1 vector

vector
Introduction of Vector (8) Polar vectors: These have starting point or
Physical quantities having magnitude, direction point of application. Example-displacement and force
and obeying laws of vector algebra are called vectors. etc.
Example : Displacement, velocity, acceleration, (9) Axial Vectors : These represent rotational
momentum, force, impulse, weight, thrust, torque, effects and are always along the axis of rotation in
angular momentum, angular velocity etc. accordance with right hand screw rule. Angular
If a physical quantity has magnitude and direction velocity, torque and angular momentum, etc., are
both, then it does not always imply that it is a vector. example of physical quantities of this type.
For it to be a vector the third condition of obeying Axial vector Axis of rotation
laws of vector algebra has to be satisfied.
Example : The physical quantity current has both
magnitude and direction but is still a scalar as it Anticlock wise rotation Clock wise rotation
disobeys the laws of vector algebra. Axis of rotation Axial vector
Types of Vector Fig. 0.2

(1) Equal vectors : Two vectors A and B are said to (10) Coplanar vector : Three (or more) vectors
be equal when they have equal magnitudes and same are called coplanar vector if they lie in the same plane.
direction. Two (free) vectors are always coplanar.
(2) Parallel vector : Two vectors A and B are said Triangle Law of Vector Addition of Two
to be parallel when Vectors
(i) Both have same direction. If two non-zero vectors are B
(ii) One vector is scalar (positive) non-zero represented by the two sides of R  A  B
multiple of another vector. i.e. A   B a triangle taken in same order
then the resultant is B
(3) Anti-parallel vectors : Two vectors A and B
are said to be anti-parallel when given by the closing side O A
A
(i) Both have opposite direction. of triangle in oppositemorder.i.e. Fig. 0.3

(ii) One vector is scalar non-zero negative R AB  OB  OA  AB B

multiple of another vector. i.e. A   B (1) Magnitude of resultant vector
(4) Collinear vectors : When the vectors under In  ABN, R B sin
consideration can share the same support or have a B
 
common support then the considered vectors are
O A N
collinear. A
AN
(5) Zero vector (0) : A vector having zero cos   AN  B cos Fig. 0.4 B cos
B
magnitude and arbitrary direction (not known to us) is BN
a zero vector. sin   BN  B sin
B
(6) Unit vector : A vector divided by its magnitude
is a unit vector. Unit vector for A is Aˆ In OBN , we have OB 2  ON 2  BN 2

 R 2  ( A  B cos  )2  (B sin )2
Since, ˆ  A
A ˆ
 A AA.
A  R 2  A 2  B 2 cos 2   2 AB cos   B 2 sin2 
Thus, we can say that unit vector gives us the
 R  A  B (cos   sin  )  2 AB cos 
2 2 2 2 2
direction.
 R  A  B  2 AB cos 
2 2 2
(7) Orthogonal unit vectors ˆi , ˆj and kˆ are called
orthogonal unit vectors. These vectors must form a  R  A  B  2 AB cos
2 2

Right Handed Triad (It is a coordinate system such (2) Direction of resultant vectors : If  is angle
that when we Curl the fingers of right hand from x to
between A and B, then
y then we must get the direction of z along thumb).
y
| A  B|  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos
ˆ x ˆ y ˆ z
The i  x , j  y , k  z ˆj
If R makes an angle  with A, then in OBN ,
x
 x  xˆi , y  yˆj , z  zkˆ k̂
î tan  
BN

BN
 tan  
B sin 
z Fig. 0.1 ON OA  AN A  B cos 
2 vector
vector
Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition Note: 
If two non zero vectors are represented by the
two adjacent sides of a parallelogram then the
Resolution of Vector Into Components
resultant is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram
passing through the point of intersection of the two Consider a vector R in Y
vectors. X-Y plane as shown in fig. If
(1) Magnitude we draw orthogonal vectors R R y

