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Con
ntrol Systems,, ANAND KUM
MAR 1
CHAPT
TER2
ar
m
Ku
Solution: The free--body diagraam of the given
g mechaanical transllational systtem is showwn in
figure (a). The mechaanical netwoork correspoonding to thee given mechhanical systeem is
shown in figure (b). The
T analogous electricall network baased on forcee-current anaalogy
d
is shown n in figure(cc). The anaalogous elecctrical netwwork based on force-vooltage
an
analogy is shown in figure (d). TheT differenntial equationns governingg the behaviior of
the mechaanical systemm and the differential
d eqquations corrresponding to the analoogous
An
electrical networks arre given beloow.
y1 y2
s,
m
f y1 F (t)
M K(y 2 – y1)
te
ys
lS
(a) Freee‐body diagram
tro
on
C
ar
(d) Analogous electrical network based on force-voltage analogy.
m
The differential equations governing the behavior of the given mechanical system written
Ku
looking at the free-body diagram or mechanical network are
0
d
an
An
Differential equations of analogous electrical network based on force-current analogy are
0
s,
m
te
lS
1
0
tro
on
2.2 (a) Write the differential equations governing the behavior of the mechanical system
shown in figure P2.2 below.
C
(b) Draw the analogous circuits based on force-current and force-voltage analogies.
(c) Write the corresponding differential equations.
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 3
Solution: The free-body diagram of the given mechanical translational system is shown in
figure (a). The mechanical network corresponding to the given mechanical system is
ar
shown in figure (b). The analogous electrical network based on force-current analogy
is shown in figure(c). The analogous electrical network based on force-voltage
m
analogy is shown in figure (d). The differential equations governing the behavior of
the mechanical system and the differential equations corresponding to the analogous
Ku
electrical networks are given below.
d
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 4
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
s,
m
The differential equations governing the behavior of the given mechanical system written
te
lS
0
tro
1
C
0
1
1
0
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 5
2.3 (a) Write the differential equations governing the behavior of the mechanical system
shown in figure P2.3 below.
(b) Draw the analogous circuits based on force-current and force-voltage analogies.
(c) Write the corresponding differential equations.
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
Solution: The free-body diagram of the given mechanical translational system is shown in
figure (a). The mechanical network corresponding to the given mechanical system is
shown in figure (b). The analogous electrical network based on force-current analogy
s,
the mechanical system and the differential equations corresponding to the analogous
te
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
The differential equations governing the behavior of the given mechanical system written
on
C
0
1
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 7
1 1
0
1
1 1
0
ar
2.4 (a) Write the differential equations governing the behavior of the mechanical system
m
shown in figure P2.4 below.
Ku
(b) Draw the analogous circuits based on force-current and force-voltage analogies.
(c) Write the corresponding differential equations.
d
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
Solution: The free-body diagram of the given mechanical translational system is shown in
figure (a). The mechanical network corresponding to the given mechanical system is
lS
shown in figure (b). The analogous electrical network based on force-current analogy
is shown in figure(c). The analogous electrical network based on force-voltage
tro
analogy is shown in figure (d). The differential equations governing the behavior of
the mechanical system and the differential equations corresponding to the analogous
on
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 9
The differential equations governing the behavior of the given mechanical system written
looking at the free-body diagram or mechanical network are
=
0
0
ar
1 1
m
Ku
1 1 1
0
d
an
1
0
An
Differential equations of analogous electrical network based on force-voltage analogy are
s,
1 1
m
te
1 1 1
0
ys
lS
1
0
tro
2.5 (a) Write the differential equations governing the behavior of the mechanical system
on
ar
m
Ku
Solution: The free-body diagram of the given mechanical translational system is shown in figure
(a). The mechanical network corresponding to the given mechanical system is shown
in figure (b). The analogous electrical network based on force-current analogy is
d
shown in figure(c). The analogous electrical network based on force-voltage analogy
an
is shown in figure (d). The differential equations governing the behavior of the
mechanical system and the differential equations corresponding to the analogous
An
electrical networks are given below.
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 11
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
The differential equations governing the behavior of the given mechanical system written
looking at the free-body diagram or mechanical network are
0
1 1
1
0
1 1
i i dt R i i
ar
1
R i i dt 0
m
Ku
2.6 (a) Write the differential equations governing the behavior of the mechanical system
shown in figure P2.6 below.
d
(b) Draw the analogous circuits based on force-current and force-voltage analogies.
an
(c) Write the corresponding differential equations. An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
Solution: The free-body diagram of the given mechanical translational system is shown in figure
C
(a). The mechanical network corresponding to the given mechanical system is shown
in figure (b). The analogous electrical network based on force-current analogy is
shown in figure(c). The analogous electrical network based on force-voltage analogy
is shown in figure (d). The differential equations governing the behavior of the
mechanical system and the differential equations corresponding to the analogous
electrical networks are given below.
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 13
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 14
The differential equations governing the behavior of the given mechanical system written
looking at the free-body diagram or mechanical network are
0
ar
1
e e dt 0
L
m
Ku
Differential equations of analogous electrical network based on force-voltage analogy are
0
d
an
1
0
An
2.7 (a) Write the differential equations governing the behavior of the mechanical system
s,
(b) Draw the analogous circuits based on force-current and force-voltage analogies.
te
Solution: The free-body diagram of the given mechanical translational system is shown in figure
(a). The mechanical network corresponding to the given mechanical system is shown
in figure (b). The analogous electrical network based on force-current analogy is
shown in figure(c). The analogous electrical network based on force-voltage analogy
is shown in figure (d). The differential equations governing the behavior of the
mechanical system and the differential equations corresponding to the analogous
electrical networks are given below.
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 15
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 16
The differential equations governing the behavior of the given mechanical system written
looking at the free-body diagram or mechanical network are
f x K
0
ar
1 1
m
0
Ku
Differential equations of analogous electrical network based on force-voltage analogy are
d
di 1
an
dt An
1 1
0
s,
m
2.8 (a) Write the differential equations governing the behavior of the mechanical system
shown in figure P2.8 below.
te
(b) Draw the analogous circuits based on force-current and force-voltage analogies.
ys
Solution: The free-body diagram of the given mechanical translational system is shown in figure
(a). The mechanical network corresponding to the given mechanical system is shown
in figure (b). The analogous electrical network based on force-current analogy is
shown in figure(c). The analogous electrical network based on force-voltage analogy
is shown in figure (d). The differential equations governing the behavior of the
mechanical system and the differential equations corresponding to the analogous
electrical networks are given below.
ar
m
Ku
d
an
(a) Free-body diagram
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 18
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
The differential equations governing the behavior of the given mechanical system written
looking at the free-body diagram or mechanical network are
0
0
1 1 1
0
0
ar
1 1 1
m
Ku
1
– 0
d
1
an 0
An
s,
2.9 (a) Write the differential equations governing the behavior of the mechanical system
m
Solution: The free-body diagram of the given mechanical rotational system is shown in figure
(a). The mechanical network corresponding to the given mechanical system is shown
in figure (b). The analogous electrical network based on force-current analogy is
shown in figure(c). The analogous electrical network based on force-voltage analogy
is shown in figure (d). The differential equations governing the behavior of the
mechanical system and the differential equations corresponding to the analogous
electrical networks are given below.
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 20
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 21
The differential equations governing the behavior of the given mechanical system written
looking at the free-body diagram or mechanical network are
0
0
ar
1
m
Ku
1
0
d
1
an
An 0
1
s,
m
1
te
0
ys
1
lS
0
tro
2.10 (a) Write the differential equations governing the behavior of the mechanical system
shown in figure P2.10 below.
on
Solution: The free-body diagram of the given mechanical rotational system is shown in figure
(a). The mechanical network corresponding to the given mechanical system is shown
in figure (b). The analogous electrical network based on force-current analogy is
shown in figure(c). The analogous electrical network based on force-voltage analogy
is shown in figure (d). The differential equations governing the behavior of the
mechanical system and the differential equations corresponding to the analogous
electrical networks are given below.
ar
m
Ku
(a) Free-body diagram
d
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 23
ar
m
The differential equations governing the behavior of the given mechanical system written
looking at the free-body diagram or mechanical network are
Ku
d
0
0
an
An
Differential equations of analogous electrical network based on torque-current analogy are
s,
1
m
te
1 1
ys
0
lS
1 1
0
tro
1
0
C
1 1
0
1 1
0
2.11 (a) Write the differential equations governing the behavior of the mechanical system
shown in figure P2.11below.
(b) Draw the analogous circuits based on force-current and force-voltage analogies.
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 24
ar
m
Ku
Solution: The free-body diagram of the given mechanical translational system is shown in
figure (a). The mechanical network corresponding to the given mechanical system is
shown in figure (b). The analogous electrical network based on force-current analogy
d
is shown in figure(c). The analogous electrical network based on force-voltage
an
analogy is shown in figure (d). The differential equations governing the behavior of
the mechanical system and the differential equations corresponding to the analogous
An
electrical networks are given below.
s,
x2 x1
m
f2x2
te
ys
M f1(x2-x1)
F(t) + Mg
lS
K1(x2-x1)
tro
ar
m
Ku
d
L=M C1=
an1
An
K1
i2 i1 e(t)
R1=f1
s,
R2=f2
m
te
The differential equations governing the behavior of the given mechanical system written
lS
0
+
on
1
0
1
1
0
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 26
1
2.12 (a) Write the differential equations governing the behavior of the mechanical system
shown in figure P2.12 below.
