1. Mistake is usually a choice that turns out to be wrong. Mistakes are usually accidental.

You know it’s wrong. In other words, mistakes are performance based, and can be self-
corrected. Mistake is less formal than error, and is usually used in daily speech.
Coming to this place was a big mistake. We only wasted our time.
2. Errors are usually made due to the lack of knowledge. So, the action was wrong
because it was different from the rules, model or specific code. Error is a more formal word
than mistake.
In sports, the violation of rules will be called an error.
You cannot say, “I does my homework” – that’s an error! You have to say, “I do my
homework”.
Errors are a natural part of language learning. Errors reflect the patterns of learners’
developing interlanguage systems-showing where they have overgeneralized a second
language rule or where they have inappropriately transferred a first language pattern to the
second language.
Teachers have a responsibility to help learners do their best, and this includes the
provision of explicit, form-focused instruction and feedback on error. When errors are
persistent, especially when they are shared by almost all students in class, it is important to
bring the problem to their attention. This does not mean that learners should be expected to
adopt the correct form or structure immediately or consistently. If the errors are based on a
developmental pattern, the instruction or feedback may be useful only when the learner is
ready for it. It may be necessary to repeat feedback on errors many times.Excessive feedback
on error can have a negative effect on motivation, of course, and teachers must be sensitive to
their students’ reactions to correction. The amount and type of correction that is offered will
also vary according to the specific characteristics of the students, as well as their relationship
with the teacher and with each other. Immediate reaction to errors in an oral communication
setting may embarrass some students and discourage them from speaking, while for others,
such correction is exactly what is needed to help them notice a persistent error at just the
moment when it occurs.
When the teacher feels there is a need for correction of a persistent problem, it is
appropriate to use narrow-focus materials that isolate one element in a context where other
things seem easy. Of course, a great variety of forms and structures are encouraged in the
classrooms to challenge learners’ motivation.
Teachers should design activities well and match students appropriately at similar levels
of proficiency so that they do not produce any more errors as well as enhance their
confidence.
Teachers should respond to students’ errors by correctly rephrasing what they have said
rather than by explicitly pointing out the error, which may embarrass the learners. Teachers
should have a method of signaling to the students- tone of voice, gesture, or facial expression-
that says to the students “I think I understand what you are saying, and I’m telling you how
you can say it better.

1
Q2P1: Explain how Communicative Language Teaching is related to the Socio-
constructivist Model and Canale & Swain’s communicative competence.
There are many factors related to Communicative Language Teaching, we should pay full
attention to apply in our language teaching, of which Long’s Interaction Hypothesis, named
Socio- constructivist Model, and Canale& Swain’s communicative competence are going to
be discussed.
In the first place, I want to talk about Long’s Interaction Hypothesis.
The Interaction Hypothesis is a type of theory proposing that one of most effective methods of
learning a new language is through personal and direct interaction. This theory is applied
specifically to the acquisition of a foreign or a second language. Long et al argue that much
L2 acquisition takes place through conversational interaction. He agrees with Krashen that
comprehensible input is necessary for language acquisition. However, he’s more concerned
with the question of how input is made comprehensible.
Interactional modification makes input comprehensible;
Comprehensible input promotes acquisition
Therefore, interactional modification promotes acquisition.
Through the Interaction Hypothesis, Professor Long integrated and reconciled two hypotheses
on second language acquisition (SLA): the input and the output hypotheses. The Input
Hypothesis states that a language learner only needs to be supplied with “input” through the
forms of reading, listening to conversations, and lessons on grammar and vocabulary. The
Output Hypothesis, on the other hand, stresses the importance of practicing and speaking to
retain and remember the language. The Interaction Hypothesis combines both the “input” and
“output” by stating that interaction is not only a means for a learner to study the language, but
also a way for the learner to practice what he has learned.
Among the types of interactions, conversation is probably the most emphasized in
the Interaction Hypothesis, an idea most probably derived from the “discourse approach” by
Professor Evelyn Hatch who, in 1978, wrote papers that stressed the importance of constant
communication and interaction for SLA. The Interaction Hypothesis acknowledges that
during conversations, there are certain situations wherein a participant does not understand
what the other says, but it is in these situations where learning becomes more effective. The
theory refers to this occurrence as “negotiation,” wherein the participants will attempt to
understand and repair the miscommunication during the interaction.
The first step in the negotiation is the interaction itself, when both participants begin to
engage in conversation. The second step, the “negative feedback,” occurs when a participant
does not understand a certain word, sometimes seen in a nonverbal action such as in the
furrowing of the brow. In some cases, the other participant may request clarification by
saying, “Pardon?” or “Can you say that again?” The process wherein the misunderstood
participant strives to make the other participant understand is called “modification output.”
The participant may paraphrase or give examples to make the meaning of the word clearer,
until the other participant responds in an affirmative way that he has understood.
Interaction Hypothesis suggests an interaction between a second-language learner and a native
speaker, so the learner can study the language in its most authentic setting. In this way, the
learner not only learns about the language, but also the nuances and other nonverbal cues the
go along with the words. Many universities in English-speaking countries have English
programs and classes focusing on personal interaction for many foreign students who go
abroad just to learn how to speak English.
This hypothesis suggests that feedback obtained during conversational interaction promotes
interlanguage (IL) development because it:

2
Connects input, internal learner capacities, particularly selective attention, and output in
productive ways.(Long, 1996)

The second factor related to CLT is Canale & Swain’s communicative competence consisting
of four major components of communicative competence, thus grammatical, sociolinguistic,
discourse, and strategic aspects. We shall mention first, the grammatical competence, which
deals with the mastery of the linguistic code itself. This aspect is important for students to
attain a higher level of proficiency where accuracy is important. Secondly,
the sociolinguistic competence is concerned with the appropriate use of language in particular
social situations to convey specific communicative functions such as describing, narrating, or
eliciting among others, including the participants and the rules for interaction. This
competence is particularly difficult to attain as the skilled use of appropriate registers requires
sensitivity to cross-cultural differences. Thirdly, the discourse competence concerns the
mastery of how to use language in order to achieve a unified spoken or written text indifferent
genres, that is, cohesion and coherence of utterances in a discourse. This cohesion of thought
is attained by means of cohesive devices, such as pronouns and grammatical connectors,
together with a unity of thought and continuity in a text. Finally, the strategic competence
makes reference to the mastery of verbal and non-verbal communication strategies by means
of both the underlying knowledge about language and communicative language use or skill.
The main goal to attain with this competence is first, to compensate for breakdowns in
communication, and secondly, to enhance the effectiveness of communication. On this issue,
further comments will be examined later in the section of the model assessment. Example of 2
children whose parents are deaf explains more about Canale & Swain’s communicative
competence When the first child was born and grew up, he couldn’t interact with his parents
but his friends; therefore, his communication was limited to some extent. Things were
different when his younger brother was born. Both of the two brothers could communicate
better because they had more interaction.
Take these points into consideration, it can not be denied that learning acquisition is a socio-
interaction process, so in our local context, as a teacher of foreign language, we need to create
as many chances for students to interact as well as to communicate as possible.

3
Q3P1: State the main points of Piaget’s cognitive development model. What are the
implications for teaching children of different ages? Give some examples of the techniques you
might use for primary school children and secondary school students and justify your choices.
Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of
mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge,
but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. Piaget's stages are:
 Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years
 Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
 Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
 Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up
Piaget views ‘language acquisition’ in terms of a set of cognitive stages. In his view, cognitive
development is a prerequisite of language acquisition. He distinguished four stages in the thinking
development of children from birth to around the age of 15. These stages form a kind of series each
of which takes place necessarily before the subsequent one.
The first stage is referred to as ‘sensorimotor stage’ which begins at birth and lasts until the age of 2.
At this stage of cognitive development, representational thought develops. Therefore, infants are only
aware of what is immediately in front of them. They focus on what they see, what they are doing, and
physical interactions with their immediate environment. ‘Object permanence’, a case of
decontextualized thought development, is discovered at this stage by infants. In Piaget’s view,
developing decontextualized thought is a prerequisite for language acquisition.
The next stage is called “the pre-operational stage (about 2 to 7 years) during which the child is an
‘ego-centric’ thinker” (Johnson & Johnson, 1998, p. 246). At this stage, the child starts
conceptualizing displaced objects. Young children are able to think about things symbolically. Their
language use becomes more mature. They also develop memory and imagination, which allows them
to understand the difference between past and future, and engage in make-believe. But their thinking
is based on intuition and still not completely logical. They cannot yet grasp more complex concepts
such as cause and effect, time, and comparison.
The third stage of cognitive development, namely, ‘concrete operational thinking’ begins at 7 years
of age and continues until the individual is 11 years of age. This stage is characterized by thinking
through concrete problems. Children can demonstrate logical, concrete reasoning. Children's thinking
becomes less egocentric and they are increasingly aware of external events. During this stage,
however, most children still can't think abstractly or hypothetically.
The final stage referred to as ‘formal operational thinking’ (about 11 to 15 years of age) is concerned
with developing abstract reflective thinking. Children are able to logically use symbols related to
abstract concepts, such as algebra and science. They can think about multiple variables in systematic
ways, formulate hypotheses, and consider possibilities. They also can ponder
abstract relationships and concepts such as justice.
Several researchers have suggested, "AGE LEARNING DIFFERENCES result from the change in
general cognitive ability which occurs at this stage ... " (Johnson & Johnson, 1998, p. 246). Piaget
“emphasized maturational changes in the child’s ability to reason” (Tartter, 1998, p. 342). Piaget
gave prominence to the role of biological factors and the role of environment as well. In his view,
what is innate is “the general ability to synthesize the successive levels reached by the increasing
complex cognitive organization” (Piaget, 1983, p. 110; cited in Tartter, 1998, p. 338). Thus, he does
not reject innateness but his view is much different from Chomsky.
Although Piaget believed in lifelong intellectual development, he insisted that the formal
operational stage should be the final stage of cognitive development, and that continued intellectual
development in adults depends on the accumulation of knowledge.

4
Q4P1: State the five Krashen’s hypotheses and their implications for English language
teaching. Which one you are most interested in and how may you apply it in your class?