R x and R y along x and y axes

Since, R 2  ON 2  CN 2  R 2  (OA  AN )2  CN 2 
respectively, by law of vector R
X
 R  A  B  2 AB cos 
2 2 2 x

addition, R  R x  R y Fig. 0.8

 R | R | | A  B |  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos 
B C Now as for any vector A  A nˆ so, R x  ˆi R x & R y  ˆjR y
R  AB So R  ˆi R x  ˆjRy …(i)
B B sin

B But from figure R x  R cos  …(ii)
 
and Ry  R sin …(iii)
O A N
A
Fig. 0.5
B cos Since R and  are usually known, Equation (ii)
(2) Direction and (iii) give the magnitude of the components of R
CN B sin along x and y-axes respectively.
tan    Here it is worthy to note once a vector is resolved
ON A  B cos
into its components, the components themselves can
Polygon Law of Vector Addition
be used to specify the vector as
If a number of non zero vectors are represented
by the (n – 1) sides of an n-sided polygon then the (1) The magnitude of the vector R is obtained by
resultant is given by the closing side or the nth side of squaring and adding equation (ii) and (iii), i.e.
the polygon taken in opposite order. So, R  R x2  R y2
D D C
(2) The direction of the vector R is obtained by
E C OA  AB  BC  CD  DE  OE dividing equation (iii) by (ii), i.e.
E BR  ABCD E tan   (Ry / R x ) or   tan 1 (Ry / R x )
Rectangular Components of 3-D Vector
R  Rxiˆ  Ry ˆj  Rz kˆ
R B Y
R  R x  R y  R z or
O A
A
Fig. 0.6

Subtraction of vectors R
Rx
R sum  A  B Ry
B X
Since, A  B  A  (B) and Rz
 1 Z Fig. 0.9
| A  B |  A  B  2 AB cos
2 2 2 A

B
180 – 
If R makes an angle  with x axis,  with y axis
R diff  A  (  B )
and  with z axis, then
Rx Rx
cos    l
Fig. 0.7

 | A  B|  A  B  2 AB cos (180   )
2 2 o
R R  Ry2  Rz2
2
x

Since, cos (180   )   cos Ry Ry

 cos    m
 | A  B |  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos  R Rx2  Ry2  Rz2
B sin B sin(180   ) Rz Rz
tan 1  and tan  2  cos    n
A  B cos A  B cos (180   ) 
R Rx2  Ry2  Rz2
But sin(180   )  sin and cos(180   )   cos
Where l, m, n are called Direction Cosines of the
B sin
 tan  2  vector R and
A  B cos
3 vector
vector R R R 2 2 2 (x) In terms of components
l 2  m2  n2  cos2   cos2   cos 2   1 x y z

R R R
2
x
2
y
2
z
A . B  (iAx  jAy  k Az ). (iBx  jBy  k Bz )  [ Ax Bx  Ay By  AZ Bz ]

Note:  When a point P have coordinate (x, (3) Example : (i) Work W : In physics for
constant force work is defined as, W  Fs cos …(i)
y, z) then its position vector OP  xˆi  yˆj  zkˆ But by definition of scalar product of two vectors,
 When a particle moves from point F. s  Fs cos  …(ii)
(x1, y1, z1) to (x2, y2, z2) then its displacement vector

So from eqn (i) and (ii) W  F.s i.e. work is the
r  (x 2  x 1 )ˆi  (y 2  y1 )ˆj  (z 2  z1 )kˆ scalar product of force with displacement.
Scalar Product of Two Vectors dW ds
(ii) Power P : As W  F . s or dt  F . dt
(1) Definition : The scalar product (or dot
product) of two vectors is defined as the product of [As F is constant]or P  F . v i.e., power is the scalar
the magnitude of two vectors with cosine of angle product of force with velocity. 
ds 
between them.  dW  B
ds
Thus if there are two vectors  As  P and  v
B  dt dt 
A and B having angle  between 
them, then their scalar product  (iii) Magnetic Flux  :
Magnetic flux through an O
written as A . B is defined as
A area is given by
Fig. 0.11
A . B  AB cos  Fig. 0.10
d  B ds cos  …(i)
(2) Properties : (i) It is always a scalar which is But by definition of scalar product
positive if angle between the vectors is acute (i.e., < B . d s  Bds cos ...(ii)
90°) and negative if angle between them is obtuse (i.e. n
So from eq (i) and (ii) we have
90°< < 180°).
(ii) It is commutative, i.e. A . B  B . A d  B . d s or    B . d s