(b) Draw the analogous circuits based on force-current and force-voltage analogies.
(c) Write the corresponding differential equations.
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
Solution: The free-body diagram of the given mechanical translational system is shown in
figure (a). The mechanical network corresponding to the given mechanical system is
shown in figure (b). The analogous electrical network based on force-current analogy
s,
analogy is shown in figure (d). The differential equations governing the behavior of
the mechanical system and the differential equations corresponding to the analogous
te
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
The differential equations governing the behavior of the given mechanical system written
looking at the free-body diagram or mechanical network are
0
1
1 1
0
ar
m
1 1
Ku
0
d
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 1
CHAPTER - 3
3.1: For the system represented by the block diagram shown in figure P3.1 below,
obtain the transfer function by using block diagram reduction technique. Verify
the result using signal flow graph.
H3
-
R C
G1 G2 G3
+ + +
ar
- - +
m
H2
Ku
H1
d
Figure P3.1
an
Solution:
Block diagram reduction technique:
An
In the given block diagram and form a loop. The and loop can be replaced by
as shown in figure (a).
s,
H3
m
-
G
te
G1 2
G3 C
R + - + 1+G H +
2 +
ys
2
lS
H1
tro
Figure (a)
on
Moving the take off point before to after we get the figure (b).
C
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 2
H3
-
G G3
G1 C
2
R + - + 1+G H 2 +
+
2
H 1
G 3
Figure (b)
ar
In figure (b), and are in cascade. So they can be combined into a block .
m
Now and form a loop. That loop can be replaced by
Ku
.
d
So the block diagram reduces to that shown in figure(c).
an
An
GG 2 3
R + - G1 1 + G 2 H 2 + G 2 G3 H 3
+ C
+
s,
m
H 1
G 3
te
ys
Figure (c)
lS
In figure (c), and are in cascade. So they can be combined into a single
tro
combined into =
C
R GG G 1 2 3
1 + G 2 H 2 + G1 G 2 H 1 + G 2 G 3 H 3 C
Figure (d)
In figure (d), there are two forward paths and they are in parallel. So they can be replaced
by a block with a gain of =
ar
So the block diagram is reduces to figure (e).
m
Ku
1 + G 2 H 2 + G1 G 2 H 1 + G 2 G3 H 3 + G1 G 2 G3
R C
1 + G 2 H 2 + G1 G 2 H 1 + G 2 G3 H 3
d
an
Figure (e) An
So from figure (e) the closed-loop transfer function of the system is
s,
m
The signal flow graph for the given block diagram is drawn as shown in figure (f).
ys
-H3
lS
1 1 G1 G2 G3 1
R C
tro
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6
-H2
on
-H1
C
Figure (f)
In the signal flow graph shown in figure (f) there are two forward paths, 3 loops and no
pairs of non touching loops. No loop is touching one forward path.
Forward paths
,
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 4
Loops
ar
m
Ku
3.2: For the system represented by the block diagram shown in figure P3.2 below,
obtain the transfer function by using block diagram reduction technique. Verify
d
the result using signal flow graph.
an
An
G4
+
s,
R + C
G1 G2 G3
m
+ + +
- - -
te
H3
ys
H2
lS
H1
Figure P3.2
tro
Solution:
on
below.
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 5
G4
-H3
1 1 1 G1 G2 G3 1
R x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 C
-H2
-H1
Figure (a)
ar
The signal flow graph shown in figure (a) has two forward paths, four loops and one pair of
m
two non touching loops.
Ku
The forward paths are
,
d
The Loops are
an
An
s,
m
te
All Loops are touching the first forward path and loop 1 is not touching the second forward
lS
Here
3.3: For the system represented by the block diagram shown in figure P3.3 below,
obtain the transfer function by using block diagram reduction technique. Verify
the result using signal flow graph.
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 6
+
R C
G1 G2
+ +
- -
H2
H1
Figure P3.3
Solution:
ar
Block diagram reduction technique:
m
In the given block diagram and form a loop. So this loop of and can be
Ku
replaced by a block of and the resultant block diagram reduces to that shown in
figure (a).
d
an
+ G
R G1
2
+ C
+
An
1+ G H 2 2
-
s,
H1
m
Figure (a)
te
Moving the take off point on input side before the summing point to after the summing
ys
G2
R G1 C
tro
+ + 1+ G H
-
2 2
+
+
on
+
C
H1
H1
Figure (b)
The summing point in the middle can be removed by shifting the signals directly to the
summing point on output side and the block diagram reduces to that shown in figure (c).
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 7
+ G 2
R G1 C
+ + + 1+ G H
-
2 2
H1
H1
Figure (c)
In figure (c), the forward paths with gains and 1 are in parallel. So they can be replaced
ar
by a block with a gain of 1 + . Also the paths with gains of and form a loop. So
m
they can be replaced by a block with a gain of =
Ku
So the block diagram reduces to that shown in figure (d).
d
an
R 1 +G1
G 2
C
+
- 1+G H − G H
An
2 2 2 1
H1
s,
m
Figure (d)
te
Now the two blocks in cascade in the forward path can be replaced by a single block with a
ys
R
+
G (1 + G )
2 1 C
1+ G H − G H
tro
- 2 2 2 1
on
H1
C
Figure (e)
G (1 + G )
2 1
R C
1+G H + G1G H
2 2 2 1
Figure (f)
ar
The signal flow graph for the given block diagram is shown in figure (g).
m
1
Ku
1 1 G1 G2
R x1 x2 x3 x4 C
d
-H2
an
-H1
An
Figure (g)
In the signal flow graph shown in figure (g), there are two forward paths, two loops and
s,
both the loops are touching both the forward paths. There are no pairs of non touching
m
loops.
te
Forward paths
ys
,
lS
Loops
tro
on
3.4 For the system represented by the block diagram shown in figure P3.4 below,
obtain the transfer function by using block diagram reduction technique. Verify
the result using signal flow graph.
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 9
H2
-
R C
G1 G2 G3
+ + +
+ - +
H1
G4
Figure P3.4
ar
Solution:
m
Block diagram reduction technique:
Ku
In the given block diagram moving the take off point before to after we get the block
diagram shown in figure (a).
d
an
H12
An
-
R ++ G1 +- H
G21 G3 ++ C
s,
m
H1
G3
te
G4
ys
Figure (a)
lS
tro
The block diagram shown in figure (a) can be redrawn as shown in figure (b). Here and
on
R + H
G1 + G2G3 + C
+ - - +
H12
H1
G3
H1
G3
G4
Figure (b)
ar
m
Now in figure (b) blocks and are in parallel. So they can be combined into a single
Ku
block with a gain of . Now in figure (b), and form a loop
and they can be replaced by
d
So the block diagram reduces to that shown in figure (c).
an
An
G1
GG
R +
2 3
1 + G 2 H 1 + G 2 G3 H 2 + C
+ +
s,
H1
m
G3
te
G4
ys
Figure (c)
lS
In figure (c), the blocks and are in cascade. So they can be combined into
a single block with a gain of . Now the blocks and form a
tro
G1G2 G3
R C
1 + G2 H 1 + G2 G3 H 2 − G1G2 H 1 +
+
G4
Figure (d)
In figure (d) both the forward paths are in parallel. So the block diagram reduces to that
ar
shown in figure (e).
m
So the transfer function of the system is
Ku
d
an
Signal flow graph method:
The signal flow graph for the given block diagram is shown in figure (f).
An
-H2
G1 G2 G3
s,
R x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 C
m
-H1
te
H1
ys
G4
lS
Figure (f)
In the signal flow graph shown in figure (f) there are two forward paths and three loops.
tro
There are no pairs of two non touching loops. All the loops are touching one forward path
and no loop is touching the second forward path.
on
3.5 For the system represented by the block diagram shown in figure P3.5 below,
obtain the transfer function by using block diagram reduction technique. Verify
the result using signal flow graph.
G2
ar
+
R + C
m
G1
+
Ku
-
Figure P3.5
d
Solution:
an
Block diagram reduction technique: An
In the given block diagram moving the take off point before the summing point to after the
summing point we get the block diagram shown in figure (a).
s,
m
R G1 C
+ +
te
- +
+
ys
G2
lS
+
tro
on
Figure (a)
1
R G1 C
+ +
- + +
G2
G2
Figure (b)
ar
Now in figure (b) forward paths with gains and are in parallel. So they can be
m
combined into ( ). Also blocks with gains 1 and form a closed loop. So it can be
Ku
replaced by So the block diagram shown in figure (c) results.
d
1
G1 + G2 C
an
R 1 − G2
+
-
An
Figure (c)
s,
m
In figure (c), ( ) and are in cascade. So they can be combined into and
te
G1G2
lS
R C
+ 1 − G2
-
tro
Figure (d)
on
In figure (d), the single loop consisting of and 1 can be replaced by a block of
C
G1 + G2
R C
1 + G1
Figure (e)
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 14
G1
R x2 C
x1 x3 x4
Figure (f) -1
ar
m
In the signal flow graph shown in figure (f) there are two forward paths and only one loop.