Stephen Krashen (University of Southern California) is an expert in the field of linguistics,

specializing in theories of language acquisition and development. Krashen's theory of second
language acquisition is widely known and well accepted and it has had a large impact in all
areas of second language research and teaching.
Krashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses:
the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis;
the Monitor hypothesis;
the Natural Order hypothesis;
the Input hypothesis;
the Affective Filter hypothesis.
The Acquisition-Learning distinction is the most fundamental of all the hypotheses in
Krashen's theory and the most widely known among linguists and language practitioners.
According to Krashen there are two independent systems of second language performance:
'the acquired system' and 'the learned system'. The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the
product of a subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they
acquire their first language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural
communication - in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in
the communicative act. The "learned system" or "learning" is the product of formal instruction
and it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge 'about' the
language, for example knowledge of grammar rules. According to Krashen 'learning' is less
important than 'acquisition'.
(Implications) According to this theory, the optimal way a language is learned is through
natural communication. As a second language teacher, the ideal is to create a situation
wherein language is used in order to fulfill authentic purposes. This is, in its turn, will help
students to ‘acquire’ the language instead of just ‘learning’ it.
The second one is The Monitor hypothesis which further explains how acquisition and
learning are used; the acquisition system, initiates an utterance and the learning system
‘monitors’ the utterance to inspect and correct errors. Krashen states that monitoring can
make some contribution to the accuracy of an utterance but its use should be limited. He
suggests that the ‘monitor’ can sometimes act as a barrier as it forces the learner to slow down
and focus more on accuracy as opposed to fluency.
(Implications) As an FL teacher it will always be a challenge to strike a balance between
encouraging accuracy and fluency in your students. This balance will depend on numerous
variables including the language level of the students, the context of language use and the
personal goals of each student. Therefore, basing on the learners’ needs and the stages of
their learning, teachers should make a decision on what aspects of learning, accuracy or
fluency, need to be given priority to so that teachers can help learners to promote their
potentials of acquire a foreign language..
The Natural Order hypothesis is the third one in which Krashen holds that learners acquire
parts of language in a predictable order. For any given language, certain grammatical
structures are acquired early while others are acquired later in the process. This hypothesis
suggests that this natural order of acquisition occurs independently of deliberate teaching and
therefore teachers cannot change the order of a grammatical teaching sequence.
(Implications) According to this hypothesis, teachers should be aware that certain structures of
a language are easier to acquire than others and therefore language structures should be taught
in an order that is conducive to learning. Teachers should start by introducing language
5
concepts that are relatively easy for learners to acquire and then use scaffolding to introduce
more difficult concepts.
The Input hypothesis suggests that language acquisition occurs when learners receive
messages that they can understand, a concept also known as comprehensible input. However,
Krashen also suggests that this comprehensible input should be one step beyond the learner’s
current language ability, represented as i + 1, in order to allow learners to continue to progress
with their language development.
(Implications) This hypothesis highlights the importance of using the Target Language in the
classroom. The goal of any language program is for learners to be able to communicate
effectively. By providing as much comprehensible input as possible, especially in situations
when learners are not exposed to the target language outside of the classroom, the teacher is
able to create a more effective opportunity for language acquisition.
Finally, the fifth hypothesis is the Affective Filter hypothesis. According to Krashen one
obstacle that manifests itself during language acquisition is the affective filter; that is a 'screen'
that is influenced by emotional variables that can prevent learning. This hypothetical filter
does not impact acquisition directly but rather prevents input from reaching the language
acquisition part of the brain. Krashen argued that the affective filter can be prompted by
many different variables including anxiety, self-confidence, motivation and stress.
(Implications) From this hypothesis, we all are fully aware that in any aspect of education it is
always important to create a safe, welcoming environment in which students can learn. In
language education this may be especially important since in order to take in and produce
language, learners need to feel that they are able to make mistakes and take risks.

6
Q5P1: What are the interference errors and errors of overgeneralization? Give
examples and suggest measures to overcome the problems.

Interference (or negative transfer) is one of the main causes of linguistic errors and, thus, it is
an undesirable phenomenon. Krashen, Dulay & Burt (1982) claim that interference has been
used to refer to two distinct linguistic phenomena, one that is essentially psychological and
another that is essentially sociolinguistic. The psychological use of the term interference
refers to the influence of old habits when new ones are being learned, whereas the
sociolinguistic use refers to language interactions, such as linguistic borrowing and language
switching, that occur when two language communities are in contact.”

According to Richards (1970) the term interference refers to “ items produced by the learner
which reflect not the structure of the mother tongue, but generalization based on partial
exposure to the target language.”

Tomaszczyk (1993) holds that simple interference is especially common among beginning
and intermediate learners and that at those levels, interference usually involves formal
similarity between L1 and L2 items e.g., the lexical “ false friends” , such as the proverbial
“ aktualnie” vs. “ actually” or “ ewentualnie” vs. “ eventually” . Moreover, he maintains
that even though such interference is not very common with highly advanced foreign language
learners, it is quite unlikely that any bilingual, no matter how competent s/he is in two
languages, is entirely free from some kind of interference.

Interference errors occur as a result of the use of elements from one language while speaking
another.