(iii) It is distributive, i.e. A . (B  C)  A . B  A . C (iv) Potential energy of a dipole U : If an electric

(iv) As by definition A . B  AB cos
1
The angle between the vectors   cos  AB 
 
(v) Scalar product of two vectors will be
maximum when cos  max  1, i.e.   0 o , i.e.,
vectors are parallel ( A . B)max  AB
(vi) Scalar product of two vectors will be
minimum when | cos |  min  0, i.e.   90 o
( A . B)min  0
i.e. if the scalar product of two nonzero vectors
vanishes the vectors are orthogonal.
(vii) The scalar product of a vector by itself is
termed as self dot product and is given by
( A)2  A . A  AA cos   A 2 i.e.
(viii) In case of unit vector n̂
nˆ . nˆ  1  1  cos 0  1 so nˆ . nˆ  ˆi .ˆi  ˆj . ˆj  kˆ . kˆ  1
(ix) In case of orthogonal unit vectors
dipole of moment p is situated in an electric field E
or a magnetic dipole of moment M in a field of
 A. B 
induction B, the potential energy of the dipole is given
U E   p . E and U B   M . B
by :
Vector Product of Two Vectors
(1) Definition: The vector product or cross
product of two vectors is defined as a vector having a
magnitude equal to the product of the magnitudes of
two vectors with the sine of angle between them, and
direction perpendicular to the plane containing the two
vectors in accordance with right hand screw rule.
C  AB
Thus, if A and B are two vectors, then their
vector product written as A  B is a vector C defined
by
A A. A
C  A  B  AB sin nˆ
ˆi , ˆj and kˆ ,

ˆi . ˆj  ˆj . kˆ  kˆ . ˆi  1  1 cos 90  0 Fig. 0.12

4 vector
vectorThe direction of A  B, i.e. C is perpendicular to ˆi  ˆj  kˆ , ˆj  kˆ  ˆi
and kˆ  ˆi  ˆj
the plane containing vectors A and B and in the sense And as cross product is not commutative,
of advance of a right handed screw rotated from A (first ˆj  ˆi  kˆ , kˆ  ˆj  ˆi and ˆi  kˆ  ˆj
vector) to B (second vector) through the smaller angle (x) In terms of components
between them. Thus, if a right handed screw whose axis ˆi ˆj kˆ
is perpendicular to the plane framed by A and B is A  B  Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz
rotated from A to B through the smaller angle
between them, then the direction of advancement of the  ˆi ( Ay Bz  Az By )  ˆj( A z B x  A x B z )  kˆ ( A x B y  A y B x )
screw gives the direction of A  B i.e. C (3) Example : Since vector product of two vectors
(2) Properties is a vector, vector physical quantities (particularly
(i) Vector product of any two vectors is always a representing rotational effects) like torque, angular
vector perpendicular to the plane containing these two momentum, velocity and force on a moving charge in a
vectors, i.e., orthogonal to both the vectors A and magnetic field and can be expressed as the vector
B, though the vectors A and B may or may not be product of two vectors. It is well – established in
orthogonal. physics that :
(ii) Vector product of two vectors is not (i) Torque   r  F
commutative, i.e., A  B  B  A [but   B  A]
(ii) Angular momentum L  r  p
Here it is worthy to note that
| A  B | | B  A |  AB sin (iii) Velocity v    r
(iv) Force on a charged particle q moving with
i.e. in case of vector A  B and B  A magnitudes are velocity v in a magnetic field B is given by
equal but directions are opposite.
F  q(v  B)
(iii) The vector product is distributive when the
order of the vectors is strictly maintained, i.e. (v) Torque on a dipole in a field  E  p  E
A  (B  C)  A  B  A  C
and  B  M  B
(iv) The vector product of two vectors will be
Lami's Theorem
maximum when sin  max  1, i.e.,   90 o 180 – 
[ A  B]max  AB nˆ In any  A BC 