Both the forward paths are touching the loop.
Ku
Forward paths
,
d
an
Loops
An
The determinant of the signal flow graph
s,
.
te
3.6 For the system represented by the block diagram shown in figure P3.6 below, obtain
ys
the transfer function by using block diagram reduction technique. Verify the result
using signal flow graph.
lS
C
tro
R
G1 G2
+ + +
on
- - -
H1 H2
C
H3
Figure P3.6
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 15
Solution:
Block diagram reduction technique:
In the block diagram given, blocks and form a loop. They can be combined into
Also blocks and form a loop. They can be combined into So the block
diagram shown in figure (a) results.
G1 G2
R 1 + G1 H 1 1 + G2 H 2
C
+
-
ar
H3
m
Ku
Figure (a)
In figure (a) blocks and are in cascade. They can be combined into a single
d
an
block
G1G2
R 1 + G1 H 1 + G2 H 2 + G1G2 H 1 H 2 C
+
m
-
te
H3
ys
Figure (b)
lS
In the reduced block diagram of figure (c) the blocks and form a
tro
=
C
G1G2
R 1 + G1H1 + G2 H 2 + G1G2 H1H 2 + G1G2 H 3 C
Figure (c)
The signal flow graph corresponding to the given block diagram is shown in figure (d).
G1 G2
R x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 C
-H1 -H2
ar
-H3
Figure (d)
m
In the signal flow graph shown in figure (d) there is only one forward path and there are
Ku
three loops and all the loops are touching the forward path. There is one pair of two non
touching loops.
d
Forward paths
an
,
An
Loops are
s,
m
te
3.7: For the system represented by the block diagram shown in figure P3.7 below,
obtain the transfer function by using block diagram reduction technique. Verify
the result using signal flow graph.
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 17
H5 H4
-
R + C
G1 G2 G3 G4
+ + +
- - -
H3
H2
H1
Figure P3.7
ar
Solution:
m
Block diagram reduction technique:
Ku
In the given block diagram, blocks and form a loop. So they can be combined into
. Blocks and are in cascade and can be combined into . Now and
d
an
form a loop. So they can be combined into So the block diagram reduces to that
shown in figure (a).
An
H5
s,
-
m
G2 G3 G 4
R + +
G1 1 + G2 H 3 1 + G3 G 4 H 4 C
te
- -
ys
H2
lS
H1
tro
Figure (a)
on
In figure (a), blocks and are in cascade. So they can be combined into .
Now the blocks and form a loop. So they can be combined into
C
G1G2 G3G4
R C
+- + 1 + G2 H 3 + G1G2 H 3 1 + G3G4 H 4
-
H2
H1
Figure (b)
ar
In figure (b), blocks and are in cascade. So they can be combined
m
Ku
into
d
Now the feedback paths and are in parallel. So they can be combined into
an
So the block diagram reduces to that shown in figure (c).
An
G1G2 G3G4
R C
1 + G3G4 H 4 + G2 H 3 + G2 G3G4 H 3 H 4 + G1G2 H 5 + G1G2 G3G4 H 4 H 5
s,
+ -
m
te
H1+H2
ys
Figure (c)
lS
tro
In the reduced block diagram in figure (c) there is a single loop and it can be reduced into
on
C
G1 G2 G3 G4
R x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 C
-H3 -H4
-H5
-H2
-H1
Figure (e)
In the signal flow graph shown in figure (e), there is only one forward path and there are
five loops and all the loops are touching the only forward path. There are two pairs of non
ar
touching loops.
m
Forward paths
Ku
,
d
Loops
an
An
s,
m
=
on
C
3.8 For the system represented by the block diagram shown in figure P3.8 below,
obtain the transfer function by using block diagram reduction technique. Verify
the result using signal flow graph.
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 20
G4
+
R + C
G1 G2
+
-
H3
+
-
H2
Figure P3.8
ar
Solution:
m
Block diagram reduction technique:
Ku
In the given block diagram, moving the take off point before block to after , we get the
block diagram shown in figure (a).
d
an
G4
G1
An
R G2
++ C
G1
+ -
s,
m
H3
te
ys
+-
lS
H2
Figure (a)
tro
on
In figure (a), and are in parallel. So they can be combined into . Also the
summing point in the feedback path can be removed by considering two full loops as shown in
C
figure (b).
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 21
G 4 +G2 G1
R G1 C
- G1
+
H 3H 2
H2
Figure (b)
and
ar
In figure (b), and form a loop. So that loop can be replaced by
so the block diagram shown in figure (c) results.
m
Ku
G1 G4 + G2 G1
R C
+ 1 + G1H 2 H 3 G1
d
+
H2
an
An
Figure (c)
s,
In figure (c), blocks and are in cascade. So they can be replaced by a single
m
results.
ys
G4 + G2 G1
R C
lS
+ 1 + G1 H 2 H 3
+
tro
H2
on
Figure (d)
C
The block diagram in figure (d) has only one loop and it can be replaced by
G4 + G2 G1
R 1 + G1 H 2 H 3 − G4 H 2−G1G2 H 2 C
Figure (e)
ar
m
G4
Ku
G1 G2
R x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 C
d
H3
an
-H2 x6
An
-1
Figure (f)
s,
In the signal flow graph of figure (f), there are two forward paths and three loops. All the
m
loops are touching both the forward paths and there are no pairs of two non-touching
loops.
te
ys
Forward paths
,
lS
tro
Loops
on
C
Using Mason’s gain formula the closed loop transfer function of the system is
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 23
3.9 For the system represented by the block diagram shown in figure P3.9 below,
obtain the transfer function by using block diagram reduction technique. Verify
the result using signal flow graph.
R C
+ G1 G2
-
G3 G4 G5
+ +
- G6 + G7
ar
m
G8
Figure P3.9
Ku
Solution:
Block diagram reduction technique:
d
The given block diagram can be redrawn as shown in figure(a).
R G3 G8
an G5 G2 G1 C
An
+ +
- -
s,
G7
m
+
te
G6 G4
+
ys
lS
Figure(a)
tro
In figure(a), blocks G 5 and G 2 are in cascade. So they can be combined into G 5 G 2 . The block
G 6 after the summing point in the minor loop can be shifted to before the summing point as
on
shown in figure(b). Also that summing point itself can be shifted as shown in figure(b).
C
R G3 + G8 G5G2 G1 C
+ +
- - -
G7G6
G4G6
Figure(b)
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 24
In the modified block diagram shown in figure (b), blocks G 8 and G 7 G 6 form a loop.
So they can be replaced by . Now and G 5 G 2 are in cascade. So they
can be combined into and the reduced block diagram shown in figure(c)
results.
G8G5G2
R G3 G1 C
+
-
+ 1 + G8G7G6
-
ar
G4G6
m
Ku
Figure (c)
In figure (c) the blocks and form a loop. So they can be replaced by
d
an
An
Now this block is in cascade with and . So these three blocks can be combined into
. So the reduced block diagram shown in figure (d) results.
s,
m
te
G8G5G3G2G1
R C
ys
+- 1 + G8G7G6 +G 8 G6G5G4G2
lS
tro
Figure (d)
on
Figure (d) is a single loop block diagram. So it can be reduced to the closed-loop transfer
function.
C
i.e.,
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 25
The signal flow graph for the modified block diagram of figure (a) is drawn as shown in
figure (e).
G3 G8 G5 G2 G1
R x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 C
G7
-G6 G4
x7
-1
ar
Figure (e)
m
In the signal flow graph shown in figure (e) there is only one forwarded path and there are
Ku
three loops. All the loops are touching the only forward path and there are no pairs of two
non touching loops.
d
Forward paths
Loops
an
An
s,
m
3.10: For the system represented by the block diagram shown in figure P3.10 below,
obtain the transfer function by using block diagram reduction technique.
on
G5
+
R + C
G1 G2 G3 G4
+ +
- -
H1
H2
Figure P3.10
Solution:
ar
Block diagram reduction technique:
m
In the given block diagram shown in figure, the take off point before block is moved to
after So the block diagram shown in figure (a) results.
Ku
G5
G3
d
an
+
R G1 G2 G3 G4 C
+- +- +
An
H1
s,
H2
m
Figure (a)
te
form a loop. This loop can be replaced by . Also blocks G 4 and are in parallel. So
lS
they can be replaced by . So the block diagram shown in figure (b) results.
In the reduced block diagram of figure(b), the three blocks G 1 , and are in
tro
cascade. So they can be replaced by and the block diagram shown in figure (c)
on
results.
C
G1G2 G5 + G1G2 G3 G4
R C
+- 1 + G 2 G3 H 1
H2
Figure (c)
G1G2 G5 + G1G2G3G4
R C
1 + G2G 3 H 1+G1G2G5 H 2+G1G2G3G4 H 2
Figure (d)
ar
m
So the closed loop transfer function of the system is
Ku
d
Signal flow graph method:
an
The signal flow graph corresponding to the given block diagram is shown in figure (e).
