Albert Einstein

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Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein, 1921

Born 14 March 1879

Ulm, Kingdom of Württemberg, German

Empire

Died 18 April 1955 (aged 76)

Princeton, New Jersey, USA

Resting place Grounds of the Institute for Advanced Study,

Princeton, New Jersey.

Residence Germany, Italy, Switzerland, USA

Ethnicity Jewish

Württemberg/Germany (until 1896)
Citizenship
Stateless (1896–1901)

Switzerland (from 1901)
 Austria (1911–12)

Germany (1914–33)

Albania (from 1935)[1]

United States (from 1940)[2]

Alma mater ETH Zurich

University of Zurich

Known for General relativity

Special relativity

Photoelectric effect

Brownian motion

Mass-energy equivalence

Einstein field equations

Unified Field Theory

Bose–Einstein statistics

Spouse(s) Mileva Marić (1903–1919)

Elsa Löwenthal, née Einstein, (1919–

1936)

Awards Nobel Prize in Physics (1921)

Copley Medal (1925)

Max Planck Medal (1929)

Time Person of the Century

Signature

Albert Einstein (pronounced /ˈælbərt ˈaɪnstaɪn/; German: [ˈalbɐt ˈaɪnʃtaɪn]  (  listen); 14 March 1879 –

18 April 1955) was a theoretical physicist, philosopher and author who is widely regarded as one of the
most influential and best known scientists and intellectuals of all time. A German-Swiss Nobel laureate, he
is often regarded as the father of modern physics.[3] He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his
services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of thephotoelectric effect".[4]

His many contributions to physics include the special and general theories of relativity, the founding of

relativistic cosmology, the first post-Newtonian expansion, the explanation of the perihelion precession of
Mercury, the prediction of the deflection of light by gravity (gravitational lensing), the first fluctuation
dissipation theorem which explained the Brownian motion of molecules, the photon theory and the wave-
particle duality, the quantum theory of atomic motion in solids, the zero-point energy concept, the semi-
classical version of the Schrödinger equation, and the quantum theory of a monatomic gas which
predicted Bose–Einstein condensation.

Einstein published more than 300 scientific and over 150 non-scientific works; he additionally wrote and
commentated prolifically on various philosophical and political subjects. [5] His great intelligence and
originality has made the word "Einstein" synonymous with genius.[6]

Contents
 [hide]

1 Biography

o 1.1 Early life and education

o 1.2 Marriages and children

o 1.3 Patent office

o 1.4 Academic career

o 1.5 Travels abroad

o 1.6 Emigration to the United States

o 1.7 Death

2 Scientific career

o 2.1 Physics in 1900

o 2.2 Thermodynamic fluctuations and

statistical physics

o 2.3 Thought experiments and a-priori physical

principles

o 2.4 Special relativity

o 2.5 Photons

o 2.6 Quantized atomic vibrations

o 2.7 Adiabatic principle and action-angle

variables

o 2.8 Wave-particle duality

o 2.9 Theory of critical opalescence

o 2.10 Zero-point energy

o 2.11 Principle of equivalence

o 2.12 Hole argument and Entwurf theory

o 2.13 General relativity

o 2.14 Cosmology

o 2.15 Modern quantum theory

o 2.16 Bose–Einstein statistics
 o 2.17 Energy momentum pseudotensor

o 2.18 Unified field theory

o 2.19 Wormholes

o 2.20 Einstein–Cartan theory

o 2.21 Equations of motion

o 2.22 Einstein's controversial beliefs in physics

o 2.23 Collaboration with other scientists

 2.23.1 Einstein-de Haas experiment

 2.23.2 Schrödinger gas model

 2.23.3 Einstein refrigerator

o 2.24 Bohr versus Einstein

o 2.25 Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox

3 Religious views

4 Political views

5 Non-scientific legacy

6 In popular culture

7 Awards and honors

o 7.1 Awards named after him

8 See also

9 Publications

10 Notes

11 Further reading

12 External links

Biography
Early life and education
Einstein at the age of 4.

Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire on 14 March 1879.
[7]
 His father was Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer. His mother was Pauline Einstein (née
Koch). In 1880, the family moved to Munich, where his father and his uncle founded Elektrotechnische
Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a company that manufactured electrical equipment based on direct current.[7]

Albert Einstein in 1893 (age 14).

The Einsteins were non-observant Jews. Their son attended a Catholic elementary school from the age of
five until ten.[8] Although Einstein had early speech difficulties, he was a top student in elementary school. [9]
[10]

His father once showed him a pocket compass; Einstein realized that there must be something causing the
needle to move, despite the apparent "empty space".[11] As he grew, Einstein built models and mechanical
devices for fun and began to show a talent for mathematics.[7] In 1889, Max Talmud (later changed to Max
Talmey) introduced the ten-year old Einstein to key texts in science, mathematics and philosophy, including
Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason and Euclid's Elements (which Einstein called the "holy little
geometry book").[12] Talmud was a poor Jewish medical student from Poland. The Jewish community
arranged for Talmud to take meals with the Einsteins each week on Thursdays for six years. During this
time Talmud wholeheartedly guided Einstein through many secular educational interests. [13][14]

In 1894, his father's company failed: direct current (DC) lost the War of Currents to alternating current (AC).
In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan and then, a few months later,
to Pavia. When the family moved to Pavia, Einstein stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold
Gymnasium. His father intended for him to pursue electrical engineering, but Einstein clashed with
authorities and resented the school's regimen and teaching method. He later wrote that the spirit of learning
and creative thought were lost in strict rote learning. In the spring of 1895, he withdrew to join his family in
Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor's note. [7] During this time, Einstein wrote his
first scientific work, "The Investigation of the State of Aether in Magnetic Fields".[15]
Einstein applied directly to the Eidgenössische Polytechnische Schule (ETH) in Zürich, Switzerland.
Lacking the requisite Matura certificate, he took an entrance examination, which he failed, although he got
exceptional marks in mathematics and physics.[16] The Einsteins sent Albert to Aarau, in northern
Switzerland to finish secondary school.[7] While lodging with the family of Professor Jost Winteler, he fell in
love with the family's daughter, Marie. (His sister Maja later married the Wintelers' son Paul.)[17] In Aarau,
Einstein studied Maxwell'selectromagnetic theory. At age 17, he graduated, and, with his father's approval,
renounced his citizenship in the German Kingdom of Württemberg to avoid military service, and in 1896 he
enrolled in the four year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Polytechnic in Zurich.
Marie Winteler moved to Olsberg, Switzerland for a teaching post.

Einstein's future wife, Mileva Marić, also enrolled at the Polytechnic that same year, the only woman among
the six students in the mathematics and physics section of the teaching diploma course. Over the next few
years, Einstein and Marić's friendship developed into romance, and they read books together on extra-
curricular physics in which Einstein was taking an increasing interest. In 1900 Einstein was awarded the
Zurich Polytechnic teaching diploma, but Marić failed the examination with a poor grade in the mathematics
component, theory of functions.[18] There have been claims that Marić collaborated with Einstein on his
celebrated 1905 papers[19][20], but historians of physics who have studied the issue find no evidence that she
made any substantive contributions.[21][22][23][24]

Marriages and children

It has been suggested that Lieserl Einstein be merged into this article or section.
(Discuss)

In early 1902, Einstein and Mileva Marić had a daughter they named Lieserl in their correspondence, who
was born in Novi Sad where Marić's parents lived.[25] Her full name is not known, and her fate is uncertain
after 1903.[26]

Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, the couple's first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was
born in Bern, Switzerland. Their second son, Eduard, was born in Zurich in July 1910. In 1914, Einstein
moved to Berlin, while his wife remained in Zurich with their sons. Marić and Einstein divorced on 14
February 1919, having lived apart for five years.

Einstein married Elsa Löwenthal (née Einstein) on 2 June 1919, after having had a relationship with her
since 1912. She was his first cousin maternally and his second cousin paternally. In 1933, they emigrated
permanently to the United States. In 1935, Elsa Einstein was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems
and died in December 1936.[27]

Patent office
Left to right: Conrad Habicht, Maurice Solovine and Einstein, who founded the Olympia Academy

Einstein's home in Bern

After graduating, Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching for a teaching post, but a former
classmate's father helped him secure a job in Bern, at the Federal Office for Intellectual Property, the
patent office, as an assistantexaminer.[28] He evaluated patent applications for electromagnetic devices. In
1903, Einstein's position at the Swiss Patent Office became permanent, although he was passed over for
promotion until he "fully mastered machine technology". [29]

Much of his work at the patent office related to questions about transmission of electric signals and
electrical-mechanical synchronization of time, two technical problems that show up conspicuously in
the thought experimentsthat eventually led Einstein to his radical conclusions about the nature of light and
the fundamental connection between space and time. [30]

With a few friends he met in Bern, Einstein started a small discussion group, self-mockingly named
"The Olympia Academy", which met regularly to discuss science and philosophy. Their readings included
the works of Henri Poincaré, Ernst Mach, and David Hume, which influenced his scientific and
philosophical outlook.

Academic career
In 1901, Einstein had a paper on the capillary forces of a straw published in the prestigious Annalen der
Physik.[31] On 30 April 1905, he completed his thesis, with Alfred Kleiner, Professor of Experimental
Physics, serving as pro-forma advisor. Einstein was awarded a PhD by the University of Zurich. His
dissertation was entitled "A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions". [32] That same year, which has
been called Einstein's annus mirabilis or "miracle year", he published four groundbreaking papers, on the
photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and the equivalence of matter and energy, which
were to bring him to the notice of the academic world.