Overgeneralization means that the learner uses one member of a set of forms also in situations
when the other members must be used. This usually leads to overuse of one form and
underuse of the others. Well known candidates for overgeneralization are pairs as
other/another, much/many, some/any etc. (James 1998: 187) - the learner uses one of them
instead of distinguishing between them and using each in the appropriate situation.
Overgeneralization of language rules is also common, e.g. *Does she can dance? reflects that
the learner overgeneralizes the use of auxiliary verbs in questions.

Overgenaralization errors arise when the learner creates a deviant structure on the basis of
other structures in the target language. I generally involves the creation of one deviant
structure in place of two target language structure.

7
Q1P2: What are the Kachru's Three Circles of English? What are the implications for
English teaching?
The Three-circle Model of World Englishes was developed by Kachru in 1985 and it remains
one of the most influential models for grouping the varieties of English in the world (Mollin,
2006, p.41). Kachru (1985) described the spread of English in terms of three concentric
circles:
the Inner Circle, the Outer Circle and the Expanding Circle.
These circles represent “the type of spread, the patterns of acquisition and the functional
domains in which English is used across cultures and languages” (Kachru, 1985, p.12).
-In the Kachru’s Three-circle Model, the Inner Circle Kachru’s model refers to the traditional
bases of English, dominated by the mother-tongue varieties, where English acts as a first
language (White, 1997). The countries involved in the Inner Circle include the USA, the UK,
Canada, Australia and New Zealand. The varieties of English used here are said to be ‘norm
providing’.
-The Outer Circle consists of the earlier phases of the spread of English in non-native settings,
where the language has become part of a country’s chief institutions, and plays an important
‘second language’ role in a multilingual setting (Rajadurai, 2005). Most of the countries
included in the Outer Circle are former colonies of the UK or the USA, such as Malaysia,
Singapore, India, Ghana, Kenya and others (Rajadurai, 2005). The English used in the outer
circle is considered as ‘norm-developing’.
-The Expanding Circle refers to the territories where English is learnt as a foreign language.
The territories do not have a history of colonization by members of the Inner Circle and
institutional or social role. English is taught asa ‘foreign’ language as the most useful vehicle
of international communication (White, 1997). The countries in the Expanding Circle include
China, Japan, Greece and Poland (Crsytal, 1997).Thailand, the Russian Federation, Denmark
or France arealso grouped in the Expanding Circle.
IMPLICATIONS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
In light of the globalization of English, my suggestion is that the appropriate pedagogy in
English language teaching and learning should follow the ideology of EIL. This means that
EIL should be used as an idealized approach to inform teaching and learning on both
theoretical and practical grounds. Theoretically, language learners should be made aware of
the sociolinguistic and sociopolitical profiles of English. On practical grounds, learners should
be made familiar with varieties of English.
Exposure to varieties of English is believed to help facilitate learners’ communication abilities
when being confronted with diverse types of English uses.
The exposition activity, in the classroom, may involve familiarizing learners with major
native and non-native uses and users, demonstrating examples of spoken genre in multifarious
interactional contexts, and discussing shared and non-shared linguistic features such as
similarities and differences in phonological systems. Nurturing learners through these
activities under the framework of world Englishes may help create a sense of tolerance of
linguistic diversity as well as enrich learners’ linguistic repertoires when they cross-culturally
interact with interlocutors from a great number of mother tongue backgrounds. Limited
exposure to varieties of English may cause learners to resist linguistic variations or form the
ideas of confusion when they encounter different types of English uses and users in authentic
contexts. We maintain that there should be an opening up for covering other varieties of
English aside from the popular Anglo-American English in English classes so that learners
will become truly internationally-minded speakers who are conscious of the role of English in
the world and the world in English.

8
The incorporation of the concept of world Englishes into language curriculum has gained
more recognition worldwide especially in several expanding-circle countries.
The major concern of the implementation of world Englishes into language pedagogy seems
to be the difficulty in searching for and developing materials for the teaching of world
Englishes (e.g., world Englishes pronunciation and conversation audios). Due to the
advancement of information technology, many Internet sources offer millions of speech
samples of speakers around the globe who have different tongues of English. Teachers can
take the advantage of this technological availability by incorporating authentic audios of
world Englishes available on hundreds of online sources (e.g., news, radio, films) into
classroom materials so that students have an opportunity to have their repertoire
internationally expanded, to be exposed to wider varieties of English.