An
G5
s,
G1 G2 G3 G4
R x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 C
m
te
-H1
ys
- H2
lS
Figure (e)
In the signal flow graph shown in figure (e), there are two forward paths and three loops.
tro
All the loops are touching both the forward paths and there are no pairs of two non
touching loops.
on
Forward paths
C
Loops
Using Mason’s gain formula the closed loop transfer function of the system is
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 1
CHAPTER–4
4.1 The closed loop transfer functions of certain second-order unity feedback control
systems are given below. Determine the type of damping in the system.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Solution: Comparing the given transfer functions with the standard form of the transfer function
ar
of a second order system, i.e. with
m
Ku
we have
d
(a)
an
An
Since , it is an underdamped system.
s,
m
(b)
te
ys
lS
(c)
on
C
(d)
2
Since = 0, it is an undamped system.
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 2
4.2 A second order system has a damping ratio of 0.7 and its natural frequency of
oscillation is 12 radians per second. Determine the damped frequency of oscillation, the
rise time, peak time, peak overshoot and settling time. Also determine the closed loop
transfer function.
Solution:
Given = 0.7 and
ar
The rise time
m
The peak time
Ku
d
The peak overshoot
an
An
The settling time
s,
Determine the nature of response of the closed-loop system for a unit-step input. Also determine
the rise time, peak time, peak overshoot and settling time.
C
Solution:
Given
Comparing it with the standard second order system transfer function, we have
ar
m
The peak time
Ku
The peak overshoot
d
an
The settling time An
s,
4.4 Determine the unit step response of the system shown in figure below
m
te
R(s) C(s)
5
S+2
ys
+ s2
-
lS
tro
4.5 Consider the system shown in figure below, where and . Find
the damped frequency of oscillation rise time peak time peak overshoot
and settling time .
ar
R(s) C(s)
ωn2
m
+ s(s+2ξωn )
Ku
-
d
an
Given and =4 An
The given system is a standard second order system
c
when subjected to a unit-step input.
(a) Obtain the expression for the closed-loop transfer function.
(b) Determine the undamped natural frequency and the damping ratio of the system.
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 5
Solution:
Given c
Therefore, C =
ar
Comparing this with the standard expression for a second order system we have
m
Ku
d
an
4.7 The open-loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is given by
An
G(s) =
where K and T are positive constants. By what factor should the amplifier gain K be reduced so
s,
that the peak overshoot of unit-step response of the system is reduced from 60% to 30%.
m
Solution:
te
Given G(s) =
ys
Comparing it with the transfer function of a standard second order system we have
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 6
The peak overshoot is reduced by increasing the damping ratio . The damping ratio is
increased by reducing the gain K.
When
When
ar
m
Taking natural logarithm on both sides
Ku
d
Squaring both sides
an
An
s,
m
te
=
tro
=
on
When
C
When = = 0.3
Therefore,
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 7
This indicates that to reduce the peak overshoot from 0.60 to 0.30, K should be reduced by
4.989 times.
ar
4.8 A closed-loop control system is represented by the differential equation
m
Ku
where is the error signal. Determine the undamped natural frequency, damping
ratio, and percentage maximum overshoot for a unit-step input.
d
an
Solution: The mathematical equations governing the behavior of the given system are
An
s,
m
te
i.e.,
ys
Taking Laplace transform on both sides and neglecting the initial conditions
lS
tro
Comparing it with the standard form of the transfer function of a second order system
= 20 or
ar
Determine the rise time, peak time, peak overshoot and the settling time when a step
m
displacement of 15 is given to the system.
Ku
Solution:
d
So the closed-loop transfer function of the system is
an
An
Comparing this with the standard form of the transfer function of a second order system
s,
we have
m
te
ys
The formulae for remain same whether the input is a unit step or a
lS
step of any magnitude. Only the peak overshoot varies. The peak overshoot for a step
input of 15 units is 15 times the peak overshoot for a unit-step input.
tro
on
C
4.10 Determine the values of K and T of the closed-loop system shown in Figure below so
that the maximum overshoot in unit-step response is 20% and the peak time is 1.5s.
Assume that .
ar
m
R(s) 1 C(s)
K
+ Js 2
Ku
-
d
1+Ts
Solution:
an
An
The closed-loop transfer function is
s,
m
Since
te
ys
Comparing this with the standard form of the transfer function of a second order system
lS
tro
on
Peak overshoot
C
Determine the steady-state errors for unit-step, unit-ramp and unit-acceleration inputs.
ar
m
Solution:
Ku
Therefore,
d
The position error constant
an
An
Therefore, the steady state error for a unit-step input is
The velocity error constant
s,
m
4.12 The open-loop transfer function of a unity feedback control system is given by
C
Solution:
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 11
ar
4.13 A unity feedback system has
m
Ku
Find the generalized error coefficients and the steady-state error, for
d
Solution:
an
An
For the given feedback system
s,
m
te
ys
lS
+
tro
-
on
C
Equating it with
The given steady-state error for unit-ramp and the input is r(t) = t.
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 12
4.14 For a unity feedback control system having an open-loop transfer function
Determine (a) type of system, (b) error constants and (c) steady-state error
for unit step, unit-ramp and unit-parabolic inputs.
Solution:
ar
Therefore, G(s) H(s) = G(s)
m
The open-loop transfer function has two poles at the origin of the s-plane. So it is a type-2
Ku
system. The error constants are
d
So steady-state error for unit-step input is
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
4.15 Find the position, velocity and acceleration error constants for the following unity
on
Solution:
(a)
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 13
(b)
ar
(c)
m
Ku
d
an
An
(d)
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
Using the generalized error series, determine the error signal and the steady-state error of the
system when it is excited by
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Solution:
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 14
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
So the error signal is
s,
m
Taking the inverse Laplace transform on both sides we have the error signal
te
ys
The error signal and the steady-state error are determined as follows.
lS
(a)
tro
(b)
on
C
(c)
Therefore,
(d)
Here the input is the sum of (a),(b) and (c). So error signal e(t) and steady-state error
are also equal to the sum of those of (a), (b) and (c).
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 15
Steady-state error
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 1
CHAPTER-5
5.1 Test for stability and determine the location with respect to the imaginary axis of the s-plane of the
roots of the characteristic equations given as follows.
a) – – – – –
b) –
c)
d)
e)
f)
ar
g)
m
h)
i)
Ku
j)
k)
d
Solution:
an
(a) – – – – –
An
Some of the coefficients of the characteristic equation are negative. So the system is unstable. The
location of the roots of the characteristic equation is determined using Routh’s criterion as shown below.
s6
s,
1 -2 -7 -4
s5 1 -3 -4
m
s1 -
s0 - 4
lS
There is one sign change in the elements of the first column of the Routh array. So one root of the
characteristic equation is in the RHS of s-plane and the system is unstable.
tro
–
on
(b)
Some of the coefficients of the characteristic equation are negative. So the system is unstable. The
location of the roots of the characteristic equation is determined using Routh’s criterion as shown below.
C
s5 1 24 - 25
4
s 2 48 -50 (Difficulty 2. Auxiliary equation is 2s4 + 48s2 – 50 = 0)
3
s 1 12 (Coefficients of the first derivative of auxiliary equation)
2
s 24 -50
1
s 0
0
s -50
There is one sign change in the elements of the first column of the Routh array. So one root of the
characteristic equation is in the RHS of s-plane and the system is unstable
– –
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 2
– –
... s = ±1, s = ± j5, s = - 2 are the roots.
So two roots are in the LHS, one in the RHS and two on the imaginary axis.
(c)
All the coefficients of the characteristic equation are real and positive. So the necessary condition is
satisfied. The Routh array is formed as shown below.
s4 1 23 50
s3 6 40
ar
s2 50
m
s1 0
Ku
s0 50
d
There are no sign changes in the elements of the first column of the Routh array. So there are no roots of
an
the characteristic equation in the RHS of the s-plane and the system is stable.
An
(d)
s4 1 1 2
s,
s3 2 4
s2 -1 2
m
s1 8 0
te
s0 2
ys
There are two sign changes in the elements of the first column of the Routh array. So two roots of the
characteristic equation are in the right half of the s-plane. So the system is unstable.
lS
(e)
tro
All the coefficients of the characteristic equation are real and positive. So the necessary condition is
on
s5 1 3 16
s4 1 9 10
3
s -6 6
s2 10 10
1
s 12
s0 10
There are two sign changes in the elements of the first column of the Routh array. That means there two
roots in the RHS of s-plane and the system is unstable.
(f)
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 3
All the coefficients of the characteristic equation are real and positive. So the necessary condition is
satisfied. The Routh array is formed as shown below.
s4 1 18 5
s3 8 16
s2 16 5
1
s 13.5 0
s0 5
There are no sign changes in the elements of the first column of the Routh array. So there are no roots of
the characteristic equation in the RHS of the s-plane and the system is stable
ar
(g)
All the coefficients of the characteristic equation are real and positive. So the necessary condition is
m
satisfied. The Routh array is formed as shown below.