By 1908, he was recognized as a leading scientist, and he was appointed lecturer at the University of
Berne. The following year, he quit the patent office and the lectureship to take the position of
physics docent[33] at the University of Zurich. He became a full professor at Karl-Ferdinand
University in Prague in 1911. In 1914, he returned to Germany after being appointed director of the Kaiser
Wilhelm Institute for Physics (1914–1932)[34] and a professor at the Humboldt University of Berlin, although
with a special clause in his contract that freed him from most teaching obligations. He became a member of
the Prussian Academy of Sciences. In 1916, Einstein was appointed president of the German Physical
Society (1916–1918).[35][36]

In 1911, he had calculated that, based on his new theory of general relativity, light from another star would
be bent by the Sun's gravity. That prediction was claimed confirmed by observations made by a British
expedition led by Sir Arthur Eddington during the solar eclipse of May 29, 1919. International media reports
of this made Einstein world famous. On 7 November 1919, the leading British newspaper The Timesprinted
a banner headline that read: "Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas
Overthrown".[37] (Much later, questions were raised whether the measurements were accurate enough to
support Einstein's theory.)

In 1921, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. Because relativity was still considered
somewhat controversial, it was officially bestowed for his explanation of the photoelectric effect. He also
received the Copley Medal from the Royal Society in 1925.

Travels abroad
Einstein visited New York City for the first time on 2 April 1921. When asked where he got his scientific
ideas, Einstein explained that he believed scientific work best proceeds from an examination of physical
reality and a search for underlying axioms, with consistent explanations that apply in all instances and
avoid contradicting each other. He also recommended theories with visualizable results.(Einstein 1954)[38]

In 1922, he traveled throughout Asia and later to Palestine, as part of a six-month excursion and speaking
tour. His travels included Singapore, Ceylon, and Japan, where he gave a series of lectures to thousands
of Japanese. His first lecture in Tokyo lasted four hours, after which he met the emperor and empress at
the Imperial Palace where thousands came to watch. Einstein later gave his impressions of the Japanese
in a letter to his sons:[39]:307

Of all the people I have met, I like the Japanese most, as they are
modest, intelligent, considerate, and have a feel for art. [39]:308

On his return voyage, he also visited Palestine for twelve days in what
would become his only visit to that region. "He was greeted with great
British pomp, as if he were a head of state rather than a theoretical
physicist", writes Isaacson. This included a cannon salute upon his
arrival at the residence of the British high commissioner, Sir Herbert
Samuel. During one reception given to him, the building was "stormed by
throngs who wanted to hear him". In Einstein's talk to the audience, he
expressed his happiness over the event:

I consider this the greatest day of my life. Before, I have always found
something to regret in the Jewish soul, and that is the forgetfulness of
its own people. Today, I have been made happy by the sight of the
Jewish people learning to recognize themselves and to make
themselves recognized as a force in the world.[40]:308
Emigration to the United States

Being protected in England after escaping Nazi Germany in 1933

In 1933, Einstein was compelled to emigrate to the United States

due to the rise to power of theNazis under Germany's new
chancellor, Adolf Hitler.[41] While visiting American universities in
April, 1933, he learned that the new German government had
passed a law barring Jews from holding any official positions,
including teaching at universities. A month later, notes Einstein
biographer, Walter Isaacson, "a parade of swastica-wearing
students and beer-hall thugs carrying torches tossed books into a
huge bonfire. Ordinary citizens poured forth carrying volumes
looted from libraries and private homes. 'Jewish intellectualism is
dead', propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels, his face fiery, yelled
from the podium."[40] Einstein also learned that his name was on a
list of assassination targets, with a "$5,000 bounty on his head".
One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the
German regime with the phrase, "not yet hanged". [40]

In 1935, Einstein traveled to the United States via Albania. He

stayed in Durrës for three days as a guest of the Albanian royal
mansion. Equipped with an Albanian passport, he continued his
journey to the United States.[1] The gesture of the Albanian royalty
of King Zog is said to be part of the traditional
Albanian besa (honor), according to which many Jews (including
Einstein) were saved from Nazi forces prior to and during World
War II.[42]

Among other German scientists forced to flee were fourteen Nobel

laureates and twenty-six of the sixty professors of theoretical
physics in the country. Among the other scientists who left
Germany, or the other countries it came to dominate, were Edward
Teller, Niels Bohr, Enrico Fermi, Otto Stern, Victor
Weisskopf, Hans Bethe, and Lise Meitner, many of whom made
certain that the Allies would develop nuclear weapons first, before
the Nazis.[40] With so many other Jewish scientists now forced by
circumstances to live in America, often working side by side,
Einstein wrote to a friend, "For me the most beautiful thing is to be
in contact with a few fine Jews—a few millennia of a civilized past
do mean something after all." In another letter he writes, "In my
whole life I have never felt so Jewish as now." [40]

Taking oath of allegiance for U.S. citizenship, (1940)

 He took up a position at the Institute for Advanced
Study at Princeton, New Jersey, an affiliation that lasted until his
death in 1955. There, he tried unsuccessfully to develop a unified
field theoryand to refute the accepted interpretation of quantum
physics. He and Kurt Gödel, another Institute member, became
close friends. They would take long walks together discussing their
work. His last assistant was Bruria Kaufman, who later became a
renowned physicist.

Just prior to the beginning of World War II in Europe, Einstein was

persuaded to lend his enormous prestige by writing a letter to
President Franklin D. Roosevelt on August 2, 1939, alerting him to
the possibility that Nazi Germany might be developing an atomic
bomb. According to weapons historians, the letter was "arguably
the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into
nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II". As
a result of Einstein's letter, the U.S. entered the "race" to develop
the bomb first, drawing on its "immense material, financial, and
scientific resources". It became the only country to develop an
atomic bomb during World War II.[43]

He became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into

his career at Princeton, he expressed his appreciation of the
"meritocracy" in American culture when compared to Europe.
According to Isaacson, he recognized the "right of individuals to
say and think what they pleased", without social barriers, and as
result, the individual was "encouraged" to be more creative, a trait
he valued from his own early education. Einstein writes:

What makes the new arrival devoted to this country is the democratic
trait among the people. No one humbles himself before another
person or class. . . American youth has the good fortune not to have
its outlook troubled by outworn traditions.[40]:432

As a member of the NAACP at Princeton who campaigned

for the civil rights of African Americans, Einstein
corresponded with civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois, and in
1946 Einstein called racism America's "worst disease".[44] He
later stated, "the only remedies are enlightenment and
education".[45]
 Einstein with David Ben Gurion, 1951

After the death of Israel's first president, Chaim Weizmann, in

November 1952, Prime MinisterDavid Ben-Gurion offered
Einstein the position of President of Israel, a mostly
ceremonial post.[46]The offer was presented by Israel's
ambassador in Washington, Abba Eban, who explained that
the offer "embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish
people can repose in any of its sons".[39]:522 However, Einstein
declined, and wrote in his response that he was "deeply
moved", and "at once saddened and ashamed" that he could
not accept it:

All my life I have dealt with objective matters, hence I lack both the
natural aptitude and the experience to deal properly with people and
to exercise official function. I am the more more distressed over these
circumstances because my relationship with the Jewish people
became my strongest human tie once I achieved complete clarity
about our precarious position among the nations of the world. [39]:522 [46]
[47]

Death
On April 17, 1955, Albert Einstein experienced internal
bleeding caused by the rupture of anabdominal aortic
aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced
surgically by Dr. Rudolph Nissenin 1948.[48] He took the
draft of a speech he was preparing for a television
appearance commemorating the State of Israel's
seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did
not live long enough to complete it.[49] Einstein refused
surgery, saying: "I want to go when I want. It is
tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my
share, it is time to go. I will do it elegantly."[50] He died in
Princeton Hospital early the next morning at the age of
76, having continued to work until near the end.

Einstein's remains were cremated and his ashes were

scattered around the grounds of the Institute for
Advanced Study.[51][52] During the autopsy, the
pathologist of Princeton Hospital, Thomas Stoltz
Harvey removed Einstein's brain for preservation,
without the permission of his family, in hope that
the neuroscience of the future would be able to
discover what made Einstein so intelligent.[53]

Scientific career

Albert Einstein in 1904.

Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of

books and articles. Most were about physics, but a few
expressed leftist political opinions
about pacifism, socialism, and zionism.[5][7] In addition to
the work he did by himself he also collaborated with
other scientists on additional projects including the
Bose–Einstein statistics, the Einstein refrigerator and
others.[54]
Physics in 1900
Einstein's early papers all come from attempts to
demonstrate that atoms exist and have a finite nonzero
size. At the time of his first paper in 1902, it was not yet
completely accepted by physicists that atoms were real,
even though chemists had good evidence ever
since Antoine Lavoisier's work a century earlier. The
reason physicists were skeptical was because no 19th
century theory could fully explain the properties of
matter from the properties of atoms.

Ludwig Boltzmann was a leading 19th century atomist

physicist, who had struggled for years to gain
acceptance for atoms. Boltzmann had given an
interpretation of the laws of thermodynamics,
suggesting that the law of entropy increase is statistical.
In Boltzmann's way of thinking, theentropy is the
logarithm of the number of ways a system could be
configured inside. The reason the entropy goes up is
only because it is more likely for a system to go from a
special state with only a few possible internal
configurations to a more generic state with many. While
Boltzmann's statistical interpretation of entropy is
universally accepted today, and Einstein believed it, at
the turn of the 20th century it was a minority position.