i.e. vector product is maximum if the vectors are orthogonal. c

with sides a, b, c b
(v) The vector product of two non- zero vectors will be
sin sin  sin   180 – 
minimum when | sin |  minimum = 0, i.e.,   0o or  
a b c 180 –  a
180o [ A  B]min  0 Fig. 0.14

i.e. if the vector product of two non-zero vectors vanishes, i.e. for any triangle the ratio of the sine of the
the vectors are collinear. angle containing the side to the length of the side is a
(vi) The self cross product, i.e., product of a constant.
vector by itself vanishes, i.e., is null vector For a triangle whose three sides are in the same
order we establish the Lami's theorem in the following
A  A  AA sin 0 o nˆ  0
manner. For the triangle shown
(vii) In case of unit vector nˆ  nˆ  0 so that a  b  c  0 [All three sides are taken in order] …(i)
ˆi  ˆi  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  0
 a  b  c …(ii)
(viii) In case of orthogonal unit vectors, iˆ, ˆj, kˆ in Pre-multiplying both sides by a
accordance with right hand screw rule :
ˆj ˆj a  (a  b)  a  c  0  a  b  a  c
 ab  ca …(iii)
k̂
î î Pre-multiplying both sides of (ii) by b

Fig. 0.13 b  (a  b)   b  c  b  a  b  b  b  c
k̂
5 vector
vector
  a  b  b  c  a  b  b  c …(iv) r12  12   22
From (iii) and (iv), we get a  b  b  c  c  a 
(iv) If the angle between 1 and  2 be , then


Taking magnitude, we get | a  b | | b  c | | c  a | 1/2

 ab sin(180   )  bc sin(180  )  ca sin(180   ) r  12  22 – 212 cos  .
12

 ab sin  bc sin  ca sin  (3) Relative velocity of satellite : If a satellite is


Dividing through out by abc, we have moving in equatorial plane with velocity v s and a
sin sin  sin 
  
point on the surface of earth with v e relative to the
a b c
centre of earth, the velocity of satellite relative to the
Relative Velocity
(1) Introduction : When we consider the motion of surface of earth
  
a particle, we assume a fixed point relative to which the
given particle is in motion. For example, if we say that
vse  vs  v e
water is flowing or wind is blowing or a person is So if the satellite moves form west to east (in the
running with a speed v, we mean that these all are direction of rotation of earth on its axis) its velocity
relative to the earth (which Ywe have assumed to be fixed)
Now to find the Y P relative to earth's surface will be v se  v s  ve
velocity of a moving object & if the satellite moves from east to west, i.e., opposite
r '
relative to another moving r
PS
PS
to the motion of earth, v se  v s  (ve )  v s  ve
object, consider a particle S
X
(4) Relative velocity of rain : If rain is falling
l rS ' S

Fig. 0.15 X
S  vertically with a velocity vR and an observer is moving
P whose position relative to frame S is rPS while

 horizontally with speed v the velocity of rain relative
relative to S  is rPS  . M

  
If the position of frames relative to S at any to observer will be
S v RM  v R  v M
  

r  r  r
time is r S S then from figure, PS PS  S S which by law of vector addition has magnitude
Differentiating this equation with respect to time v  v2  v2 RM R M
  
drPS drPS  drS S   
direction   tan (vM / vR ) with the vertical as
1
  v PS  v PS   v S S
dt dt dt or
shown in fig.
    