Ku
s7 1 9 4 36
s6 5 9 20 36
d
s5 0
an
s4 9 0 36 (Difficulty 2)
s3 36 0 (Coefficients of the first derivative of the auxiliary equation)
An
s2 36 (Difficulty 1)
s1
s0
s,
36
m
There are two sign changes in the elements of the first column of the Routh array. So there are two roots
te
(h)
All the coefficients of the characteristic equation are real and positive. So the necessary condition is
lS
s6 1 3 3 1
s5 1 3 2
on
s4 1 1
s3
C
s2 1
s1
s0 1
As 0, there are two sign changes in the elements of the first column of the Routh array indicating
that there are two roots of the characteristic equation in the right half of the s-plane. So the system is
unstable.
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 4
has two poles on the imaginary axis. So the remaining two poles are in the LHS of s-plane.
(i)
All the coefficients of the characteristic equation are real and positive. So the necessary condition is
satisfied. The Routh array is formed as shown below.
s5 1 2 11
s4 2 4 10
s3
ar
6
m
s2 10
Ku
s1 0
d
s0 10
an
As tends to 0, there are two sign changes in the elements of the first column of the Routh array. So
An
there are two roots of the characteristic equation in the RHS of the s-plane. So the system is unstable.
(j)
s,
All the coefficients of the characteristic equation are real and positive. So the necessary condition is
m
s7 1 24 24 23
s6 9 24 24 5
ys
s5
lS
s4 15 15 15 (Difficulty 2)
tro
s1 -3
C
s0 15
There are two sign changes in the elements of the first column of the Routh array. So there are two roots
of the characteristic equation in the RHS of the s-plane. So the system is unstable.
(k)
All the coefficients of the characteristic equation are real and positive. So the necessary condition is
satisfied. The Routh array is formed as shown below.
s6 1 8 20 16
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 5
s5 2 12 16
s4 2 12 16 (Difficulty 2)
s3 1 3 (Coefficients of the first derivative of auxiliary equation)
s2 6 16
s1
s0 16
There are no sign changes in the elements of the first column of the Routh array. So there are no roots of
the characteristic equation in the RHS of the s-plane. Factorizing the characteristic equation we have
ar
m
So it has two poles on LHS of s-plane and 4 poles on imaginary axis of s-plane. So the system is
marginally stable.
Ku
5.2 The characteristic equations for certain feedback control systems are given below. In each case
(a) Determine the range of values of K for the system to be stable
d
(b) Can the system be marginally stable?
an
If so, find the required value of K and the frequency of sustained oscillations.
An
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
s,
(iv)
m
(v)
te
(vi)
(vii)
ys
(viii)
lS
Solution:
(i) Given
tro
s3 1 K+2
s2 2K 4
C
s1
s0 4
For the system to be stable all the elements in the first column of the Routh array must be positive. For
this
K>0
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 6
So the range of values of K for stability is K > 0.73. Yes. The system can be marginally stable and the
marginal value of K for stability is K= 0.73.
The frequency of oscillation is obtained by solving the auxiliary equation
i.e.,
or
... Frequency of oscillation = 1.654 rad/sec
(ii)
ar
The Routh table is formed as shown below.
s4
m
1 24 K
s3 8 32
Ku
s2 20 K
s1
d
s0 K
an
For the system to be stable all the elements in the first column of the Routh array must be positive. For
An
this
K>0
s,
Yes. The system can be marginally stable. The marginal value of K fo stability is K=80.
ys
i.e.,
tro
(iii)
on
3
s 25 20
2
s K
1
s 284 – 25K
0
s K
For the system to be stable all the elements in the first column of the Routh array must be positive. For
this
K>0
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 7
...
So the frequency of sustained oscillation is
(iv)
The Routh table is formulated as shown below.
ar
s4
m
1 2 10
s3 K K+1
Ku
s2 10
s1
d
s0 10
an
For the system to be stable all the elements of the first column of the Routh table must be positive. For
An
this
s,
m
te
Since all the above conditions cannot be satisfied simultaneously, the system is unstable for all values of
ys
K.
lS
(v)
tro
s2 K+2 10
s1
C
s0 10
For the system to be stable all the elements in the first column of the Routh array must be positive, i.e
So the range of values of K for stability is K>1.45. Yes. The system can be marginally stable and the
marginal value of K for stability is K=1.45.
The frequency of sustained oscillations is obtained by solving the auxiliary equation
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 8
ar
s0 10K
m
For stability all the elements in the first column of the Routh array must be positive.
So
Ku
d
So the range of values of K for stability is 0 < K< 10. Yes. The system can be marginally stable and the
an
marginal value of K for stability is K=10.
The frequency of sustained oscillations is given by the solution of the auxiliary equation
An
s,
(vii)
The Routh table is formulated as shown below.
ys
s4 1 5 10K
3
s K 10
lS
2
s 10K
tro
s1
s0 10K
on
For a stable system all the elements in the first column of its Routh array must be positive. So
C
Since all the conditions can not be satisfied simultaneously, the system is unstable for all values of K. So
no marginal value of K and no frequency of oscillation.
(viii)
The Routh table is formulated as shown below.
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 9
s4 1 1 K
s3 125 5
s2 K
s1
s0 K
For a stable system all the elements in the first column of the Routh array must be positive. So
K>0
ar
So the range of values of K for stability is 0 < K < 0.0384. Yes. The system can be marginally stable and
m
the marginal value of K for stability is K= 0.0384.
The frequency of oscillation is obtained by the solving the auxiliary equation
Ku
d
an
...
So the frequency of sustained oscillation is .
An
5.3 The open-loop transfer function of a unity feedback control system is given by
s,
m
Determine the range of values of K for which the system is stable. Also determine the value of K for
te
Solution:
lS
s4 6 6 K
s3 11 1
s2 K
s1
s0 K
For stability all the elements in the first column of the Routh array must be positive. So
K>0
1
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR
0
So the range of values of K for stability is 0 < K < 0.496. This is also the value of K for sustained
oscillations. The frequency of sustained oscillations is given by the auxiliary equation.
...
So the frequency of sustained oscillations is = 0.3015 rad/sec.
ar
(a) Using the Routh criterion, determine the range of values of K for which the system is stable.
m
(b) If a zero at s = - 4 is added to the forward path transfer function, how is the stability affected?
Ku
Solution:
d
(a)
an
The characteristic equation is An
s,
s4 1 10 K
te
s3 6 8
s2
ys
K
s1
lS
s0 K
tro
For stability all the elements in the first column of the Routh array must be positive. So
K>0
on
C
So the maximum permissible value of K for stability is K= 4 and the range is 0 < K < 4. So the addition
ar
of a zero at reduced the stability of the system.
m
5.5 For a system with and H(s) = 1, determine the range of K for stability. Also
Ku
determine the marginal value of K and the frequency of sustained oscillations.
Solution:
d
an
The characteristic equation of the system is
An
s,
s4 1 3 K
s3 3 2
te
s2 K
ys
s1
lS
s0 K
tro
For stability all the elements in the first column of the Routh array must be positive. So
K>0
on
So the range of values of K for stability is 0 < K < 1.555. The marginal value of K for stability which is
C
...
So the frequency of oscillations is .
5.6 Determine whether all the roots of the following characteristic equation
1
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR
2
Solution:
Given characteristic equation is
To determine whether all roots of this characteristic equation have real parts more negative then -1 or
not put in the characteristic equation and formulate the Routh array. So we have the new
characteristic equation.
ar
m
z3 1 1
z2 3 7.4
Ku
z1
z0 7.4
d
an
There are two sign changes in the elements of the first column of the Routh array. So two roots are to the
right of . So some of the roots of the given characteristic equation do not have real parts more
An
negative than -1.
5.7 Use the Routh criterion to check the stability of a system given by the characteristic equation
s,
m
Solution:
The given characteristic equation is
te
ys
5
s 1 1 5
s4 -7 6 (Difficulty 1)
tro
3
s
s2
on
6
s1
C
s0 6
.There is one sign change in the elements of the first column of the Routh array. So there is one root of
the characteristic equation in the RHS of s-plane. So the system is unstable.
5.8 Determine the range of values of K for stability of a unity feedback system whose open loop trandfer
function is
Solution:
Given open loop transfer function
1
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR
3
For the system to be stable all the elements in the first column of the Routh array must be positive. So
ar
K>0
m
So the range of values of K for stability is 0<K<6, and the marginal value of K for stability is K=6.
5.9 The open-loop transfer function of a feedback control system is given by
Ku
(a) Using the Routh criterion, determine the range of values of K for which the system will be stable.
d
(b) If a zero at is added to the forward path transfer function, determine the range of K for
an
stability. An
Solution:
Given open loop transfer function is
s,
s3 1 4
s2 5 K
lS
1
s
s0
tro
For stability all the elements in the first column of the Routh array must be positive. So K > 0
on
So the marginal value of K for stability is K= 20 and the range of values of K for stability is
C
.
(b)
If a zero at is added to the forward path transfer function, then
(a) With and a step input, will the output response be stable?
(b) Determine the limiting positive value that K can have for a stable output response.