9
Q2P2: State the main points of Behavioral to L2 and its critiques?
Behaviorism is a psychological theory of learning that was very influential in the 1940s
– 1950s, especially in the US. It was the popular model for all animal and human learning.
Traditional behaviorists argue that everyone was born as a blank slate, which concludes no
heredity factor of language and it is the environment that stimulates the verbal behavior in a
child and language learning is the result of imitation, practice, feedback on success, and habit
formation. For example, families verbally communicate to children since birth and gradually
they acquire their first language. Therefore, the behaviorists view imitation and practice as
primary processes in language development. The quality and quantity of language the child
hears, as well as the consistency of the reinforcement offered by others in the environment,
should have an effect on the child’s success in language learning. BA may consider effective
language behavior to be the production of correct response to stimuli. If a particular response
is reinforced, it then becomes habitual, or conditioned.
Behaviorism is based on three basic ideas: conditioning, habit formation and the
importance of the ‘environment’. Conditioning as a key factor in language acquisition is the
result of a three-stage procedure: stimulus, response, and reinforcement. Learning is seen “as
a question of developing connections (known as stimulus-response bonds) between events”
(Johnson, 2001, p. 42). ‘Habit formation’ is grounded on the significance of physical events or
sense data. ‘Environment’ is used in a broad sense and refers to everything that is external to
the organism. Behaviorism gives the dominant role to ‘environment’ and ‘organism’ plays an
insignificant role. Skinner (1957) applied behaviorism to language and suggested “much the
same process happens in language learning, especially first language learning” (cited in
Harmer, 2001, p. 69).
Critiques:
Behaviorism, however, falls short of the necessary requirements of an approach in
which it fails to have observational, descriptive and explanatory adequacy. Bodies of research
conducted so far reveal that child language is very complex and rule-governed, the
characteristics of which are at times quite different from those of adult language. Surprisingly
enough, their language is systematic and they are able to produce structures they had not been
exposed to before. This shows that relying on input and exposure cannot present a coherent
and sound framework. This boils down to the logical problem of the language acquisition
which points to the inadequacy of the behaviorist account (in term of language learning is the
process of imitation). This means that human beings need to have universal grammar and be
born with language ability to develop the language.

10
Q3P2: There are different learning styles in a class: Visual, Auditory, Kinesthetic.
Explain what they are and state how you may prepare your lessons to maximize your
students’ diverse abilities.
Many educators and educational researchers recognize that each person prefers
different learning styles and techniques. Learning styles group common ways that people
learn. Everyone has a mix of learning styles. Some people may find that they have a dominant
style of learning. Others may find that they use different styles in different circumstances.
There are many learning styles but the most common learning styles are Visual, Auditory,
Kinesthetic
Visual (spatial): Learners prefer using pictures, images, and spatial understanding.
Aural (auditory-musical): Learners prefer using sound and music.
Physical (kinesthetic): Learners prefer using their body, hands and sense of touch.
1. Visual learning styles :
When learners seems to enjoy using the visual style, they will prefer using images, pictures,
colors, and maps to organize information and communicate with others. They can easily
visualize objects, plans and outcomes in their mind's eye. They also have a good spatial sense,
which gives them a good sense of direction.
To encourage and improve their learning , Teachers should :
Make the most use of the visual style are visual art, architecture, photography, video or film,
design, planning (especially strategic), and navigation.
Use color, layout, and spatial organization. Examples include see picture, perspective, visual,
and map.
Use mind maps. Use color and pictures in place of text, wherever possible.
Systems diagrams can help learners visualize the links between parts of a system, for example
major engine parts or the principle of sailing in equilibrium. Replace words with pictures, and
use color to highlight major and minor links.
Organize the visual journey or story technique helps learners memorize content that isn't easy
to 'see.'
Peg words and events come easily to learners, however they need to spend some time learning
at least the first ten peg words.
2. Auditory learning styles:
If students would like to use the aural style, they like to work with sound and music. They
have a good sense of pitch and rhythm. They typically can sing, play a musical instrument, or
identify the sounds of different instruments. Certain music invokes strong emotions. they
notice the music playing in the background of movies, TV shows and other media.
To maximize the students’ diverse abilities. Teachers should :
-Use the aural style are playing, conducting, or composing music, and sound engineering
(mixing and audiovisual work).
-Use sound recordings to provide a background and help students get into visualizations. For
example, use a recording of an aircraft engine running normally, playing loudly via a headset,
to practice flight procedures.
-Use the anchoring technique to recall various states that music invokes in them. If students
have some particular music or song that makes they want to 'take on the world,' play it back
and anchor their emotions and state
3. Kinesthetic learning styles .
it's likely that students tend to use their bodies and senses of touch to learn about the world
around them. It's likely they like sports and exercise, and other physical activities such as
gardening .They typically use larger hand gestures and other body language to communicate.
.
11
To help Students motivate their learning . During the lesson ,Teacher should :
Use a physical style, use touch, action, movement and hands-on work in your learning
activities. For visualization, focus on the sensations you would expect in each scenario.
Use physical objects as much as possible. Physically touch objects as students learn about
what they do. Flashcards can help students memorize information because they can touch and
move them around.
Keep in mind as well that writing and drawing diagrams are physical activities
Use breathing and relaxation to focus students’ states while they learn and perform. Focus on
staying calm, centered, relaxed and aware.
Use role-playing, either singularly or with someone else, to practice skills and behaviors.
By recognizing and understanding the learning styles, teachers can use techniques better
suited to their students. This improves the speed and quality of their learning.

