todos los seres vivos. Cada célula lleva a cabo procesos básicos de vida
que permiten que el cuerpo sobreviva. Muchas células humanas están
especializadas en forma y función, como se muestra en la Figura a continuación.
Cada tipo de celda en la figura desempeña un papel específico. Por ejemplo, las
células nerviosas tienen proyecciones largas que les ayudan a llevar mensajes
eléctricos a otras células. Las células musculares tienen muchas mitocondrias que
proporcionan la energía que necesitan para mover el cuerpo.Los diferentes tipos de
células en el cuerpo humano están especializados para trabajos específicos.
Tejidos
Después de la célula, el tejido es el siguiente nivel de organización en el
cuerpo humano. Un tejido es un grupo de células conectadas que tienen una
función similar. Hay cuatro tipos básicos de tejidos humanos: epitelial,
muscular, nervioso y conectivo.
Estos cuatro tipos de tejidos, que se muestran en la Figura siguiente,
conforman todos los órganos del cuerpo humano.
1.El tejido conectivo está formado por células que forman la estructura del
cuerpo. Los ejemplos incluyen el hueso y el cartílago.
2.El tejido epitelial está formado por células que recubren las superficies
internas y externas del cuerpo, como la piel y el revestimiento del tracto
digestivo. El tejido epitelial protege el cuerpo y sus órganos internos, secreta
sustancias como las hormonas y absorbe sustancias como los nutrientes.
3.El tejido muscular está formado por células que tienen la capacidad única de contraerse o reducirse. Los músculos
unidos a los huesos permiten que el cuerpo se mueva.
4.El tejido nervioso está formado por neuronas, o células nerviosas, que transmiten mensajes eléctricos. El tejido nervioso
conforma el cerebro y los nervios que conectan el cerebro con todas las partes del cuerpo.
 Órganos y sistemas de órgano
Después de los tejidos, los órganos son el siguiente nivel de organización
del cuerpo humano. Un órgano es una estructura que consta de dos o más
tipos de tejidos que trabajan juntos para hacer el mismo trabajo.
Ejemplos de órganos humanos incluyen el cerebro, el corazón, los
pulmones, la piel y los riñones. Los órganos humanos están organizados
en sistemas de órganos, muchos de los cuales se muestran en la Figura a
continuación. Un sistema de órganos es un grupo de órganos que trabajan
juntos para llevar a cabo una función general compleja. Cada órgano del
sistema hace parte del trabajo más grande.
Muchos de los sistemas de órganos que conforman el cuerpo humano
están representados aquí. ¿Cuál es la función general de cada sistema de
órganos?
Los 12 sistemas de órganos de su cuerpo se muestran a continuación
(Tabla a continuación). Sus sistemas de órganos no funcionan solos en
su cuerpo. Todos deben poder trabajar juntos. Por ejemplo, una de las
funciones más importantes de los sistemas de órganos es proporcionar a
las células oxígeno y nutrientes y eliminar productos de desechos tóxicos
como el dióxido de carbono. Varios sistemas de órganos, incluidos los sistemas cardiovascular y respiratorio, trabajan
todos juntos para hacer esto.
Sistema de Principales tejidos y Función
órganos órganos
Cardiovascular Corazón; vasos sanguíneos; Sangre Transporta oxígeno, hormonas y Nutrientes a las
células del cuerpo. Aleja los desechos y el dióxido de
carbono de las células.
Linfático Ganglios linfáticos; vasos linfáticos Defienda contra la infección y la enfermedad, mueve
la linfa entre los tejidos y el torrente sanguíneo.
Digestivo Esófago estómago intestino delgado; Digiere los alimentos y absorbe los
intestino grueso nutrientes, Minerales, vitaminas y Agua.
Endocrino Glándula pituitaria, Produce Hormonas que se comunican entre las
hipotálamo; glándulas suprarrenales; células.
ovarios Testículos
Integumentary Piel cabello uñas Proporciona protección contra lesiones y Agua la
pérdida, la defensa física contra la infección por
microorganismos, y Temperatura Control.
Muscular CardiacaCorazónmúsculo músculo Involucrado en el movimiento y Calor Producción.
esquelético; músculo liso; Tendones
Nervioso Cerebro, médula espinal; Nervios Recopila, transfiere y procesa la información.
Reproductivo Hembra: útero; vagina trompas de Produce gametos (células sexuales) y hormonas
Falopio; Ovarios sexuales.
Male: penis; testes; seminal vesicles
Respiratorio Tráquea, laringe, faringe, pulmones Aporta aire a los sitios donde intercambio de
gas puede ocurrir entre la sangre y las células
(alrededor del cuerpo) o la sangre y el aire
(pulmones).
Esquelético Huesos, cartílago; Ligamentos Apoya y protege los tejidos blandos del cuerpo;
produce células sanguíneas; almacena minerales.
Urinaria Riñones vejiga urinaria Elimina el extra Agua, sales y productos de desecho
de sangre y cuerpo; Controles Ph; controla el balance
de agua y sal.
 Inmune Médula ósea; bazo glóbulos blancos Defiende contra las enfermedades.