Solution:
(a) The transfer function of the system is
ar
s4
m
1 2 8
s3 2 11
Ku
s2 8
s1
d
s0 8
an
There are two sign changes in the elements of the first column of the Routh array. So there are two roots
An
of the characteristic equation in the right half of the s-plane. So the given system is unstable for K=8.
(b) To determine the limiting positive value that K can have for a stable output response formulate the
s,
s4 1 2 K
te
s3 2 3+K
ys
s2 K
lS
s1
s0 K
tro
For stability all the elements in the first column of the Routh array must be positive. So
on
C
For stability all the elements in the first column of the Routh array must be positive. So K > 0
ar
So the restriction on K for stable closed loop response is K < 6.5.
m
5.12 Find the range of values of K for the system represented by the following characteristic equation to be
stable. What is the marginal value of K and what is the frequency of sustained oscillation?
Ku
Solution:
d
Given characteristic equation is
an
The Routh table is formulated as shown below.
s4
An
1 10 K
s3 22 2
s2 K
s,
s1
m
s0 K
te
For stability all the elements in the first column of the Routh array must be positive.
ys
K >0
lS
tro
...
So the frequency of sustained oscillations is = 0.3013 rad/sec.
5.13 Determine the range of K such that the unity feedback system with an open-loop transfer function
is stable.
Solution:
1
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR
6
i.e.,
The Routh table is formulated as shown below.
s4 1 5 K
s3 5 4
s2 4.2 K
s1
s0
ar
K
m
For the system to be stable all the elements in the first column of the Routh array must be positive. So
K>0
Ku
The range of values of K for the system to be stable is
d
an
5.14 Find the condition for stability for the systems whose characteristic equations are given below.
(a)
An
(b)
In each case, determine the value of K which will cause sustained oscillations and the frequency of the
oscillations.
s,
Solution:
m
(a)
The Routh table is formulated as shown below.
te
s4 1 224 2400+K
s3 20 1240
ys
s2 162 2400+K
lS
1
s
s0 2400+K
tro
For stability all the elements in the first column of the Routh array must be positive. So
on
C
So the condition for stability is K<7644. The marginal value of K, i.e., the value of K which causes
sustained oscillations is K= 7644.
The frequency of oscillation is given by the solution of the auxiliary equation.
s3 1 4K
s2 6K+0.5 50
s1
s0 50
For stability of the system all the elements in the first column of the Routh array must be positive, So
So the marginal values of K for stability is This is also the values of K which causes
sustained oscillations.
ar
The frequency of sustained oscillations is given by the solution of the auxiliary equation.
m
...
Ku
So the frequency of sustained oscillations is
d
5.15 The open-loop transfer function of a unity feedback control system is
an
Determine the range of values of K for stability. Also determine the marginal value of K for stability and
An
the frequency of sustained oscillations.
s,
Solution:
m
i.e.,
lS
s4 1 10 K
tro
s3 7 2K
s2 K
on
s1
C
s0 K
For the system to be stable all the elements in the first column of the Routh array must be positive. So
K>0
The marginal value of K for stability is K=22.75. This is also the value of K which causes sustained
oscillations. The frequency of sustained oscillations is given by the solution of the auxiliary equation
5.16 Find the range of K such that the unity feedback system with the following open-loop transfer function
will remain stable.
ar
m
Solution:
Ku
The characteristic equation of the system is
d
The Routh table is formulated as shown below.
an
An
s3 1 K
s2 5 2K
1
s 0.6K
s,
s0 2K
m
For stability all the elements in the first column of the Rouh array must be positive.
te
... K>0
ys
5.17 Determine the maximum value of gain K for stability of the system given by the open-loop transfer
function
tro
Solution:
on
C
This is a second order system. For this system to be stable all the coefficients, i.e., 1-KT and K must be
positive.
5.18 The open-loop transfer function of a closed-loop system with unity feedback is given by
Comment on the stability of the system. If a zero is added at , comment on the stability.
Solution:
This is a second order system. For this system to be stable all the coefficients must be positive. So
ar
m
So we can say that the system is stable for
If a zero is added at , the characteristic equation becomes
Ku
d
i.e.,
an
This is a first order system. For this to be stable all the coefficients must be positive. So
An
So the same condition of K > 0.5 holds good.
5.19 Find the maximum value of K for which the system given by
s,
is stable.
m
Solution:
te
ys
This is a first order system and for its stability all the coefficients of the characteristic equation must be
tro
positive. So
on
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 1
CHAPTER-6
6.1 Draw the complete root locus for the system with an open-loop transfer function
Show that part of the root locus is a circle. Find and the value of K for that . Also find the roots of
the characteristic equation for that value of K. Determine the range of values of K for which the system is
(a) overdamped, (b) underdamped and (c) critically damped.
Solution:
ar
Given
m
Open loop poles are So
Ku
Open loop zeros are So
Number of branches of R.L. , No.of asymptotes
d
1. The R.L. is symmetrical about the real axis.
an
2. The R.L. starts at the open loop poles and and terminates on the open loop zero
.
An
3. There is only one asymptote and the angle of the asymptote is .
4. The centroid is –
s,
5. The R.L. exists on the real axis between and to the left of
m
7. No need to calculate the angles of departures and angles of arrivals because there are no complex poles
on
1
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 2
ar
m
Ku
d
an
This shows that part of the R.L. is a circle with center at and radius
The complete root locus is drawn as shown in Figure 6.1
An
The value of K at the break away point =
s,
m
te
ys
2
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 3
Root Locus
1
Imaginary Axis
ar
-1
m
-2
Ku
-3
d
-4
an
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2
Real Axis
An
Figure 6.1
s,
m
6.2 Draw the complete root locus for the system with
te
ys
lS
Solution:
on
Given
3
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 4
is not a real break point because no root locus exists there. is a real break in point.
The break angle
7. The angle of departure from the complex pole is
ar
where
m
So the angle of departure from the complex pole is -
Ku
8. The R.L. does not intersect the imaginary axis and the system is stable for all positive values of K.
The path traced by the R.L. is obtained using the angle condition
d
an
An
s,
m
te
4
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 5
Root Locus
2
1.5
0.5
Imaginary Axis
ar
-0.5
m
-1
Ku
-1.5
d
an
-2
-5 -4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0
Real Axis
An
Figure 6.2
s,
6.3 Draw the complete root locus for the system with
m
te
ys
Determine the value of K for For that value of K obtain the closed-loop transfer function.
lS
Determine the range of values of K for which the second order system is
tro
Solution:
Given
C
5
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 6
4. The centroid is –
5. The R.L. exists on the real axis between and from
6. The break points are given by the solution of the equation
ar
7. There are no complex open loop poles and zeros and so no need to compute the angle of departure and
angle of arrival.
m
8. The point of intersection of the root locus with the imaginary axis and the critical value of K are obtained
Ku
using Routh’s criterion.
d
an
1
An
3
s,
m
The frequency of sustained oscillations is given by the solution of the auxiliary equation
lS
tro
So the second order system is underdamped for K > 0.083, critically damped for K= 0.083 and
C
overdamped for The complete root locus is drawn as shown in Figure 6.3.
To find the value of K for ξ = 0.5, draw a line from the origin making an angle of with the
negative real axis and determine K at the intersection point. With that value of K determine the closed
loop transfer function.
In R.L. plot, at A
The point A is at
By trial and error between
So the closed loop transfer function of the system is
6
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 7
Root Locus
ar
1
Imaginary Axis
m
0
Ku
-1
-2
d
an
-3 An
-4
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4
s,
Real Axis
m
te
Figure 6.3
ys
6.4 Draw the complete root locus for the system described by
lS
tro
on
Solution:
C
Given
Open loop poles are . So
Open loop zero is . So
Number of branches of R.L.= n = 3 and number of asymptotes
1. The R.L. is symmetrical about the real axis because the open loop poles and zeros are located
symmetrically w.r.t. the real axis.
2. The R.L. starts at the open loop poles and and terminates at
the open loop zero and at and
3. There are two asymptotes and the angles of the asymptotes are
7
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 8
4. The centroid is
ar
There are no break points because the centroid is at and the angles of asymtotes are
m
7. The angle of departure from the open loop pole is
where
Ku
So the angle of departure from the open loop pole
d
8. The point of intersection of the R.L. with the imaginary axis and the critical value of K are obtained using
an
the Routh’s criterion. An
s,
m
1
1
te
ys
The frequency of sustained oscillations is given by the solution of the auxiliary equation
on
8
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 9
Root Locus
6
2
Imaginary Axis
ar
-2
m
Ku
-4
d
an
-6
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
Real Axis
An
Figure 6.4
s,
6.5 Draw the complete root locus for the system with
m
te
ys
Solution:
lS
Given
Open loop poles are and So
tro
1. The R.L. is symmetrical about the real axis because the open loop poles and zeros are symmetrical w.r.t.
the real axis.