The statistical idea was most successful in explaining

the properties of gases. James Clerk Maxwell, another
leading atomist, had found the distribution of velocities
of atoms in a gas, and derived the surprising result that
the viscosity of a gas should be independent of density.
Intuitively, the friction in a gas would seem to go to zero
as the density goes to zero, but this is not so, because
the mean free path of atoms becomes large at low
densities. A subsequent experiment by Maxwell and his
wife confirmed this surprising prediction. Other
experiments on gases and vacuum, using a rotating
slitted drum, showed that atoms in a gas had velocities
distributed according to Maxwell's distribution law.
In addition to these successes, there were also
inconsistencies. Maxwell noted that at cold
temperatures, atomic theory predicted specific heats
that are too large. In classical statistical mechanics,
every spring-like motion has thermal energy kBT on
average at temperature T, so that the specific heat of
every spring is Boltzmann's constant kB. A monatomic
solid with N atoms can be thought of as N little balls
representing N atoms attached to each other in a box
grid with 3N springs, so the specific heat of every solid
is 3NkB, a result which became known as the Dulong–
Petit law. This law is true at room temperature, but not
for colder temperatures. At temperatures near zero, the
specific heat goes to zero.

Similarly, a gas made up of a molecule with two atoms

can be thought of as two balls on a spring. This spring
has energy kBT at high temperatures, and should
contribute an extra kB to the specific heat. It does at
temperatures of about 1000 degrees, but at lower
temperature, this contribution disappears. At zero
temperature, all other contributions to the specific heat
from rotations and vibrations also disappear. This
behavior was inconsistent with classical physics.

The most glaring inconsistency was in the theory of

light waves. Continuous waves in a box can be thought
of as infinitely many spring-like motions, one for each
possible standing wave. Each standing wave has a
specific heat of kB, so the total specific heat of a
continuous wave like light should be infinite in classical
mechanics. This is obviously wrong, because it would
mean that all energy in the universe would be instantly
sucked up into light waves, and everything would slow
down and stop.

These inconsistencies led some people to say that

atoms were not physical, but mathematical. Notable
among the skeptics was Ernst Mach, whose positivist
philosophy led him to demand that if atoms are real, it
should be possible to see them directly. [55] Mach
believed that atoms were a useful fiction, that in reality
they could be assumed to be infinitesimally small,
that Avogadro's number was infinite, or so large that it
might as well be infinite, and kB was infinitesimally
small. Certain experiments could then be explained by
atomic theory, but other experiments could not, and this
is the way it will always be.

Einstein opposed this position. Throughout his career,

he was a realist. He believed that a single consistent
theory should explain all observations, and that this
theory would be a description of what was really going
on, underneath it all. So he set out to show that the
atomic point of view was correct. This led him first to
thermodynamics, then to statistical physics, and to the
theory of specific heats of solids.

In 1905, while he was working in the patent office, the

leading German language physics journal Annalen der
Physik published four of Einstein's papers. The four
papers eventually were recognized as revolutionary,
and 1905 became known as Einstein's "Miracle Year",
and the papers as the Annus Mirabilis Papers.

Main article:  Annus Mirabilis Papers

Thermodynamic fluctuations and

statistical physics
Main article:  statistical physics

Einstein's earliest papers were concerned

with thermodynamics. He wrote a paper establishing
a thermodynamic identity in 1902, and a few other
papers which attempted to interpret phenomena from a
statistical atomic point of view.

His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned

with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion
phenomena. As in Maxwell's work, the finite nonzero
size of atoms leads to effects which can be observed.
This research, and the thermodynamic identity, were
well within the mainstream of physics in his time. They
would eventually form the content of his PhD thesis.[56]

His first major result in this field was the theory of

thermodynamic fluctuations. When in equilibrium, a
system has a maximum entropy and, according to the
statistical interpretation, it can fluctuate a little bit.
Einstein pointed out that the statistical fluctuations of a
macroscopic object, like a mirror suspended on spring,
would be completely determined by the second
derivative of the entropy with respect to the position of
the mirror.

Searching for ways to test this relation, his great

breakthrough came in 1905. The theory of fluctuations,
he realized, would have a visible effect for an object
which could move around freely. Such an object would
have a velocity which is random, and would move
around randomly, just like an individual atom. The
average kinetic energy of the object would be kBT, and
the time decay of the fluctuations would be entirely
determined by the law of friction.

The law of friction for a small ball in a viscous fluid like

water was discovered by George Stokes. He showed
that for small velocities, the friction force would be
proportional to the velocity, and to the radius of the
particle (see Stokes' law). This relation could be used to
calculate how far a small ball in water would travel due
to its random thermal motion, and Einstein noted that
such a ball, of size about a micron, would travel about a
few microns per second. This motion could be easily
detected with a microscope and indeed, as Brownian
motion, had actually been observed by the
botanist Robert Brown. Einstein was able to identify this
motion with that predicted by his theory. Since the
fluctuations which give rise to Brownian motion are just
the same as the fluctuations of the velocities of atoms,
measuring the precise amount of Brownian motion
using Einstein's theory would show that Boltzmann's
constant is non-zero and would measure Avogadro's
number.

These experiments were carried out a few years later

by Jean Baptiste Perrin, and gave a rough estimate of
Avogadro's number consistent with the more accurate
estimates due to Max Planck's theory of blackbody light
and Robert Millikan's measurement of the charge of the
electron.[57] Unlike the other methods, Einstein's
required very few theoretical assumptions or new
physics, since it was directly measuring atomic motion
on visible grains.

Einstein's theory of Brownian motion was the first paper

in the field of statistical physics. It established that
thermodynamic fluctuations were related to dissipation.
This was shown by Einstein to be true for time-
independent fluctuations, but in the Brownian motion
paper he showed that dynamical relaxation rates
calculated from classical mechanics could be used as
statistical relaxation rates to derive dynamical diffusion
laws. These relations are known as Einstein relations.

The theory of Brownian motion was the least

revolutionary of Einstein's Annus mirabilis papers, but it
is the most frequently cited, and had an important role
in securing the acceptance of the atomic theory by
physicists.

Thought experiments and a-priori

physical principles
Main article:  Thought experiment

Einstein's thinking underwent a transformation in 1905.

He had come to understand that quantum properties of
light mean that Maxwell's equations were only an
approximation. He knew that new laws would have to
replace these, but he did not know how to go about
finding those laws. He felt that guessing formal relations
would not go anywhere.
So he decided to focus on a-priori principles instead,
which are statements about physical laws which can be
understood to hold in a very broad sense even in
domains where they have not yet been shown to apply.
A well accepted example of an a-priori principle
is rotational invariance. If a new force is discovered in
physics, it is assumed to be rotationally invariant almost
automatically, without thought. Einstein sought new
principles of this sort, to guide the production of
physical ideas. Once enough principles are found, then
the new physics will be the simplest theory consistent
with the principles and with previously known laws.

The first general a-priori principle he found was

the principle of relativity, that uniform motion is
indistinguishable from rest. This was understood
by Hermann Minkowski to be a generalization of
rotational invariance from space to space-time. Other
principles postulated by Einstein and later vindicated
are the principle of equivalence and the principle
of adiabatic invariance of the quantum number. Another
of Einstein's general principles, Mach's principle, is
fiercely debated, and whether it holds in our world or
not is still not definitively established.

The use of a-priori principles is a distinctive unique

signature of Einstein's early work, and has become a
standard tool in modern theoretical physics.

Special relativity
Main article:  History of special relativity

His 1905 paper on the electrodynamics of moving

bodies introduced his theory of special relativity, which
showed that the observed independence of the speed
of light on the observer's state of motion required
fundamental changes to the notion of simultaneity.
Consequences of this include the time-space frame of a
moving body slowing down and contracting (in the
direction of motion) relative to the frame of the
observer. This paper also argued that the idea of
a luminiferous aether – one of the leading theoretical
entities in physics at the time – was superfluous.[58] In
his paper on mass–energy equivalence, which had
previously been considered to be distinct concepts,
Einstein deduced from his equations of special relativity
what has been called the twentieth century's best-
known equation: E = mc2.[59][60] This equation suggests
that tiny amounts of mass could be converted into huge
amounts of energy and presaged the development
of nuclear power.[61] Einstein's 1905 work on relativity
remained controversial for many years, but was
accepted by leading physicists, starting with Max
Planck.[62][63]

Photons
Main article:  Photon

In a 1905 paper,[64] Einstein postulated that light itself

consists of localized particles (quanta). Einstein's light
quanta were nearly universally rejected by all
physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This
idea only became universally accepted in 1919,
with Robert Millikan's detailed experiments on the
photoelectric effect, and with the measurement
of Compton scattering.

Einstein's paper on the light particles was almost

entirely motivated by thermodynamic considerations.
He was not at all motivated by the detailed experiments
on the photoelectric effect, which did not confirm his
theory until fifteen years later. Einstein considers the
entropy of light at temperature T, and decomposes it
into a low-frequency part and a high-frequency part.
The high-frequency part, where the light is described
by Wien's law, has an entropy which looks exactly the
same as the entropy of a gas of classical particles.

Since the entropy is the logarithm of the number of

possible states, Einstein concludes that the number of
states of short wavelength light waves in a box with
volume V is equal to the number of states of a group of
localizable particles in the same box. Since (unlike
others) he was comfortable with the statistical
interpretation, he confidently postulates that the light
itself is made up of localized particles, as this is the only
reasonable interpretation of the entropy.

This leads him to conclude that each wave of

frequency f is associated with a collection
of photons with energy hf each, where h is Planck's
constant. He does not say much more, because he is
not sure how the particles are related to the wave. But
he does suggest that this idea would explain certain
experimental results, notably the photoelectric effect.[65]

Quantized atomic vibrations

Main article:  Einstein solid

Einstein continued his work on quantum mechanics in

1906, by explaining the specific heat anomaly in solids.
This was the first application of quantum theory to a
mechanical system. Since Planck's distribution for light
oscillators had no problem with infinite specific heats,
the same idea could be applied to solids to fix the
specific heat problem there. Einstein showed in
a simple model that the hypothesis that solid motion is
quantized explains why the specific heat of a solid goes
to zero at zero temperature.

