Line Regulation

Line regulation is a measure of how well a power supply is

able to maintain the dc output voltage for a change in the ac
input line voltage. The formula for line regulation is

VOUT
Line Regulation = 100%
VIN
Line regulation can also be expressed in terms of percent
change in VOUT per volt change on the VIN (%/V).

Line Regulation = V VOUT / OUT 100%

VIN
Load Regulation
Load regulation is a measure of how well a power supply is
able to maintain the dc output voltage between no load and
full load with the input voltage constant. It can be expressed
as a percentage change in load voltage:

V VNL FL
100%

Load Regulation =
VFL
Load regulation can also be expressed in terms of percent
change in the output per mA change in load current (%/mA).
Sometimes a maximum error voltage is given in the specification as
illustrated in the next slide for a commercial power supply.
Load Regulation

Sometimes the equivalent Thevenin resistance of a supply is

specified in place of a load regulation specification.
In this case, VOUT can be found by
applying the voltage divider rule:
Power Supply
RL RTH = ROUT
VOUT VNL
ROUT RL VOUT

In terms of resistances, load VTH = V NL RL

regulation can be expressed as:

ROUT
Load regulation 100%
RFL
 Series Regulators

Current limiting prevents excessive load current. Q2 will

conduct when the current through R4 develops 0.7 V across
Q2’s VBE. This reduces base current to Q1, limiting the load
current.
Q1 R4
The current limit is: VIN VOUT

R1
0.7 V Q2
I L(max) +
R4 Current limiter
R2

For example, a 1.4 W –

resistor, limits current

to about 0.5 A. R3
 Series Regulators

Fold-back current limiting drops the load current well

below the peak during overload conditions. Q2 conducts when
VR5 +VBE = VR4 and begins current limiting. VR5 is found by
applying the voltage-divider rule:
R5 VOUT +VIN Q1 R4 V

VR5 OUT

R R5 6 R5

An overload causes VR5 to R1

+ R drop because VOUT drops. 2

This means that less – R6

Q2

current is needed to D1

maintain conduction in Q2 R3 and the load current drops.

 Shunt Regulators

Shunt regulators use a parallel transistor for the control

element. If the output voltage changes, the op-amp senses
the change and corrects the bias on Q1 to follow. For
example, a decrease in output voltage causes a decrease in
VB and an increase in VC. V IN V OUT

R1

R2
Although it is less efficient Error detector Control than the series
VREF – element
regulator, the
shunt regulator has inherent Q1 R3 RL

+ short-circuit protection.
circuit
The D1 Sample maximum current when the R4 output is shorted is
VIN/R1.
Switching Regulators

A step-down switching regulator controls the output

voltage by controlling the duty cycle to a series transistor.
The duty cycle changes depending on the load
requirement.
Because the transistor is VIN Q1 C Lcharges reverses polarity L
either ON or OFF on all off
VOUT on + +
switching regulators, the D1 C RL

power dissipated in the Variable R2

pulse-width
transistor is very small and R
1 oscillator
the regulator is very efficient. –
The pulses are smoothed by +

an LC filter. R3

VREF
D2
Vout=(ton/T)VIN
Inductor smooths the fluctuations of output
Switching Regulators

In a step-up switching regulator, the control element

operates as a rapidly pulsing switch to ground. The
switch on and off times are controlled by the output
voltage.
Step-up action is due to on
+L
field collapsesL field builds off C Ccharges
the fact the inductor discharges+ VOUT
VIN
changes polarity during
+ L + D1
switching and adds to C Variable

VIN. Thus, the output off RL

on
voltage is larger than
R1 pulse-width Q1 R2
the input voltage. oscillator
 – +

D2 R3
Switching Regulators
In a voltage-inverter switching regulator, the output is
the opposite polarity of the input. It can be used in
conjunction with a positive regulator from the same input
source.
Inversion occurs Q11 because the inductor + C charges R22 RLL
+VIN off L field collapsesbui ds
IN on reverses polarity
when the diode Variable +

conducts, charging R11 pulse-widthoscillator the ––

capacitor with the opposite polarity R33

of the input. D22

offon
D1
1C discharges ––VOUTOUT
+
L C
IC Voltage Regulators
Integrated circuit voltage regulators are available as
 series regulators or as switching regulators. The popular
three-terminal regulators are often used on separate pc
boards within a system because they are inexpensive and
avoid problems associated with large power distribution
systems (such as noise pickup). 78XX Regulators
Type number Output voltage

The 78XX series is a fixed TO-220 case positive 7805 +5.0 V

7806 +6.0 V
output regulator 7808 +8.0 V
D-PAK
available in various 4 7809
7812
+9.0 V
+12.0 V
7815 +15.0 V
packages and with standard voltage outputs. 12
12
7818 +18.0 V
3
7824 +24.0 V
3

IC Voltage Regulators

The only external components required Heat-sink surface

 with the 78XX series are input and output 4 capacitors and
some form of heat sink.
These IC’s include thermal shutdown 1
123

protection and internal current limiting. 23

 input
The 78XX series are primarily used for fixed Positive (1) 78XX (3)
 Positiveoutput output voltages, but with
(2)
additional components, they Gnd

can be set up for variable voltages

or currents.
IC Voltage Regulators

The 79XX series is the negative output counterpart to the

78XX series, however the pin assignments are different
on this series. Other specifications are basically the same.

Type number Output voltage

Negative (2) (3) Negative

7905 –5.0 V
79XX 7905.2 –5.2 V
input output
7906 –6.0 V
(1) Gnd 7908 –8.0 V
7912 –12.0 V
7915 –15.0 V
7918 –18.0 V
7924 –24.0 V