C
2. The R.L. starts at the open loop poles and and terminates at the zeros
at and
3. The angles of the asymptotes are
and
4. The centroid is
5. The R.L. does not exist on the real axis itself because there are no real poles or real zeros.
6. The break points are given by the solution of the equation
9
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 10
Root Locus
ar
3
m
2
Ku
1
d
an
Imaginary Axis
0
An
-1
s,
m
-2
te
ys
-3
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
lS
Real Axis
tro
Figure 6.5
on
6.6 Draw the complete root locus for the system with
C
Solution:
Given
The open loop poles are . So .
The open loop zeros are and . So .
The number of branches of and the number of asymptotes
10
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 11
1. The R.L. is symmetrical about the real axis because the open loop poles and zeros are symmetrical about
the real axis.
2. The R.L. starts at the open loop poles and terminates on the open loop
zeros and and on the zeros at and
3. The angles of the asymptotes are
4. The centroid is
ar
6. The break points are at itself because two roots are present at those points.
m
7. The angle of arrival at the complex zero is
Ku
So the angle of arrival at the complex zero is
d
8. The R.L does not intersect the imaginary axis and does not go into the RHS of s-plane. So no need to
an
apply Routh’s criterion.
An
The complete R.L. is drawn as shown in Figure 6.6
s,
Root Locus
6
m
te
4
ys
lS
2
Imaginary Axis
tro
0
on
-2
C
-4
-6
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
Real Axis
Figure 6.6
6.7 Draw the complete root locus for the system with
11
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 12
Solution:
Given
The open loop poles are
The open loop zeros are
Number of branches of and the number of asymptotes
1. The R.L. is symmetrical about the real axis because the open loop poles and zeros are symmetrical w.r.t
the real axis.
ar
2. The R.L starts at the open loop poles terminates at the open loop
m
zeros and and at
3. The angle of the only asymptote is
Ku
d
4. The centroid is
an
An
5. The R.L. exists on the real axis between between and to the
left of
s,
7. There are no complex poles and zeros. So no need to calculate the angles of departures and arrivals.
8. The point of intersection of the R.L. with the imaginary axis and the critical value of K are obtained using
tro
1
K
12
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 13
Root Locus
6
ar
2
Imaginary Axis
m
0
Ku
d
-2
-4
an
An
s,
-6
-12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4
m
Real Axis
te
Figure 6.7
ys
6.8 Draw the complete root locus for the system with
lS
tro
Solution:
on
Given
C
13
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 14
Since the break in point has to be between by trial and error we can find that
is the break point.
7. The angle of departure from the open loop pole at is
ar
So the angle of departure at the open loop pole
m
8. The R.L. does not intersect the imaginary axis at all. So there is no need to apply the Routh criterion.
Ku
The system is unstable for all values of K.
The complete root locus is drawn as shown in Figure 6.8.
d
an
Root Locus
1.5
An
1
s,
m
0.5
te
Imaginary Axis
ys
0
lS
-0.5
tro
on
-1
C
-1.5
-2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Real Axis
Figure 6.8
6.9 Draw the complete root locus for the system with
Solution:
14
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 15
Given
The open loop poles are
The open loop zeros are
The Number of branches of R.L. and the number of asymptotes
1. The R.L. is symmetrical about the real axis because the open loop pole zero configuration is symmetrical
w.r.t. the real axis.
2. The R.L. starts at the open loop poles and and terminates at
3. There is one asymptote and the angle of the asymptote is
4. The centroid is
ar
m
5. The R.L. exists on the real axis between between and to the left of
Ku
6. The break points are given by the solution of the equation
d
an
An
By trial and error the break points are found as
s,
7. There are no open loop complex poles or complex zeros. So no need to compute the angle of departures
te
and arrivals.
8. The point of intersection of the R.L. with the imaginary axis and the critical value of K are obtained using
ys
Routh criterion.
lS
tro
1
on
K K
C
For stability
Marginal value of K for stability is
The frequency of sustained oscillations is given by the solution of the auxiliary equation
15
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 16
Root Locus
3
1
Imaginary Axis
ar
-1
m
Ku
-2
d
an
-3
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis
An
Figure 6.9
s,
6.10 Draw the complete root locus for the system with
m
te
ys
Solution:
Given where
lS
1. The R.L. is symmetrical about the real axis because the open loop pole zero configuration is symmetrical
about the real axis.
C
2. The R.L. starts at the open loop poles , and and terminates at
4. The centroid is
8. The R.L. does not cross the imaginary axis. So no need of Routh’s formulation.
The system is unstable for all values of K.
The complete R.L. is drawn as shown in Figure 6.10.
ar
m
Root Locus
Ku
10
d
6
an
4
An
Imaginary Axis
0
s,
-2
m
-4
te
-6
ys
-8
lS
-10
tro
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Real Axis
on
Figure 6.10
C
6.11 Draw the complete root locus for the system with
Solution:
17
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 18
4. The centroid is
ar
5. The R.L. exists on the real axis between
m
6. The break points are given by the solution of the equation.
Ku
d
an
An
are the break points.
The real break point is . The break angle .
s,
7. No complex poles and zeros are present. So there is no need to compute the angles of departure and
arrival.
m
8. The R.L. is not crossing the imaginary axis. So no need to apply the Routh’s criterion.
te
The complete R.L. is drawn as shown in Figure 6.11. The system is stable for all values of
ys
lS
tro
on
C
18
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 19
Root Locus
20
15
10
5
Imaginary Axis
ar
-5
m
-10
Ku
-15
d
-20
an
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20
Real Axis
An
Figure 6.11
s,
6.12 Draw the complete root locus for the system with
m
te
ys
Solution:
Given
lS
1. The open loop pole zero configuration is symmetrical w.r.t. the real axis. So the root locus is symmetrical
w.r.t. the real axis.
C
2. The R.L. starts at the open loop poles and terminates at the zeros at
4. The centroid is
5. The R.L. exists on the real axis to the left of i.e., on the entire negative real axis.
19
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 20
6. There are no break points because the centroid is at and the asymptotic angles are
The break points are given by the solution of the equation
ar
8. The point of intersection of the R.L. with the imaginary axis and the critical value of K are obtained using
m
the Routh’s criterion.
Ku
d
1 13
an
6 K An
K
s,
The frequency of sustained oscillations is given by the solution of the auxiliary equation.
te
ys
lS
20
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 21
Root Locus
1
Imaginary Axis
ar
-1
m
-2
Ku
-3
d
-4
an
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4
Real Axis
An
Figure 6.12
s,
Solution:
lS
Given
tro
i.e., So and
21
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 22
are the break points. In fact is the break away point and is the break in
point.
7. The point of intersection of the R.L. with the imaginary axis and the critical value of K are obtained using
the Routh’s criterion.
ar
So the marginal value of K for stability is .
m
To find the path traced by the R.L. apply the angle criterion.
Ku
)
d
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
22
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 23
Root Locus
1.5
0.5
Imaginary Axis
ar
-0.5
m
Ku
-1
d
an
-1.5
-3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5
Real Axis
An
Figure 6.13
s,
6.14 Sketch the root locus of the unity feedback system with open-loop transfer function
m
te
ys
Show that part of the root locus is a circle. Find and the corresponding value of K. Also find the
lS
transfer function for this . Determine the range of values of K for which the system is (a)
overdamped, (b) critically damped and (c) underdamped.
tro
Solution:
on
Given
C
4. The centroid is
23
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 24
.
So the break points are s = -1 and s = -3. Out of these s = -1 is the break away point and s = -3 is the break
in point.
ar
7. No angles of departures and arrivals as there are no complex poles and zeros.
m
8. The R.L. does not intersect the imaginary axis. So there is no need to apply the Routh’s criterion.
Ku
To show that part of the R.L. is a circle, apply the angle condition
d
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
The values of K at the break away point and the value of K at the break in point
is
tro
= 4.
on
24
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 25
Root Locus
1.5
0.5
Imaginary Axis
ar
-0.5
m
Ku
-1
d
an
-1.5
-4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0
Real Axis
An
Figure 6.14
s,
Solution:
lS
Given
tro
1. The R.L.is symmetrical about the real axis because the open loop pole zero configuration is symmetrical
w.r.t. the real axis.
2. The R.L. starts at the open loop poles and and terminates on the zeros at
4. The centroid is
25
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 26
ar
m
Ku
1 13
4 K
d
an
K An
For stability
So the marginal value of K for sustained oscillations is obtained by solving the auxiliary equation.
s,
m
te
26
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 27
Root Locus
10
4
Imaginary Axis
ar
-2
-4
m
-6
Ku
-8
d
-10
an
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Real Axis
An
Figure 6.15
s,
6.16 Sketch the root locus for the control system with
m
te
Solution:
lS
Given
The open loop poles are and . So
tro
1. The R.L. is symmetrical about the real axis because the open loop pole zero configuration is symmetrical
about the real axis.
C
2. The R.L. starts at the open loop poles and and terminates on the zeros at
4. The centroid is
27
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 28
So the break points are Out of these is the actual break point.