Einstein's model treats each atom as connected to a

single spring. Instead of connecting all the atoms to
each other, which leads to standing waves with all sorts
of different frequencies, Einstein imagined that each
atom was attached to a fixed point in space by a spring.
This is not physically correct, but it still predicts that the
specific heat is 3NkB, since the number of independent
oscillations stays the same.

Einstein then assumes that the motion in this model is

quantized, according to the Planck law, so that each
independent spring motion has energy which is an
integer multiple of hf, where f is the frequency of
oscillation. With this assumption, he applied
Boltzmann's statistical method to calculate the average
energy of the spring. The result was the same as the
one that Planck had derived for light: for temperatures
where kBT is much smaller than hf, the motion is frozen,
and the specific heat goes to zero.

So Einstein concluded that quantum mechanics would

solve the main problem of classical physics, the specific
heat anomaly. The particles of sound implied by this
formulation are now called phonons. Because all of
Einstein's springs have the same stiffness, they all
freeze out at the same temperature, and this leads to a
prediction that the specific heat should go to zero
exponentially fast when the temperature is low. The
solution to this problem is to solve for the
independent normal modes individually, and to quantize
those. Then each normal mode has a different
frequency, and long wavelength vibration modes freeze
out at colder temperatures than short wavelength ones.
This was done byPeter Debye, and after this
modification Einstein's quantization method reproduced
quantitatively the behavior of the specific heats of solids
at low temperatures.

This work was the foundation of condensed matter

physics.

Adiabatic principle and action-angle

variables
Main article:  Old quantum theory

Throughout the 1910s, quantum mechanics expanded

in scope to cover many different systems. After Ernest
Rutherford discovered the nucleus and proposed that
electrons orbit like planets, Niels Bohr was able to show
that the same quantum mechanical postulates
introduced by Planck and developed by Einstein would
explain the discrete motion of electrons in atoms, and
the periodic table of the elements.
Einstein contributed to these developments by linking
them with the 1898 arguments Wilhelm Wien had
made. Wien had shown that the hypothesis of adiabatic
invariance of a thermal equilibrium state allows all
the blackbody curves at different temperature to be
derived from one another by a simple shifting process.
Einstein noted in 1911 that the same adiabatic principle
shows that the quantity which is quantized in any
mechanical motion must be an adiabatic
invariant. Arnold Sommerfeld identified this adiabatic
invariant as the action variable of classical mechanics.
The law that the action variable is quantized was the
basic principle of the quantum theory as it was known
between 1900 and 1925.

Wave-particle duality
Main article:  Wave-particle duality

Although the patent office promoted Einstein to

Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not
given up on academia. In 1908, he became
a privatdozent at the University of Bern.[66] In "über die
Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen
und die Konstitution der Strahlung" ("The Development
of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of
Radiation"), on the quantization of light, and in an
earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max
Planck's energy quanta must have well-
defined momenta and act in some respects as
independent,point-like particles. This paper introduced
the photon concept (although the name photon was
introduced later by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1926) and
inspired the notion of wave-particle duality in quantum
mechanics.

Theory of critical opalescence

Main article:  Critical opalescence

Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic

fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations
in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density
fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of
the free energy with respect to the density. At the
critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large
fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that
light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid
look milky white. Einstein relates this to Raleigh
scattering, which is what happens when the fluctuation
size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which
explains why the sky is blue.[67]

Einstein at the Solvay conference in 1911.

Zero-point energy
Main article:  Zero-point energy

Einstein's physical intuition led him to note that Planck's

oscillator energies had an incorrect zero point. He
modified Planck's hypothesis by stating that the lowest
energy state of an oscillator is equal to 1⁄2hf, to half the
energy spacing between levels. This argument, which
was made in 1913 in collaboration with Otto Stern, was
based on the thermodynamics of a diatomic molecule
which can split apart into two free atoms.

Principle of equivalence
Main article:  Principle of equivalence
In 1907, while still working at the patent office, Einstein
had what he would call his "happiest thought". He
realized that the principle of relativity could be extended
to gravitational fields. He thought about the case of a
uniformly accelerated box not in a gravitational field,
and noted that it would be indistinguishable from a box
sitting still in an unchanging gravitational field. [68] He
used special relativity to see that the rate of clocks at
the top of a box accelerating upward would be faster
than the rate of clocks at the bottom. He concludes that
the rates of clocks depend on their position in a
gravitational field, and that the difference in rate is
proportional to the gravitational potential to first
approximation.

Although this approximation is crude, it allowed him to

calculate the deflection of light by gravity, and show that
it is nonzero. This gave him confidence that the scalar
theory of gravity proposed by Gunnar Nordströmwas
incorrect. But the actual value for the deflection that he
calculated was too small by a factor of two, because the
approximation he used doesn't work well for things
moving at near the speed of light. When Einstein
finished the full theory of general relativity, he would
rectify this error and predict the correct amount of light
deflection by the sun.

From Prague, Einstein published a paper about the

effects of gravity on light, specifically the gravitational
redshift and the gravitational deflection of light. The
paper challenged astronomers to detect the deflection
during a solar eclipse.[69] German astronomer Erwin
Finlay-Freundlich publicized Einstein's challenge to
scientists around the world.[70]

Einstein thought about the nature of the gravitational

field in the years 1909–1912, studying its properties by
means of simple thought experiments. A notable one is
the rotating disk. Einstein imagined an observer making
experiments on a rotating turntable. He noted that such
an observer would find a different value for the
mathematical constant pi than the one predicted by
Euclidean geometry. The reason is that the radius of a
circle would be measured with an uncontracted ruler,
but, according to special relativity, the circumference
would seem to be longer because the ruler would be
contracted.

Since Einstein believed that the laws of physics were

local, described by local fields, he concluded from this
that spacetime could be locally curved. This led him to
study Riemannian geometry, and to formulate general
relativity in this language.

Hole argument and Entwurf theory

Main article:  Hole argument

While developing general relativity, Einstein became

confused about the gauge invariance in the theory. He
formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a
general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave
up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations,
and searched for equations that would be invariant
under general linear transformations only.

In June, 1913 the Entwurf ("draft") theory was the result

of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a
sketch of a theory, with the equations of motion
supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions.
Simultaneously less elegant and more difficult than
general relativity, after more than two years of intensive
work Einstein abandoned the theory in November, 1915
after realizing that the hole argument was mistaken.[71]

General relativity
See also:  History of general relativity

In 1912, Einstein returned to Switzerland to accept a

professorship at his alma mater, the ETH. Once back in
Zurich, he immediately visited his old ETH
classmate Marcel Grossmann, now a professor of
mathematics, who introduced him to Riemannian
geometry and, more generally, to differential geometry.
On the recommendation of Italian mathematician Tullio
Levi-Civita, Einstein began exploring the usefulness
of general covariance (essentially the use of tensors)
for his gravitational theory. For a while Einstein thought
that there were problems with the approach, but he
later returned to it and, by late 1915, had published
his general theory of relativity in the form in which it is
used today.[72] This theory explains gravitation as
distortion of the structure of spacetime by matter,
affecting the inertial motion of other matter. During
World War I, the work of Central Powers scientists was
available only to Central Powers academics, for
national security reasons. Some of Einstein's work did
reach the United Kingdom and the United States
through the efforts of the Austrian Paul Ehrenfest and
physicists in the Netherlands, especially 1902 Nobel
Prize-winner Hendrik Lorentz and Willem de
Sitter of Leiden University. After the war ended,
Einstein maintained his relationship with Leiden
University, accepting a contract as an Extraordinary
Professor; for ten years, from 1920 to 1930, he
travelled to Holland regularly to lecture.[73]

In 1917, several astronomers accepted Einstein 's 1911

challenge from Prague. The Mount Wilson
Observatory in California, U.S., published a
solar spectroscopic analysis that showed no
gravitational redshift.[74] In 1918, the Lick Observatory,
also in California, announced that it too had disproved
Einstein's prediction, although its findings were not
published.[75]
Eddington's photograph of a solar eclipse, which confirmed
Einstein's theory that light "bends".

However, in May 1919, a team led by the British

astronomer Arthur Stanley Eddington claimed to have
confirmed Einstein's prediction of gravitational
deflection of starlight by the Sun while photographing a
solar eclipse with dual expeditions in Sobral,
northern Brazil, and Príncipe, a west African island.
[70]
 Nobel laureate Max Born praised general relativity as
the "greatest feat of human thinking about nature";
[76]
 fellow laureate Paul Dirac was quoted saying it was
"probably the greatest scientific discovery ever made".
[77]
 The international media guaranteed Einstein's global
renown.

There have been claims that scrutiny of the specific

photographs taken on the Eddington expedition showed
the experimental uncertainty to be comparable to the
same magnitude as the effect Eddington claimed to
have demonstrated, and that a 1962 British expedition
concluded that the method was inherently unreliable.
[37]
 The deflection of light during a solar eclipse was
confirmed by later, more accurate observations.
[78]
 Some resented the newcomer's fame, notably
among some German physicists, who later started
the Deutsche Physik (German Physics) movement.[79][80]
Cosmology
Main article:  Cosmology

In 1917, Einstein applied the General theory of relativity

to model the structure of the universe as a whole. He
wanted the universe to be eternal and unchanging, but
this type of universe is not consistent with relativity. To
fix this, Einstein modified the general theory by
introducing a new notion, the cosmological constant.
With a positive cosmological constant, the universe
could be an eternal static sphere[81]

Einstein believed a spherical static universe is

philosophically preferred, because it would obey Mach's
principle. He had shown that general relativity
incorporates Mach's principle to a certain extent
in frame dragging by gravitomagnetic fields, but he
knew that Mach's idea would not work if space goes on
forever. In a closed universe, he believed that Mach's
principle would hold.