Homeostasis and the Human Body -

Advanced
Explains the process in which organ systems work to maintain a stable internal environment.
 Understand homeostasis and its importance in the human body.
 Be able to differentiate between positive and negative feedback loops.
What happens if stability is disrupted?
Remove one stone and the whole arch collapses. The same is true for the human body. All the
systems work together to maintain stability or homeostasis. Disrupt one system, and the whole
body may be affected.

Homeostasis
The human body is made up of trillions of cells that all work together for the maintenance of the
entire organism. While cells, tissues, and organs may perform very different functions, all the cells
in the body are similar in their metabolic needs. Maintaining a constant internal environment by
providing the cells with what they need to survive (oxygen, nutrients, and removal of waste) is
necessary for the well-being of both individual cells and the entire body. The many processes by
which the body controls its internal environment are collectively called homeostasis. The
complementary activity of major body systems maintains homeostasis.
Homeostasis refers to stability, balance, or equilibrium within a cell or the body. It is an organism’s
ability to keep a constant internal environment. Homeostasis is an important characteristic of
living things. Keeping a stable internal environment requires constant adjustments as conditions
change inside and outside the cell. The adjusting of systems within a cell is called homeostatic
regulation. Because the internal and external environments of a cell are constantly changing,
adjustments must be made continuously to stay at or near the set point (the normal level or range).
Homeostasis should be thought of as a dynamic equilibrium rather than a constant, unchanging
state.

Feedback Regulation Loops

The endocrine system plays an important role in homeostasis because hormones regulate the
activity of body cells. The release of hormones into the blood is controlled by a stimulus. The
stimulus either causes an increase or a decrease in the amount of hormonesecreted. The response
to a stimulus changes the internal conditions and may itself become a new stimulus. This self-
adjusting mechanism is called feedback regulation.
Feedback regulation occurs when the response to a stimulus has some kind of effect on the original
stimulus. The type of response determines what the feedback is called. Negative feedback occurs
when the response to a stimulus reduces the original stimulus. Positive feedback occurs when
the response to a stimulus increases the original stimulus.
Positive feedback speeds up the direction of change, leading to
increasing hormone concentrations, usually causing a state that moves further away from
homeostasis. Positive feedback is therefore rare in biological systems. Nonetheless, it is present.
A mammalian example of positive feedback is lactation (milk production). As the baby suckles,
nerve messages from the mammary glands cause the hormone prolactin to be secreted by
the pituitary gland. The more the baby suckles, the more prolactin is released, which stimulates
further milk production.

Thermoregulation: A Negative Feedback Loop

Negative feedback loops are the most common feedback loops in biological systems. The system
acts to reverse the direction of change. Since this tends to keep things constant, it allows the
maintenance of homeostatic balance. One negative feedback loop is thermoregulation, the process
by which an ideal body temperature is maintained. When body temperature rises, receptors in the
skin sense the temperature change, and the hypothalamus triggers a command within the brain.
This command causes a physical response - the skin secretes sweat, and blood vessels near the
skin surface dilate, which helps decrease body temperature. Other negative feedback loops include
the regulation of the amount of carbon dioxide and glucose in the blood
stream. Figure below shows the process by which the body regulates blood glucose. Carbon
dioxide is regulated by our breathing rate; as the breathing rate increases, the amounts of oxygen
inhaled and carbon dioxide exhaled also increase.

Control of blood glucose levels is an example of negative feedback. Blood glucose concentration rises after a meal (the stimulus).
The hormone insulin is released by the pancreas, and it speeds up the transport of glucose from the blood into selected tissues (the
response). Blood glucose concentrations then decrease, which then decreases the original stimulus. The secretion of insulin into
the blood is then decreased.
Summary
 Homeostasis, in the form of feedback loops, is the manner in which the human body
maintains consistency in temperature, chemical levels, etc. It is a changing, non-stagnant
process.
 Positive feedback loops, which are rare, continually increase a change, while negative
feedback loops reverse changes.

Review
1. In your own words, describe the process of homeostasis.
2. For each of the following feedback loops, determine if it is positive or negative:
a. Clotting: An enzyme is produced that forms the matrix of the blood clot, but also
speeds up the production of that same enzyme.
b. Oxygen levels: When the kidneys sense low oxygen levels in the blood, they
send hormonal signals to bone marrow to make more red blood cells.
c. Childbirth: Stretching of the uterus triggers secretions of a contraction-stimulating
hormone to speed up labor.
d. Temperature regulation: When blood temperature drops, signals are sent to
contract the arteries near the skin and to begin shivering. These serve to keep blood in the
core and to release heat energy.
e. Glucose levels: When blood glucose levels fall, insulin secretion is inhibited and
glucose synthesis is stimulated.