[as v  d r /dt ] or v PS   v PS  v S S 
– vM 
vR
vR vR
(2) General Formula : The relative velocity of a   
vM
vM

particle P1 moving with velocity v1 with respect to Fig. 0.17

another particle P2 moving with velocity v2 is given by, (5) Relative velocity of swimmer : If a man can

v1 swim relative to water with velocity v and water is
v2
   

v r12 = v1 – v2 P2 flowing relative to ground with velocity vR velocity of

Fig. 0.16 
P1
man relative to ground vM will be given by:
(i) If both the particles are moving in the same      
direction then : r12  1 – 2 v  v M  v R , i.e., v M  v  v R
(ii) If the two particles are moving in the opposite So if the swimming is in the direction of flow of
direction, then : r12  1   2 water, vM  v  vR
(iii) If the two particles are moving in the And if the swimming is opposite to the flow of
mutually perpendicular directions, then:
water, vM  v  vR
6 vector
vector
(6) Crossing the river : Suppose, the river is
flowing with velocity  r . A man can swim in still water
with velocity m . He is standing on one bank of the  All physical quantities having direction are not
vectors. For example, the electric current possesses
river and wants to cross the river, two cases arise. direction but it is a scalar quantity because it can
(i) To cross the river over shortest distance : That not be added or multiplied according to the rules of
is to cross the river straight, the man should swim vector algebra.
making angle  with the upstream as shown.  A vector can have only two rectangular

v
A B
r
components in plane and only three rectangular

components in space.
 
w v
vr  A vector can have any number, even infinite

v
m


components. (minimum 2 components)
  Following quantities are neither vectors nor
Upstream Fig. 0.18
O Downstream scalars : Relative density, density, viscosity,
frequency, pressure, stress, strain, modulus of
Here OAB is the triangle of vectors, in which elasticity, poisson’s ratio, moment of inertia, specific
    heat, latent heat, spring constant loudness,
OA  vm , AB  r . Their resultant is given by resistance, conductance, reactance, impedance,
  permittivity, dielectric constant, permeability,
OB   . The direction of swimming makes angle  susceptibility, refractive index, focal length, power of
with upstream. From the triangle OBA, we find, lens, Boltzman constant, Stefan’s constant, Gas
  constant, Gravitational constant, Rydberg constant,
cos   r Also sin  r
m m Planck’s constant etc.
 Distance covered is a scalar quantity.
Where  is the angle made by the direction of  The displacement is a vector quantity.
swimming with the shortest distance (OB) across the  Scalars are added, subtracted or divided
river. algebraically.
Time taken to cross the river : If w be the width  Vectors are added and subtracted geometrically.
of the river, then time taken to cross the river will be  Division of vectors is not allowed as directions
w w cannot be divided.
given by t1  
  Unit vector gives the direction of vector.
m2 –  r2
 Magnitude of unit vector is 1.
(ii) To cross the river in shortest possible time :  Unit vector has no unit. For example, velocity of
The man should swim perpendicular to the bank. an object is 5 ms–1 due East.
w i.e. v  5ms 1 due east.
The time taken to cross the river will be: t 2   
v 5 ms 1 (East)
 m vˆ     East
A
vr
B
| v| 5 ms 1
So unit vector v̂ has no unit as East is not a physical
vm  quantity.
w vr
 Unit vector has no dimensions.
 ˆi . ˆi  ˆj . ˆj  kˆ . kˆ  1