Mach's principle has generated much controversy over

the years.

Einstein in his office at the University of Berlin.

Modern quantum theory

Main article:  Schrödinger equation

In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein

published an article in Physikalische Zeitschrift that
proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, the
physical process that makes possible the maser and
the laser.[82] This article showed that the statistics of
absorption and emission of light would only be
consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission
of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced
statistically compared to the emission of light into an
empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in
the later development of quantum mechanics, because
it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic
transitions had simple laws. Einstein discovered Louis
de Broglie's work, and supported his ideas, which were
received skeptically at first. In another major paper from
this era, Einstein gave a wave equation forde Broglie
waves, which Einstein suggested was the Hamilton–
Jacobi equation of mechanics. This paper would inspire
Schrödinger's work of 1926.

Bose–Einstein statistics
Main article:  Bose–Einstein condensation

In 1924, Einstein received a description of

a statistical model from Indian physicist Satyendra Nath
Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that
light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable
particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to
some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles,
and submitted his translation of Bose's paper to
the Zeitschrift für Physik. Einstein also published his
own articles describing the model and its implications,
among them the Bose–Einstein
condensate phenomenon that some particulates should
appear at very low temperatures.[83] It was not until 1995
that the first such condensate was produced
experimentally by Eric Allin Cornelland Carl
Wieman using ultra-cooling equipment built at
the NIST–JILA laboratory at the University of Colorado
at Boulder.[84] Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to
describe the behaviors of any assembly of bosons.
Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the
Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University.
[54]

Energy momentum pseudotensor

Main article:  Stress-energy-momentum pseudotensor

General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it

is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy
and momentum. Noether's theorem allows these
quantities to be determined from
a Lagrangian with translation invariance, but general
covariance makes translation invariance into something
of a gauge symmetry. The energy and momentum
derived within general relativity by Noether's
presecriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason.

Einstein argued that this is true for fundamental

reasons, because the gravitational field could be made
to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained
that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor
was in fact the best description of the energy
momentum distribution in a gravitational field. This
approach has been echoed by Lev Landau and Evgeny
Lifshitz, and others, and has become standard.

The use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors

was heavily criticized in 1917 by Erwin Schrödinger and
others.

Unified field theory

Main article:  Classical unified field theories

Following his research on general relativity, Einstein

entered into a series of attempts to generalize his
geometric theory of gravitation, which would allow the
explanation of electromagnetism. In 1950, he described
his "unified field theory" in a Scientific American article
entitled "On the Generalized Theory of
Gravitation". [85] Although he continued to be lauded for
his work, Einstein became increasingly isolated in his
research, and his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful.
In his pursuit of a unification of the fundamental forces,
Einstein ignored some mainstream developments in
physics, most notably the strong and weak nuclear
forces, which were not well understood until many
years after his death. Mainstream physics, in turn,
largely ignored Einstein's approaches to unification.
Einstein's dream of unifying other laws of physics with
gravity motivates modern quests for a theory of
everything and in particular string theory, where
geometrical fields emerge in a unified quantum-
mechanical setting.

Wormholes
Main article:  Wormhole

Einstein collaborated with others to produce a model of

a wormhole. His motivation was to model elementary
particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field
equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper
"Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the
Constitution of the Elementary Particles?". These
solutions cut and pasted Schwarzschild black holes to
make a bridge between two patches.

If one end of a wormhole was positively charged, the

other end would be negatively charged. These
properties led Einstein to believe that pairs of particles
and antiparticles could be described in this way.

Einstein–Cartan theory
Main article:  Einstein–Cartan theory

In order to incorporate spinning point particles into

general relativity, the affine connection needed to be
generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called
the torsion. This modification was made by Einstein and
Cartan in the 1920s.

Equations of motion
Main article:  Einstein–Infeld–Hoffmann equation

The theory of general relativity has a fundamental law

– the Einstein equations which describe how space
curves, the geodesic equationwhich describes how
particles move may be derived from the Einstein
equations.

Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear,

a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields,
like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is
determined by the Einstein equations themselves, not
by a new law. So Einstein proposed that the path of a
singular solution, like a black hole, would be determined
to be a geodesic from general relativity itself.

This was established by Einstein, Infeld and Hoffmann

for pointlike objects without angular momentum, and
by Roy Kerr for spinning objects.

Einstein's controversial beliefs in

physics
In addition to his well-accepted results, some of
Einstein's views are regarded as controversial:

 In the special relativity paper (in 1905), Einstein

noted that, given a specific definition of the word
"force" (a definition which he later agreed was not
advantageous), and if we choose to maintain (by
convention) the equation mass x acceleration =

force, then one arrives at   as the

expression for the transverse mass of a fast
moving particle. This differs from the accepted
expression today, because, as noted in the
footnotes to Einstein's paper added in the 1913
reprint, "it is more to the point to define force in
such a way that the laws of energy and momentum
assume the simplest form", as was done, for
example, by Max Planck in 1906, who gave the

now familiar expression   for the

 transverse mass. As Miller points out, this is
equivalent to the transverse mass predictions of
both Einstein and Lorentz. Einstein had
commented already in the 1905 paper that "With a
different definition of force and acceleration, we
should naturally obtain other expressions for the
masses. This shows that in comparing different
theories... we must proceed very cautiously." [86]

 Einstein published (in 1922) a qualitative theory of

superconductivity based on the vague idea of
electrons shared in orbits. This paper predated
modern quantum mechanics, and today is regarded
as being incorrect. The current theory of low
temperature superconductivity was only worked out
in 1957, thirty years after the establishing of
modern quantum mechanics. However, even today,
superconductivity is not well understood, and
alternative theories continue to be put forward,
especially to account for high-temperature
superconductors.[citation needed]

 After introducing the concept of gravitational waves

in 1917, Einstein subsequently entertained doubts
about whether they could be physically realized. In
1937 he published a paper saying that the focusing
properties of geodesics in general relativity would
lead to an instability which causes plane
gravitational waves to collapse in on themselves.
While this is true to a certain extent in some limits,
because gravitational instabilities can lead to a
concentration of energy density into black holes, for
plane waves of the type Einstein and Rosen
considered in their paper, the instabilities are under
control. Einstein retracted this position a short time
later.[citation needed]

 Einstein denied several times that black holes

could form. In 1939 he published a paper that
argues that a star collapsing would spin faster and
faster, spinning at the speed of light with infinite
 energy well before the point where it is about to
collapse into a black hole. This paper received no
citations, and the conclusions are well understood
to be wrong. Einstein's argument itself is
inconclusive, since he only shows that stable
spinning objects have to spin faster and faster to
stay stable before the point where they collapse.
But it is well understood today (and was
understood well by some even then) that collapse
cannot happen through stationary states the way
Einstein imagined. Nevertheless, the extent to
which the models of black holes in classical general
relativity correspond to physical reality remains
unclear, and in particular the implications of the
central singularity implicit in these models are still
not understood. Efforts to conclusively prove the
existence of event horizons have still not been
successful, and most scientists acknowledge that
no such proof is even possible.[citation needed]

 Closely related to his rejection of black holes,

Einstein believed that the exclusion of singularities
might restrict the class of solutions of the field
equations so as to force solutions compatible with
quantum mechanics, but no such theory has ever
been found.[citation needed]

 In the early days of quantum mechanics, Einstein

tried to show that the uncertainty principle was not
valid, but by 1927 he had become convinced that it
was valid.[citation needed]

 In the EPR paper, Einstein argued that quantum

mechanics cannot be a complete realistic and local
representation of phenomena, given specific
definitions of "realism", "locality", and
"completeness". The modern consensus is that
Einstein's concept of realism is too restrictive.[citation
needed]

 Einstein himself considered the introduction of the

cosmological term in his 1917 paper founding
 cosmology as a "blunder".[87] The theory of general
relativity predicted an expanding or contracting
universe, but Einstein wanted a universe which is
an unchanging three dimensional sphere, like the
surface of a three dimensional ball in four
dimensions. He wanted this for philosophical
reasons, so as to incorporate Mach's principle in a
reasonable way. He stabilized his solution by
introducing a cosmological constant, and when the
universe was shown to be expanding, he retracted
the constant as a blunder. This is not really much of
a blunder – the cosmological constant is necessary
within general relativity as it is currently
understood, and it is widely believed to have a
nonzero value today.

 Einstein did not immediately appreciate the value of

Minkowski's four-dimensional formulation of special
relativity, although within a few years he had
adopted it as the basis for his theory of gravitation.
[citation needed]

 Finding it too formal, Einstein believed that

Heisenberg's matrix mechanics was incorrect. He
changed his mind when Schrödinger and others
demonstrated that the formulation in terms of
the Schrödinger equation, based on
Einstein's wave-particle duality was equivalent to
Heisenberg's matrices.[citation needed]
Collaboration with other scientists
In addition to long time collaborators Leopold
Infeld, Nathan Rosen, Peter Bergmann and others,
Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with
various scientists.

Einstein-de Haas experiment

Main article:  Einstein-de Haas effect

Einstein and De Haas demonstrated that magnetization

is due to the motion of electrons, nowadays known to
be the spin. In order to show this, they reversed the
magnetization in an iron bar suspended on a torsion
pendulum. They confirmed that this leads the bar to
rotate, because the electron's angular momentum
changes as the magnetization changes. This
experiment needed to be sensitive, because the
angular momentum associated with electrons is small,
but it definitively established that electron motion of
some kind is responsible for magnetization.