12
Q4 P2: State the four components of Canale & Swain’s communicative competence?
How are they related to communicative language teaching? Implications for English
teaching?
The theoretical framework/model which was proposed by Canale and Swain (1980, 1981)
had four main components: grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, strategic
competence and discourse competence.
The first component is grammatical competence. According to Canale and Swain,
grammatical competence is concerned with mastery of the linguistic code (verbal or non-
verbal) which includes vocabulary knowledge as well as knowledge of morphological,
syntactic, semantic, phonetic and orthographic rules. This competence enables the speaker to
use knowledge and skills needed for understanding and expressing the literal meaning of
utterances. The second component is discourse competence. It can be known as the ability to
connect sentences to form meaningful whole out of a series of utterances. Canale (1983, 1984)
described discourse competence as mastery of rules that determine ways in which forms and
meanings are combined to achieve a meaningful unity of spoken or written texts. The unity of
a text is enabled by cohesion in form and coherence in meaning. The third component is
socio-linguistic competence. It is the knowledge of socio-cultural rules of language and
discourse. The sociolinguistic competence in their model includes knowledge of rules and
conventions which underlie the appropriate comprehension and language use in different
sociolinguistic and socio-cultural contexts. The last component is strategic competence.
Strategies to compensate for breakdowns in communication (what to do when not understand
certain words). In the model of Canale and Swain, strategic competence is composed of
knowledge of verbal and non-verbal communication strategies that are recalled to compensate
for breakdowns in communication due to insufficient competence in one or more components
of communicative competence.
Implications for English teaching
For the first component, grammatical competence, teachers should enrich students’
grammatical competence as well as vocabulary. They are very important in communication
and examinations. Teachers also help students improve their pronunciation so that they can
feel confident in communication. It is better to encourage students more fluently an confident
than accuracy.
Discourse competence involves the development of texts in language learning. Its acquisition
requires teachers need to know the types of texts and tasks learners need to control to scaffold
their move from one discourse type to another.
For socio-linguistics competence, language teachers should consider the language classroom
as a forum that can be enriched through the fundamentals of sociolinguistics so that students
obtain the opportunity to use their linguistic knowledge and put it to the test in situations that
will enrich a great number of competencies.
In teaching, Teachers try to draw attention to strategic competence, and to provide practical
ideas on how to include its training in language classes. Teachers should be centered around
the idea that strategic competence is a crucial component of communicative competence,
largely determining the learner’s fluency and conversational skills.

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Q5P2: Some people recommended a L2 teaching method or procedure on the basis of L1
acquisition. Based on your understanding of SLA theories, make some comments on this

Because first language acquisition is so successfully accomplished, teaching have often used
first language acquisition as an ideal model. It is not completely right. Learning a second
language differs from learning their first language because of the following reasons
* In first language acquisition, the basis for learning is universal grammar alone. In second
language acquisition, knowledge of the first language also serves as a basis for learning the
second language. There may be both positive and negative transfer between languages in
second language learning.
* In first language acquisition, children spend several years listening to language, babbling,
and using telegraphic speech before they can form sentences. In second language acquisition
in older learners, learning is more rapid and people are able to form sentences within a shorter
period of time.
* In formal second language learning in older learners, learners are able to use more
metacognitive processes in their learning. They can consciously analyze and manipulate
grammatical structures, and they can explicitly describe how language works. This can speed
the learning process.
* In second language learning in older learners, learners bring more life experience and
background knowledge to their learning. They have more schemata and more learning
strategies to help them learn the second language.
* In second language learning in older learners, there may be less access to universal
grammar, and sensitivity to phonological distinctions not present in the native language will
be reduced. Students learning in a classroom setting may also have fewer opportunities to
learn language authentically. These factors may reduce the likelihood that second language
learners will attain native-like proficiency. First-language learners always attain native
proficiency, unless they have a disability that affects language learning.
-In first language acquistion, learners have many chances to practice with native speakers
(especially caregivers). In second language acquisition, learners may or may not have the
opportunity to practice extensively with native speakers.
-Almost everyone acquires a first language, but not everyone acquires a second language.
Acquiring a first language happens naturally, while acquiring a second language often
requires conscious effort on the part of the learner.

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Q6P2: State the main points of Vygotsky’s Social Interactionist model?

Vygotsky, a Psychologist and social constructivist, laid the foundation for interactionists view
of language acquisition, emphasized the importance of social interaction in learning
language.
According to Vygotsky, social interaction plays an important role in the development of
cognition, in the learning process and proposed the zone of proximal development (ZPD)
where learners construct the new language through socially mediated interaction. The child
observes the interaction between other people and then the behavior develops inside the child.
This means that the child first observes the adults around him communicating among
themselves and then later develops the ability himself to communicate. Vygotsky also
theorized that a child learns best when interacting with those around him to solve a problem.
At first, the adult interacting with the child is responsible for leading the child, and eventually,
the child becomes more capable of problem solving on his own. The adult first talks at the
child and eventually the child learns to respond in turn. The child moves from gurgling to
baby talk to more complete and correct sentences. Vygotsky also focused on the connections
between people and the sociocultural context in which they act and interact in shared
experiences . Humans use tools that develop from a culture, such as speech and writing, to
mediate their social environments. Initially children develop these tools to serve solely as
social functions, ways to communicate needs. Vygotsky believed that the internalization of
these tools led to higher thinking skills.
Application of the Vogotsky ‘s Social interactionist model
Most of schools have traditionally held a transmissionist or instructionist model in
which a teacher or lecturer ‘transmits’ information to students. In contrast, Vygotsky’s theory
promotes learning contexts in which students play an active role in learning. Roles of the
teacher and student are therefore shifted, as a teacher should collaborate with his or her
students in order to help facilitate meaning construction in students. Learning therefore
becomes a reciprocal experience for the students and teacher. So If we supply Vygotsky’s
theory in learning and teaching, it will motivate students’ learning .