Upstream O Downstream  ˆi  ˆi  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  0
Fig. 0.19  ˆi  ˆj  kˆ , ˆj  kˆ  ˆi, kˆ  ˆi  ˆj
In this case, the man will touch the opposite bank  ˆi . ˆj  ˆj . kˆ  kˆ .ˆi  0
         
at a distance AB down stream. This distance will be  A  A  0 . Also A  A  0 But A  A  A  A
     
given by: Because A  A  A and A  A is collinear with A
w   Multiplication of a vector with –1 reverses its
AB  r t 2 r or AB  r w direction.
m m  
If A  B , then A = B and Aˆ  Bˆ .
7   
vector
If A  B  0 , then A = B but ˆ  B
ˆ .
vector A Rmax  P 2  Q 2  2 PQ cos 0 | P  Q |
 Minimum number of collinear vectors whose  Resultant of two vectors will be minimum when
resultant can be zero is two.  = 180° i.e. vectors are anti-parallel.
 Minimum number of coplaner vectors whose
Rmin  P 2  Q 2  2 PQ cos 180 | P  Q |
resultant is zero is three.
 Minimum number of non coplaner vectors whose Thus, minimum value of the resultant of two vectors
resultant is zero is four. is equal to the difference of their magnitude.
 Two vectors are perpendicular to each other if  Thus, maximum value of the resultant of two
  vectors is equal to the sum of their magnitude.
A.B  0 .
 
 Two vectors are parallel to each other if A  B  0.
When the magnitudes of two vectors are unequal,
 Displacement, velocity, linear momentum and
then
Rmin  P  Q  0
force are polar vectors.  
[| P | | Q |]
 Angular velocity, angular acceleration, torque and  
angular momentum are axial vectors. Thus, two vectors P and Q having different
 Division with a vector is not defined because it is magnitudes can never be combined to give zero
not possible to divide with a direction. resultant. From here, we conclude that the minimum
 Distance covered is always positive quantity. number of vectors of unequal magnitude whose
 The components of a vectors can have magnitude resultant can be zero is three. On the other hand,
than that of the vector itself. the minimum number of vectors of equal magnitude
 The rectangular components cannot have whose resultant can be zero is two.
 
magnitude greater than that of the vector itself.  Angle between two vectors A and B is given by
 
 When we multiply a vector with 0 the product A.B
cos   
becomes a null vector. | A| | B|

 The resultant of two vectors of unequal  Projection of a vector A in the direction of

magnitude can never be a null vector. vector B
 
 Three vectors not lying in a plane can never add A. B
 
up to give a null vector. | B|

 A quantity having magnitude and direction is not  Projection of a vector B in the direction of

necessarily a vector. For example, time and electric vector A
 
current. These quantities have magnitude and 
A. B

direction but they are scalar. This is because they do | A|
  
not obey the laws of vector addition.  If vectors A, B and C are represented by three sides
 A physical quantity which has different values in ab, bc and ca respectively taken in a order, then
  
different directions is called a tensor. For example : | A| | B| | C|
 
Moment of inertia has different values in different ab bc ca
directions. Hence moment of inertia is a tensor.  The vectors ˆi  ˆj  kˆ is equally inclined to the
Other examples of tensor are refractive index, stress, coordinate axes at an angle of 54.74 degrees.
     
strain, density etc.  If A  B  C , then A . B  C  0 .
     
 The magnitude of rectangular components of a  If A . B  C  0 , then A . B and C are coplanar.
vector is always less than the magnitude of the  
 If angle between A and B is 45°,
vector    
  then A . B | A  B |
 If A  B , then Ax  Bx , Ay  By and Az  Bz .     
           If A1  A2  A3  ......  An  0 and A1  A2  A3  ......  An
 If A  B  C . Or if A  B  C  0 , then A, B and C lie then the adjacent vector are inclined to each other at
in one plane. angle 2 / n .
       
 If A  B  C , then C is perpendicular to A as well  If A  B  C and A 2  B 2  C 2 , then the angle
  
as B . between A and B is 90°. Also A, B and C can have
     
 If | A  B | | A  B | , then angle between A and B is the following values.
90°. (i) A = 3, B = 4, C = 5
 Resultant of two vectors will be maximum when (ii) A = 5, B = 12, C = 13
 = 0° i.e. vectors are parallel. (iii) A = 8, B = 15, C = 17.