Schrödinger gas model

Einstein suggested to Erwin Schrödinger that he might

be able to reproduce the statistics of a Bose–Einstein
gas by considering a box. Then to each possible
quantum motion of a particle in a box associate an
independent harmonic oscillator. Quantizing these
oscillators, each level will have an integer occupation
number, which will be the number of particles in it.

This formulation is a form of second quantization, but it

predates modern quantum mechanics. Erwin
Schrödinger applied this to derive
thethermodynamic properties of a semiclassical ideal
gas. Schrödinger urged Einstein to add his name as co-
author, although Einstein declined the invitation. [88]

Einstein refrigerator
Main article:  Einstein refrigerator

In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-

invented (and in 1930, patented) the Einstein
refrigerator. This Absorption refrigeratorwas then
revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only
heat as an input.[89] On 11 November 1930, U.S. Patent
1,781,541 was awarded to Albert Einstein and Leó
Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not
immediately put into commercial production, as the
most promising of their patents were quickly bought up
by the Swedish company Electrolux to protect its
refrigeration technology from competition.[90]

Bohr versus Einstein

See also:  Bohr–Einstein debates

Einstein and Niels Bohr

In the 1920s, quantum mechanics developed into a

more complete theory. Einstein was unhappy with
theCopenhagen interpretation of quantum theory
developed by Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg, both
in its outcomes and its instrumentalist methodology,
Einstein being a scientific realist. In this interpretation,
quantum phenomena are inherently probabilistic, with
definite states resulting only upon interaction
withclassical systems. A public debate between
Einstein and Bohr followed, lasting on and off for many
years (including during the Solvay Conferences).
Einstein formulated thought experiments against the
Copenhagen interpretation, which were all rebutted by
Bohr. In a 1926 letter to Max Born, Einstein wrote: "I, at
any rate, am convinced that He [God] does not throw
dice." [91]

Einstein was never satisfied by what he perceived to be

quantum theory's intrinsically incomplete description of
nature, and in 1935 he further explored the issue in
collaboration with Boris Podolsky andNathan Rosen,
noting that the theory seems to require non-
local interactions; this is known as the EPR paradox.
[92]
 The EPR experiment has since been performed, with
results confirming quantum theory's predictions.
[93]
 Repercussions of the Einstein–Bohr debate have
found their way into philosophical discourse.

Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox
Main article:  EPR paradox

In 1935, Einstein returned to the question of quantum

mechanics. He considered how a measurement on one
of two entangled particles would affect the other. He
noted, along with his collaborators, that by performing
different measurements on the distant particle, either of
position or momentum, different properties of the
entangled partner could be discovered without
disturbing it in any way.

He then used a hypothesis of local realism to conclude

that the other particle had these properties already
determined. The principle he proposed is that if it is
possible to determine what the answer to a position or
momentum measurement would be, without in any way
disturbing the particle, then the particle actually has
values of position or momentum.

This principle distilled the essence of Einstein's

objection to quantum mechanics. As a physical
principle, it has since been shown to be incompatible
with experiments.

Religious views

Main article:  Albert Einstein's religious views

The question of scientific determinism gave rise to

questions about Einstein's position on theological
determinism, and whether or not he believed in God, or
in a god. In 1929, Einstein told Rabbi Herbert S.
Goldstein "I believe in Spinoza's God, who reveals
Himself in the lawful harmony of the world, not in a God
Who concerns Himself with the fate and the doings of
mankind."[94] In a 1954 letter, he wrote, "I do not believe
in a personal God and I have never denied this but
have expressed it clearly."[95] In a letter to philosopher
Erik Gutkind, Einstein remarked, "The word God is for
me nothing more than the expression and product of
human weakness, the Bible a collection of honorable,
but still purely primitive, legends which are nevertheless
pretty childish."[96]

Repeated attempts by the press to present Albert

Einstein as a religious man provoked the following
statement:

It was, of course, a lie what you read about my

religious convictions, a lie which is being
systematically repeated. I do not believe in a
personal God and I have never denied this but
have expressed it clearly. If something is in me
which can be called religious then it is the
unbounded admiration for the structure of the
world so far as our science can reveal it.
—Albert Einstein[97]

Einstein had previously explored this belief, that man

could not understand the nature of God, when he gave
an interview to Time Magazine explaining:

I'm not an atheist and I don't think I can call

myself a  pantheist. We are in the position of a
little child entering a huge library filled with
books in many different languages. The child
knows someone must have written those
books. It does not know how. The child dimly
suspects a mysterious order in the
arrangement of the books but doesn't know
what it is. That, it seems to me, is the attitude
of even the most intelligent human being
toward God.
—Albert Einstein[98]

Political views

Main article:  Albert Einstein's political views

 Albert Einstein, seen here with his wifeElsa Einstein and
Zionist leaders, including future President of Israel Chaim
Weizmann, his wife Dr. Vera Weizmann, Menahem
Ussishkin, and Ben-Zion Mossinson on arrival in New
York City in 1921.

Throughout the November Revolution in Germany

Einstein signed an appeal for the foundation of a
nationwide liberal and democratic party,[99][100] which was
published in the Berliner Tageblatt on 16 November
1918,[101] and became a member of the German
Democratic Party.[102]

Einstein was a socialist. He flouted the

ascendant Nazi movement and later tried to be a voice
of moderation in the tumultuous formation of the State
of Israel, which he supported.[103] He bravedanti-
communist politics and resistance to the civil rights
movement in the United States. He participated in the
1927 congress of the League against Imperialism in
Brussels.[104]

In his article Why Socialism?,[105] published in 1949 in

the Monthly Review, Einstein described a
chaotic capitalist society, a source of evil to be
overcome, as the "predatory phase of human
development". He came to the following conclusion:

I am convinced there is only one way to

eliminate these grave evils [capitalism], namely
through the establishment of a socialist
economy, accompanied by an educational
system which would be oriented toward social
 goals. In such an economy, the means of
production are owned by society itself and are
utilized in a planned fashion. A planned
economy, which adjusts production to the
needs of the community, would distribute the
work to be done among all those able to work
and would guarantee a livelihood to every man,
woman, and child. The education of the
individual, in addition to promoting his own
innate abilities, would attempt to develop in him
a sense of responsibility for his fellow men in
place of the glorification of power and success
in our present society.[105]

On the floor of the US Congress, Einstein was accused

by John E. Rankin of Mississippi of being a "foreign-
born agitator" who sought "to further the spread
of Communism throughout the world".[106]

After World War II, as enmity between the former allies

became a serious issue, Einstein wrote, "I do not know
how the third World War will be fought, but I can tell you
what they will use in the Fourth – rocks!"[107] (Einstein
1949) With Albert Schweitzer and Bertrand Russell,
Einstein lobbied to stop nuclear testing and future
bombs. Days before his death, Einstein signed
the Russell–Einstein Manifesto, which led to
the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World
Affairs.[108]

Einstein was a member of several civil rights groups,

including the Princeton chapter of the NAACP. When
the aged W. E. B. Du Bois was accused of being a
Communist spy, Einstein volunteered as a character
witness, and the case was dismissed shortly afterward.
Einstein's friendship with activist Paul Robeson, with
whom he served as co-chair of the American Crusade
to End Lynching, lasted twenty years.[109]

Einstein said "Politics is for the moment, equation for

the eternity",[110] stating that physics was more important
in his life. He declined the presidency of Israel in 1952.
[111]

Non-scientific legacy

While travelling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa

and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters
were included in the papers bequeathed to The Hebrew
University. Margot Einstein permitted the personal
letters to be made available to the public, but requested
that it not be done until twenty years after her death
(she died in 1986[112]). Barbara Wolff, of The Hebrew
University's Albert Einstein Archives, told the BBC that
there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence
written between 1912 and 1955.[113]

Einstein bequeathed the royalties from use of

his image to The Hebrew University of
Jerusalem. Corbis, successor to The Roger Richman
Agency, licenses the use of his name and associated
imagery, as agent for the university.[114][115]

In popular culture

Main article:  Albert Einstein in popular culture

In the period before World War II, Einstein was so well-

known in America that he would be stopped on the
street by people wanting him to explain "that theory".
He finally figured out a way to handle the incessant
inquiries. He told his inquirers "Pardon me, sorry!
Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein." [116]

Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many

novels, films, plays, and works of music.[117] He is a
favorite model for depictions ofmad
scientists and absent-minded professors; his
expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been
widely copied and exaggerated. Timemagazine's
Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's
dream come true".[118]

Awards and honors

See also:  List of things named after Albert Einstein

In 1922, Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in

Physics,[119] "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and
especially for his discovery of the law of the
photoelectric effect". This refers to his 1905 paper on
the photoelectric effect, "On a Heuristic Viewpoint
Concerning the Production and Transformation of
Light", which was well supported by the experimental
evidence by that time. The presentation speech began
by mentioning "his theory of relativity [which had] been
the subject of lively debate in philosophical circles [and]
also has astrophysical implications which are being
rigorously examined at the present time". (Einstein
1923)

It was long reported that Einstein gave the Nobel prize

money to his first wife, Mileva Marić, in compliance with
their 1919 divorce settlement. However, personal
correspondence made public in 2006[120] shows that he
invested much of it in the United States, and saw much
of it wiped out in the Great Depression.

In 1929, Max Planck presented Einstein with the Max

Planck medal of the German Physical Society in Berlin,
for extraordinary achievements in theoretical physics.

In 1936, Einstein was awarded the Franklin

Institute's Franklin Medal for his extensive work on
relativity and the photo-electric effect.