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Q1P3: Choose several typical errors that your students often make and suggest
techniques to help them overcome the problems (Justify your techniques).
One of the problems that learners of English generally have is error which is a mistake,
especially one that causes the problems. From my experience of teaching and learning
English, I realise that there are several types of mistakes which my learners often make such
as Subject-verb agreement, poor selection, incorrect word order, grammatical mistake, poor
punctuation, article for generic references, Prepositions, Tense, Misspelling, Expression,
vocabulary, syntax…
Some cases should be corrected immediately to avoid creating bad habits such as the errors of
Expression, Article, Prepositions, nevertheless, others can be corrected later to avoid being
interrupted, additionally, some errors students seem to be gradually overcome themselves at
higher level without the teacher’s assistance, for instance, the subject-verb agreement
mistakes, misspelling.
To produce proficient learners of English and overcome the mistakes students often make, the
followings are my suggestions of correction
Firstly, Self-correction: In a classroom that focuses on conversation and self-responsibility,
students should correct their English quite frequently. In doing so, they increasingly notice
and correct problem spots, both individual weak points and ones connected to their native
language. For example, Vietnamese learners often drop articles (a/an/the) and plural "s," as
well as confuse gender pronouns (he/she). Even higher-level learners have this problem.
Secondly, Group correction: A student doesn't always catch his own mistakes, though, no
matter how skilled he may be. Or perhaps you don't want to interrupt an activity. Or maybe
you feel as though you have corrected too much during the lesson already, so teacher-to-
student correction is out, too. Group correction is an alternative, with peers in small groups
pointing out mistakes.
The idea is that groups of students work together to help one another. Because large groups
can prove intimidating, five students or fewer together end up as ideal. With role-plays,
presentations, interviews, debates, or any other type of group activity, students note mistakes
for a feedback session later. Similarly, one student can sit out, observe the conversation, and
jot down notes. Other students then rotate out to observe as the activity continues.
Thirdly, Student-to-student correction: This isn't so dissimilar from group correction. It has
many of the same advantages and disadvantages. The primary difference, though, comes with
students working in pairs rather than groups.
You can use this type of correction in any conversational activity. As with all conversations,
the primary objective is to exchange ideas and/or information. Assign a secondary objective
of listening for, identifying, and correcting any mistakes. Students could also work in pairs
with a worksheet, discussing and correcting sentences with mistakes that you have purposely
made. Both encourage high student talk time, and fosters comprehension and teamwork.

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Q2P3: Explain the following types of errors and state the implications for English
teaching: Developmental errors/overgeneralization, Transfer/interference errors,
Avoidance strategy.
 Overgeneralization:
Overgeneralization generally involves the creation of one deviant structure in place of two
regular structures, for examples, “He can sings”, “We are hope”, “it is occurs”.
 Transfer errors:
A transfer error occurs when the person is writing in the target L2 language using their L1
grammar. For example, a study made by Richards states that “interference errors occur as a
result of ‘the use of elements from one language while speaking another.’ The definition of
what a transfer error is then clear: it is an error that occurs when L1 grammar is used in L2
writing and speech
 Avoidance strategy:
It follows that avoidance is a fundamental cognitive strategy. However, studies into the
learning process of the use of negation in English, both as a native and second language, have
mainly focussed on the negative forms that the speaker uses. In other words, they have only
taken into account those responses which correspond to correct negative structures, e.g., ‘I do
not go to Madrid’, or those negative forms which make up a part of the negative interlinguistic
system as a result of cross-linguistic transfer, *‘I no have a dog’. They have not taken into
account, in all its entirety, the study of the forms which the students use when they opt for
evasive behaviour, ignoring the influence on the negative interlinguistic system.
 Implications for English teaching
In the language classroom the teacher tends to correct the errors automatically and usually
regards all hesitation on part of the student as a request for help. It seems that a delay in the
correction would allow the leamer a greater opportunity of selfcorrection and would help the
development of autonomous control processes, which are characteristic of the competence in
communication of the mother language and which are considered to be essential in the
socialisation of the second language. The routine correction on part of the teacher actually
runs the risk of making the leamer depended on correction by others. Moreover, the correction
of an error by the teacher as self correction of a problem of perception would reduce the risk
of hurting the student's self-esteem and would imítate the conditions of acquisition found in a
natural setting.

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Q3P3: What is ZPD and its implications for language teaching? Give examples to
illustrate your points.

The zone of proximal development, commonly referred to as ZPD, is an important principle