The International Union of Pure and Applied

Physics named 2005 the "World Year of Physics" in
commemoration of the 100th anniversary of the
publication of the annus mirabilis papers.[121]

The Albert Einstein Science Park is located on the hill

Telegrafenberg in Potsdam, Germany. The best known
building in the park is theEinstein Tower which has a
bronze bust of Einstein at the entrance. The Tower is
an astrophysical observatory that was built to perform
checks of Einstein's theory of General Relativity.[122]
The Albert Einstein Memorial in central Washington,
D.C. is a monumental bronze statue depicting Einstein
seated with manuscript papers in hand. The statue,
commissioned in 1979, is located in a grove of trees at
the southwest corner of the grounds of the National
Academy of Sciences on Constitution Avenue.

The chemical element 99, einsteinium, was named for

him in August 1955, four months after Einstein's death.
[123][124]
 2001 Einstein is an inner main
belt asteroid discovered on 5 March 1973.[125]

In 1999 Time magazine named him the Person of the

Century,[118][126] ahead of Mahatma Gandhi and Franklin
Roosevelt, among others. In the words of a biographer,
"to the scientifically literate and the public at large,
Einstein is synonymous with genius".[127] Also in 1999,
an opinion poll of 100 of leading physicists ranked
Einstein the "greatest physicist ever".[128] A Gallup
poll recorded him as the fourth most admired person of
the 20th century in the U.S.[129]

In 1990, his name was added to the Walhalla temple for

"laudable and distinguished Germans",[130] which is
located east of Regensburg, inBavaria, Germany.[131]

The United States Postal Service honored Einstein with

a Prominent Americans series (1965–1978) 8¢ postage
stamp.

Awards named after him

The Albert Einstein Award (sometimes called the Albert
Einstein Medal because it is accompanied with a gold
medal) is an award intheoretical physics, established to
recognize high achievement in the natural sciences. It
was endowed by the Lewis and Rosa Strauss Memorial
Fund in honor of Albert Einstein's 70th birthday. It was
first awarded in 1951 and included a prize money of
$ 15,000,[132][133] which was later reduced to $ 5,000.[134]
[135]
 The winner is selected by a committee (the first of
which consisted of Einstein, Oppenheimer, von
 Neumann and Weyl[136]) of the Institute for Advanced
Study, which administers the award.[133]

The Albert Einstein Medal is an award presented by

the Albert Einstein Society in Bern, Switzerland. First
given in 1979, the award is presented to people who
have "rendered outstanding services" in connection
with Einstein.[137]

The Albert Einstein Peace Prize is given yearly by

the Chicago, Illinois-based Albert Einstein Peace Prize
Foundation. Winners of the prize receive $50,000.[138]

See also

Book:Albert Einstein

Books are collections of articles that can be

downloaded or ordered in print.

 German inventors and discoverers

 Heinrich Burkhardt

 Hermann Einstein

 Historical Museum of Bern (Einstein museum)

 History of gravitational theory

 Introduction to special relativity

 List of coupled cousins

 List of Nobel laureates in Physics

 Relativity priority dispute

 Science Odyssey People And Discoveries

 Sticky bead argument

 Summation convention

 The Einstein Theory of Relativity(educational film

about the theory of relativity)
Publications

The following publications by Albert Einstein are referenced in this

article. A more complete list of his publications may be found at List
of scientific publications by Albert Einstein.
 Einstein, Albert (1901), "Folgerungen aus den

Capillaritätserscheinungen (Conclusions Drawn

from the Phenomena of Capillarity)", Annalen

der Physik 4:

513, doi:10.1002/andp.19013090306

 Einstein, Albert (1905a), "On a Heuristic

Viewpoint Concerning the Production and

Transformation of Light", Annalen der

Physik 17: 132–148[dead link]. This annus mirabilis

paper on the photoelectric effect was received

by Annalen der Physik 18th March.

 Einstein, Albert (1905b), A new determination of

molecular dimensions. This PhD thesis was

completed 30th April and submitted 20th July.

 Einstein, Albert (1905c), "On the Motion –

Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of

Heat – of Small Particles Suspended in a

Stationary Liquid",Annalen der Physik 17: 549–

560. This annus mirabilis paper on Brownian

motion was received 11th May.

 Einstein, Albert (1905d), "On the

Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies", Annalen

der Physik 17: 891–921. This annus mirabilis

paper on special relativity was received

30th June.

 Einstein, Albert (1905e), "Does the Inertia of a

Body Depend Upon Its Energy

Content?", Annalen der Physik 18: 639–641.

This annus mirabilis paper on mass-energy

equivalence was received 27th September.

 Einstein, Albert (1915), "Die Feldgleichungen

der Gravitation (The Field Equations of

Gravitation)", Königlich Preussische Akademie

der Wissenschaften: 844–847

 Einstein, Albert (1917a), "Kosmologische

Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen

Relativitätstheorie (Cosmological

Considerations in the General Theory of

 Relativity)", Königlich Preussische Akademie

der Wissenschaften

 Einstein, Albert (1917b), "Zur Quantentheorie

der Strahlung (On the Quantum Mechanics of

Radiation)", Physikalische Zeitschrift 18: 121–

128

 Einstein, Albert (11th July 1923), "Fundamental

Ideas and Problems of the Theory of

Relativity", Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901–1921,

Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing Company,

retrieved 25 March 2007

 Einstein, Albert (1924), "Quantentheorie des

einatomigen idealen Gases (Quantum theory of

monatomic ideal gases)", Sitzungsberichte der

Preussichen Akademie der Wissenschaften

Physikalisch-Mathematische Klasse: 261–267.

First of a series of papers on this topic.

 Einstein, Albert (1926), "Die Ursache der

Mäanderbildung der Flussläufe und des

sogenannten Baerschen Gesetzes", Die

Naturwissenschaften14: 223–

224, doi:10.1007/BF01510300. On Baer's

law and meanders in the courses of rivers.

 Einstein, Albert; Podolsky, Boris; Rosen, Nathan

(15 May 1935), "Can Quantum-Mechanical

Description of Physical Reality Be Considered

Complete?", Physical Review 47 (10): 777–

780, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.47.777

 Einstein, Albert (1940), "On Science and

Religion", Nature (Edinburgh: Scottish

Academic) 146:

605, doi:10.1038/146605a0, ISBN 0707304539

 Einstein, Albert et al. (4th December 1948), "To

the editors", New York Times (Melville, NY: AIP,

American Inst. of Physics), ISBN 0735403597

 Einstein, Albert (May 1949), "Why

Socialism?", Monthly Review, retrieved 16

January 2006
 Einstein, Albert (1950), "On the Generalized

Theory of Gravitation", Scientific

American CLXXXII (4): 13–17

 Einstein, Albert (1954), Ideas and Opinions,

New York: Random House, ISBN 0-517-00393-

 Einstein, Albert (1969) (in German), Albert

Einstein, Hedwig und Max Born: Briefwechsel

1916–1955, Munich: Nymphenburger

Verlagshandlung,ISBN 388682005X

 Einstein, Albert (1979), Autobiographical Notes,

Paul Arthur Schilpp (Centennial ed.), Chicago:

Open Court, ISBN 0-875-48352-6. The chasing

a light beam thought experiment is described on

pages 48–51.

 Collected Papers: Stachel, John, Martin J. Klein,

a. J. Kox, Michel Janssen, R. Schulmann, Diana

Komos Buchwald and others (Eds.) (1987–

2006),The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein,

Vol. 1–10, Princeton University Press Further

information about the volumes published so far

can be found on the webpages of the Einstein

Papers Project and on the Princeton University

Press Einstein Page

Notes

1. ^ a b Marzouk, Lawrence (2010-07-

07). "Rescue in Albania: How Thousands

of Jews Were Saved From the Holocaust".

BalkanInsight.com.

2. ^ Hans-Josef, Küpper (2000), Various

things about Albert Einstein, einstein-

website.de, retrieved 18 July 2009

3. ^ Zahar, Élie (2001), Poincaré's

Philosophy. From Conventionalism to

Phenomenology, Carus Publishing

Company, p. 41, ISBN 0-8126-9435-

X, Chapter 2, p. 41
4. ^ The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921, Nobel
Foundation, archived from the original on 5

October 2008, retrieved 6 March 2007

5. ^ a b Paul Arthur Schilpp, editor

(1951), Albert Einstein: Philosopher-

Scientist, Volume II, New York: Harper and

Brothers Publishers (Harper Torchbook

edition), pp. 730–746 His non-scientific

works include: About Zionism: Speeches

and Lectures by Professor Albert

Einstein (1930), "Why War?" (1933, co-

authored by Sigmund Freud), The World

As I See It (1934), Out of My Later

Years (1950), and a book on science for

the general reader, The Evolution of

Physics (1938, co-authored by Leopold

Infeld).

6. ^ WordNet for Einstein

7. ^ a b c d e f Albert Einstein  –
Biography, Nobel Foundation, retrieved 7

March 2007

8. ^ Einstein: the life and times, By Ronald

William Clark

9. ^ Rosenkranz, Ze'ev (2005), Albert

Einstein – Derrière l'image, Neue Zürcher

Zeitung, p. 29, ISBN 3-03823-182-7

10. ^ Sowell, Thomas (2001), The Einstein

Syndrome: Bright Children Who Talk

Late, Basic Books, pp. 89–150, ISBN 0-

465-08140-1

11. ^ Schilpp (Ed.), P. A. (1979), Albert

Einstein – Autobiographical Notes, Open

Court Publishing Company, pp. 8–9

12. ^ Dudley Herschbach, "Einstein as a

Student", Department of Chemistry and

Chemical Biology, Harvard University,

Cambridge, MA, USA, page 3,

 web: HarvardChem-Einstein-PDF: Max

Talmud visited on Thursdays for six years.

13. ^ www.chem.harvard.edu/herschbach/Eins
tein_Student.pdf Albert's intellectual growth

was strongly fostered at home. His mother,

a talented pianist, ensured the children's

musical education. His father regularly

read Schiller and Heine aloud to the family.