of Vygotsky's work. ZPD is defined as the range of tasks that a child can perform with the
help and guidance of others but cannot yet perform independently.
Within the zone of proximal development there are two levels. First we have the actual
development level. This is the upper limit of tasks one can perform independently. The second
level is the level of potential development. This is the upper limit of tasks that one can
perform with the assistance of a more competent individual.
Vygotsky viewed the zone of proximal development as the area where the most sensitive
instruction or guidance should occur. This would allow the child to develop skills to use on
his or her own to develop higher mental functions.
Much of the discussion of the ZPD has assumed that, in order to learn, the young novice needs
the assistance of a more expert person who participates with him or her in the activity.
Certainly, parents and teachers are the most important providers of guidance and assistance
in relation to the child's learning, in early childhood and even beyond. But they are not the
only significant others in this respect. Vygotsky made this clear when he wrote: "learning
awakens a variety of internal developmental processes that are able to operate only when the
child is interacting with people in his environment and in cooperation with his peers" (1978,
p.90). Indeed, the current emphasis on 'cooperative learning' in North America can be
attributed, in part, to the significant role that Vygotsky, as well as Piaget, attributed to peer
group activities in fostering learning.
In teaching, initial teacher can support students by training them to gradually take place
during a learning activity. Then, the teacher slowly restrict the support, such as providing only
the outline or brief instructions on how to proceed. Finally, students will develop and perform
their duties independently.
For example, in speaking classroom, students have to study how to work in group to discuss
any topic. The first session, teachers act as the emcee for discussion, instruct detailed step by
step to make a discussion, provide contends and other relevant documents. The Second
session, teachers share the leading role with a few students, the content provider and the
relevant documents are delivered to the students to do part. The third session, participants
self- host, and prepare its contents and related documents, during this activity, teacher role as
observer.

In conclusion, Vygotsky's theory has had a profound effecting on language teaching in

general, and foreign language teaching in particular. In the process of teaching, teachers have
to expand the ZPD of the participants by gradually increasing the difficulty of the tasks
assigned to students, and seeks to impart knowledge, improve new skills in the learning
process, such as learning English, students will learn the knowledge from teachers as well as
the others who have more experience in order to improve and develop the level of their own
language.

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Q4P3: What is the Critical Period Hypothesis? State implications for foreign language
teaching.

1. What is the Critical Period Hypothesis?

The Critical Period Hypothesis
- Most discussion about age and acquisition center on the question of whether there is a
critical period for language acquisition: a biologically determined period of life when
language can be acquired more easily and beyond which time language is increasingly
difficult to acquire (Genie eg.). The reseachers like Lenneberg (1967) and Bickerton (1981)
made strong statements in favor of a critical period before which and after which certain
abilities do not develop. Some people suggest that CPH is around puberty. Some say much
earlier (5 or 6).
This has led some assume, incorrectly, that by the age of 12 or 13 you are “over the hill” when
it comes to the possibilitiy of successful second language learning. Such an assumption must
be viewed in the light of what it means to be “successful” in learning a second language, and
particularly the role of accent as a component of success.
- Scovel claims that there is a CP for pronunciation neuroplasticity/plasticity is complete at
puberty, similarly in music & sport), but not for other aspects of language (Kisinger’s foreign
accent example).
2. State implications for foreign language teaching.
In school programs for second or foreign language teaching, “younger is better”. Children
should be listened to native speaker’s accent to practice their pronunciation. Pronunciation is
tested by having learners pronounce English words twice: the first time immediately after
hearing a native speaker say the word. The second time, a few minutes later, they were asked
to say the word reprsented in a picture, without a model to imitate. They often have more
opportunities to hear and use English in and out of the class. However, adolescents and adults
acquire higher proficiency levels in a target language than young children, and they generally
achieve these levels more rapidly because of their cognitive and perceptual maturity.This is an
advantage in vocabulary learning, to cite one example, where older learners actively look for
reationship among the new words they acquire.( e.g: They expect to find synonyms,
antonyms, and homonyms). For instance, they expect to encounter different ways of saying
“thank you” depending on whom they are talking to.

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Q5P3: What is Long’s Interaction hypothesis? Implications for language teaching?

The Interaction Hypothesis is a type of theory proposing that one of most effective methods of
learning a new language is through personal and direct interaction. This theory is applied
specifically to the acquisition of a foreign or a second language.
Long's interactional hypothesis suggests that students acquire an L2 with greater ease and at a
quicker rate if they are able to constantly interact with peers who speak the target language
with greater proficiency. These peers may be fellow ELLs or native speakers.
Long et al argue that much L2 acquisition takes place through conversational interaction. He
agrees with Krashen that comprehensible input is necessary for language acquisition.
However, he’s more concerned with the question of how input is made comprehensible.
Interactional modification makes input comprehensible;
Comprehensible input promotes acquisition
Therefore, interactional modification promotes acquisition.
Through the Interaction Hypothesis, Professor Long integrated and reconciled two hypotheses
on second language acquisition (SLA): the input and the output hypotheses. The Input
Hypothesis states that a language learner only needs to be supplied with “input” through the
forms of reading, listening to conversations, and lessons on grammar and vocabulary. The
Output Hypothesis, on the other hand, stresses the importance of practicing and speaking to
retain and remember the language. The Interaction Hypothesis combines both the “input” and
“output” by stating that interaction is not only a means for a learner to study the language, but
also a way for the learner to practice what he has learned.Take 2 children whose parents are
deaf explains more about Canale & Swain’s communicative competence as an example .When
the first child was born and grew up, he couldn’t interact with his parents but his friends;there
fore, his communication was limited to some extent. Things were different when his younger
brother was born. Both of the two brothers could communicate better because they had more
interaction
2. State implications for foreign language teaching.
In school programs for second or foreign language teaching, it can not be denied that learning
acquisition is a socio-interaction process, so in our local context, as a teacher of foreign
language, we need to creat as many chances for students to interact as well as to communicate
as possible.

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