Uncle Jakob challenged Albert with

mathematical problems, which he solved

with "a deep feeling of happiness". Most

remarkable was Max Talmud, a poor

Jewish medical student from Poland, "for

whom the Jewish community had obtained

free meals with the Einstein family".

Talmud came on Thursday nights for about

six years, and "invested his whole person

in examining everything that engaged

[Albert's] interest". Talmud had Albert read

and discuss many books with him. These

included a series of twenty popular science

books that convinced Albert "a lot in the

Bible stories could not be true", and a

textbook of plane geometry that launched

Albert on avid self-study of mathematics,

years ahead of the school curriculum.

Talmud even had Albert read Kant; as a

result Einstein began preaching to his

schoolmates about Kant, with

"forcefulness"

14. ^ Einstein's greatest intellectual stimulation

came from a poor student who dined with

his family once a week. It was an old

Jewish custom to take in a needy religious

scholar to share the Sabbath meal; the

Einsteins modified the tradition by hosting

instead a medical student on Thursdays.

His name was Max Talmud, and he began

 his weekly visits when he was 21 and

Einstein was 10.

15. ^ Mehra, Jagdish (2001), "Albert Einstein's

first paper" (PDF), The Golden Age of

Physics, World

Scientific, ISBN 9810249853, retrieved 4

March 2007

16. ^ Highfield, Roger; Carter, Paul

(1993), The Private Lives of Albert

Einstein, London: Faber and Faber,

p. 21, ISBN 0-571-17170-2

17. ^ Highfield & Carter (1993, pp. 21,31,56–

57)

18. ^ Albert Einstein Collected Papers, vol. 1,

1987, doc. 67.

19. ^ Troemel-Ploetz, D., "Mileva Einstein-

Marić: The Woman Who Did Einstein's

Mathematics", Women's Studies Int.

Forum, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 415-432, 1990.

20. ^ E. H. Walker, E. H., "Did Einstein

Espouse his Spouse's Ideas?", Physics

Today, Feb.

1989.http://philoscience.unibe.ch/lehre/wint

er99/einstein/Walker_Stachel.pdf

21. ^ Pais, A., Einstein Lived Here, Oxford

University Press, 1994, pp. 1-29.

22. ^ Holton, G., Einstein, History, and Other

Passions, Harvard University Press, 1996,

pp. 177-193.

23. ^ Stachel, J., Einstein from B to Z,

Birkhäuser, 2002, pp. 26-38; 39-

55. http://philoscience.unibe.ch/lehre/winter

99/einstein/Stachel1966.pdf

24. ^ Martinez, A. A., “Handling evidence in

history: the case of Einstein’s

Wife.” School Science Review, 86 (316),

March 2005, pp. 49-

56.http://www.ase.org.uk/htm/members_ar
 ea/journals/ssr/ssr_march_05pdf/eins_wife

-pg49.pdf

25. ^ This conclusion is from Einstein's

correspondence with Marić. Lieserl is first

mentioned in a letter from Einstein to Marić

(who was staying with her family in or near

Novi Sad at the time of Lieserl's birth)

dated 4 February 1902 (Collected

papers Vol. 1, document 134).

26. ^ Albrecht Fölsing (1998). Albert Einstein:

A Biography. Penguin Group. ISBN

0140237194; see section I, II,

27. ^ Highfield & Carter 1993, p. 216

28. ^ Now the Swiss Federal Institute of
Intellectual Property, retrieved 16 October

2006. See also their FAQ about Einstein

and the Institute

29. ^ Peter Galison, "Einstein's Clocks: The

Question of Time" Critical Inquiry 26, no. 2

(Winter 2000): 355–389.

30. ^ Gallison, Question of Time.

31. ^ Galison, Peter (2003), Einstein's Clocks,
Poincaré's Maps: Empires of Time, New

York: W.W. Norton, ISBN 0393020010

32. ^ (Einstein 1905b)

33. ^ Universität Zürich: Geschichte
34. ^ Kant, Horst. "Albert Einstein and
the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics in

Berlin". in Renn, Jürgen. "Albert Einstein –

Chief Engineer of the Universe: One

Hundred Authors for Einstein." Ed. Renn,

Jürgen. Wiley-VCH. 2005. pp. 166–169.

ISBN = 3527405747

35. ^ Calaprice, Alice; Lipscombe, Trevor

(2005), Albert Einstein: a biography,

Greenwood Publishing Group,

p. xix, ISBN 0-313-33080-8,Timeline, p. xix
36. ^ Heilbron, 2000, p. 84.
37. ^ a b Andrzej, Stasiak (2003), "Myths in
science", EMBO reports 4 (3):

236, doi:10.1038/sj.embor.embor779,

retrieved 31 March 2007

38. ^ See Albert Einstein, "Geometry and

Experience", (1921), reprinted in Ideas and

Opinions.

39. ^ a b c d Isaacson, Walter. Einstein: His Life

and Universe, Simon & Schuster (2007)

40. ^ a b c d e f Isaacson, Walter. Einstein: His

Life and Universe, Simon & Schuster

(2007) pp. 407-410

41. ^ "In Brief". Institute for Advanced Study.

Retrieved 4 March 2010.

42. ^ Dunn, Jean (2010-07-07). "Albanian

Muslims Who Sheltered Jews Honored at

Program". Voicesnews.com.

43. ^ Diehl, Sarah J.; Moltz, James

Clay. Nuclear Weapons and

Nonproliferation: a Reference Handbook,

ABC-CLIO (2008) p. 219

44. ^ Fred Jerome, Rodger Taylor

(2006) Einstein on Race and
Racism Rutgers University Press, 2006.

45. ^ Calaprice, Alice (2005) The new

quotable Einstein. Princeton University

Press, 2005. See also Odyssey in Climate

Modeling, Global Warming, and Advising

Five Presidents

46. ^ a b "ISRAEL: Einstein Declines". Time

magazine. 1 December 1952. Retrieved 31

March 2010.

47. ^ "Einstein in Princeton / Scientist,

Humanitarian, Cultural Icon". Historical

Society of Princeton. Retrieved 31 March

2010.
48. ^ The Case of the Scientist with a
Pulsating Mass, 14 June 2002, retrieved

11 June 2007

49. ^ Albert Einstein Archives (April

1955), "Draft of projected Telecast Israel

Independence Day, April 1955 (last

statement ever written)", Einstein Archives

Online, retrieved 14 March 2007

50. ^ Cohen, J.R.; Graver, L.M. (November

1995), "The ruptured abdominal aortic

aneurysm of Albert Einstein", Surgery,

Gynecology & Obstetrics170 (5): 455–

8, ISSN 0039-6087, PMID 2183375.

51. ^ O'Connor, J.J.; Robertson, E.F.

(1997), "Albert Einstein", The MacTutor

History of Mathematics archive, School of

Mathematics and Statistics, University of

St. Andrews, retrieved 14 March 2007

52. ^ Dr. Albert Einstein Dies in Sleep at 76.

World Mourns Loss of Great Scientist.,

New York Times, 19 April 1955, "Princeton,

New Jersey, 18 April 1955. Dr. Albert

Einstein, one of the great thinkers of the

ages, died in his sleep here early today."

53. ^ The Long, Strange Journey of Einstein's

Brain, National Public Radio, retrieved 3

October 2007

54. ^ a b "Einstein archive at the Instituut-

Lorentz". Instituut-Lorentz. 2005. Retrieved

on 21 November 2005.

55. ^ This did not become possible until the

development of alpha particle scintillation

detectors early in the twentieth century.

Rutherford invited Mach to take a look at

the scintillation screen in a dark room,

where the impact of individual alpha

particles (Helium nuclei) are directly visible

to the dark adapted eye.

56. ^ an account may be found here
57. ^ The charge of a mole of electrons was
known and measured as Faraday's

constant. Dividing by the charge of a single

electron, measured by Millikan, gives

Avogadro's number.

58. ^ (Einstein 1905d)

59. ^ Hawking, S. W. (2001), The Universe in
short, Bantam Books, ISBN 0-55-380202-X

60. ^ Schwartz, J.; McGuinness, M.

(1979), Einstein for Beginners, Pantheon

Books, ISBN 0-39-450588-3

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62. ^ For a discussion of the reception of
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Further reading

 Moring, Gary (2004): The complete idiot's

guide to understanding Einstein ( 1st ed.
2000). Indianapolis IN: Alpha books
(Macmillan USA). ISBN 0028631803

 Pais, Abraham (1982): Subtle is the Lord:

The science and the life of Albert Einstein.
 Oxford University Press. The definitive
biography to date.

 Pais, Abraham (1994): Einstein Lived Here.

Oxford University Press.

 Parker, Barry (2000): Einstein's Brainchild.

Prometheus Books. A review of Einstein's
career and accomplishments, written for the
lay public.

 Schweber, Sylvan S. (2008): Einstein

and Oppenheimer: The Meaning of Genius.
Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-
0674028289.
External links
Find more about Albert Einstein on
Wikipedia's sister projects:

Definitions from Wiktionary

Textbooks from Wikibooks

Quotations from Wikiquote

Source texts from Wikisource

Images and media from Commons

News stories from Wikinews

Learning resources from Wikiversity

 "Albert Einstein". Find a Grave. Retrieved 12

June 2009.

 Works by Albert Einstein (public domain in

Canada)

 The MacTutor History of Mathematics

archive, School of Mathematics and
Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland,
April 1997, retrieved 14 June 2009

 Why Socialism? by Albert Einstein, Monthly

Review, May 1949

 Nobelprize.org Biography:Albert Einstein

 The Einstein You Never Knew - slideshow

by Life magazine
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