7. The angle of departure from the complex pole is given by
ar
m
Ku
Taking tangent on both sides
d
an
An
This is the equation of a circle with center at and radius
s,
Root Locus
te
4
ys
lS
2
tro
1
Imaginary Axis
on
0
C
-1
-2
-3
-4
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2
Real Axis
28
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 29
Figure 6.16
Solution:
Given
The open loop poles are So
The open loop zeros are and So
ar
The number of branches of R.L and the number of asymptotes
1. The R.L. is symmetrical about the real axis because the open loop pole zero configuration is symmetrical
m
w.r.t. the real axis.
Ku
2. The R.L. starts at the open loop poles and and terminates at the open zeros
and and at .
3. The angle of the only asymptote is
d
4. The centroid is
an
An
s,
5. The R.L. exists on the real axis between and to the left of
m
The break point must be between s = 0 to s = -1. By trial and error we can obtain the break point as
on
8. The R.L. does not intersect the imaginary axis and does not go into the R.H.S. So the system is stable for
all positive values of K.
The complete R.L. is sketched as shown in Figure 6.17.
29
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 30
Root Locus
6
2
Imaginary Axis
ar
-2
m
Ku
-4
d
an
-6
-10 -5 0 5
Real Axis
An
Figure 6.17
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
30
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 1
CHAPTER-7
(b) For the values of K and b determined in part (a) calculate the settling time and bandwidth
of the system.
ar
R(s) K C(s)
m
+ s ( s + b)
-
Ku
d
Figure P7.1
Solution:
an
An
Given and rad/s. The closed loop transfer function of the given system is
given
by
s,
m
te
ys
Comparing it with the standard form of the closed loop transfer function of a second order
system
lS
tro
we have
on
or
C
or
We know
1
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 2
and
or
(i)
ar
m
Ku
(ii)
Substituting we get
d
an
An
or
s,
or
Therefore,
m
rad/s
te
ys
Settling time
lS
(for 2% criterion)
(for 5% criterion)
tro
The bandwidth
on
C
rad/sec.
The result is
(a) For rad/s and
(b) For or and rad/s.
7.2 The unit-step response test conducted on a second-order system yielded and
2
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 3
Solution:
Given and
The peak overshoot is given by
ar
m
Ku
d
For
an
An
s,
m
te
3
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 4
rad/s
The result is rad/s and rad/s.
7.3 Sketch the polar plots of the transfer functions given below. Determine whether these plots
cross
the real axis. If so, determine the frequency at which the plots cross the real axis and the
corresponding magnitude .
ar
(a) (b)
m
Ku
(c) (d)
d
Solution:
an
(a) Given
An
The sinusoidal transfer function is
s,
Rationalizing
m
te
ys
lS
tro
When
on
When
C
The frequency at which the polar plot crosses the real axis is given by the solution of
4
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 5
i.e., or
The value of at this frequency is
Based on the above information an approximate polar plot can be drawn as shown in figure.
Im - 270•
ar
m
ω=∞
- 0 - j0 1 1 - j0
Ku
Re
-180 •
ω = 0 0•
0.4
d
an
An
7.3(a) - 90•
(b) Given
s,
m
Rationalizing,
lS
tro
on
C
When
When
The frequency at which the polar plot crosses the real axis is given by the solution of
5
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 6
or or
The value of at this frequency is
Based on the above information, an approximate polar plot is drawn as shown in figure.
Im - 270•
0.8
ω=∞
- 0+ j0
ar
Re
-180• 0•
m
1
ω= 2
Ku
- 90•
d
ω=0
an
Polar Plot Ex.7.3(b)
An
- 5 - j∞
(c) Given
s,
Rationalizing,
lS
tro
on
C
When
When
The polar plot does not cross the real axis. It crosses the imaginary axis at a fre quency given
by
the solution of
6
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 7
Based on the above information, an approximate polar plot is drawn as shown in figure.
ar
ω=0
- ∞ + j∞ Im
- 270•
m
Ku
d
1
ω= 2
an 1.6
An
-180• ω=∞ 0•
Re
0+ j0
s,
m
(d) Given
ys
lS
Rationalizing,
on
C
7
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 8
When
When
ar
Based on the above information, an approximate polar plot is drawn as shown in figure.
m
- ∞ + j∞ Im
ω=0
Ku
- 270•
d
an
An
ω=∞
-0 + j0
- Re
0•
s,
180•
m
Polar Plot
te
- 90•
7.4 Sketch the magnitude and phase Bode plots. Determine the gain crossover frequency, phase
ys
crossover frequency, gain margin and phase margin of the system. Comment on the stability
of the system.
lS
(a) (b)
tro
(a) Solution:
Given G(s) H(s) =
on
The factors of this transfer function in order of their occurance as frequency increases are as
follows:
1. Constant gain 10
2. Pole at the origin
3. Pole at [factor 1/(1+j0.5ω)]
4. Pole at [factor 1/(1+j0.05ω)]
The pertinent characteristics of each factor are given in Table 7.1 below.
8
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 9
Table 7.1
Asymptotic log
Factor Corner magnitude Phase angle
characteristic
Frequency characteristic
Straight line of constant slope -20dB/
ar
None decade passing through the
m
20 log 10 Constant - 90
= 20 dB point at ω = 1
Ku
=2 Straight line of 0 dB for Phase angle varies from 0
d
to -90
an
Straight line of slope -20dB/decade for Angle at
is
An
= 20 Straight line of 0 dB for Phase angle varies from 0
s,
to -90
m
45 .
.
ys
The resultant magnitude plot: Upto the first corner frequency of = 2, the resultant magnitude
lS
plot is a straight line with a slope of -20dB/decade passing through the20dB point at ω = 1. For
it is a straight line with a slope if + = /decade.
tro
For it is a straight line with a slope of (-40dB)+ (-20dB) = -60dB/decade. The error
corrections are -3dB at ω = 2 and and -1dB at ω = 1 and ω = 4, at ω = 10 and ω = 40.
on
At ,
At ,
At ,
At ,
At ,
At ,
At ,
9
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 10
At ,
Based on the above information, the magnitude and phase Bode plots are drawn as shown in
Figure 7.4. From the Bode plots we find that
The gain cross over frequency
The phase cross over frequency
The gain margin = 8 dB
The phase margin = 13.2
The given system is stable
Bode Diagram
ar
40
m
20
Magnitude (dB)
Ku
0
-20
d
-40
an
-60
-90
An
-135
Phase (deg)
-180
s,
m
-225
te
-270
-1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10
ys
Frequency (rad/sec)
lS
(b) Solution:
=
tro
The factors of this transfer function in order of their occurance as frequency increases are as
C
follows :
1. Constant gain 20
2. Double pole at the origin
3. Zero at s = -1 (factor 1+j )
4. Pole at s = -4 (factor )
5. Pole at s = -40 (factor )
The pertinent characteristics of each factor are given in Table 7.2 below.
10
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 11
Table 7.2
Asymptotic log
Factor Corner magnitude Phase angle characteristic
Frequency characteristic
1+j Straight line of 0dB for Straight Phase angle varies from 0
ar
to 90 .
line of slope 20dB/decade for Angle at is
m
45 .
Ku
Straight line of 0dB for Straight Phase angle varies from 0
d
to -90
an
line of slope -20dB/decade for Angle at is -
45 .
An
Straight line of 0dB for Straight Phase angle varies from 0
s,
to 90
line of slope -20dB/decade for Angle at is -
m
45
te
ys
The resultant magnitude plot: Upto the first corner frequency of the resultant magnitude
plot is a straight line with a slope of -40dB/decade passing the 26.02 dB point at
lS
The error corrections are 3dB at , and -3dB at and and 1 dB at and
, -1 dB at and , at and
C
At ,
At ,
At ,
11
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 12
At ,
At ,
At ,
At ,
At ,
Based on the above information, the magnitude and phase Bode plots are drawn as shown in
Figure
7.5. From the Bode plots we find that
The gain cross over frequency
The phase cross over frequency
ar
The gain margin = 5 dB
The phase margin =7
m
The given system is stable
Ku
d
an
An
Bode Diagram
50
s,
Magnitude (dB)
0
te
-50
ys
-135
lS
-180
Phase (deg)
tro
-225
on
-270
C
-1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
7.5 Sketch the Bode plots for the following transfer functions and determine in each case, the
system gain for the gain crossover frequency to be 10 rad/s. Comment on the stability of
the system for
(a) (b)
12
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 13
(a) Solution:
Given
The sinusoidal transfer function taking is
The factors of this transfer function in order of their occurrence as frequency increases are as
follows.
ar
3. Pole at
m
4. Pole at
Ku
The pertinent characteristics of each factor are given in table 7.3
d
an
Table 7.3
An
Factor Corner Asymptotic log magnitude Phase Angle
Characteristic
frequency Characteristic
s,
m
the 0 dB line at
ys
for .
on
for
13
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 14
The resultant magnitude plot: Upto the first corner frequency , the resultant magnitude plot
is a straight line with a slope of 40 dB/decade passing through the 0dB line at . For
it is a straight line with a slope of (40 dB)+(-20 dB)= 20dB/decade. For
it is a straight line with a slope of (20dB) + (-20dB) = 0dB/decade. For
it is a straight line with a slope of (0dB) + (-20dB) = -20dB/decade.
ar
m
At
At
Ku
At
At
At
d
At
an
At
At
An
The Bode plots are sketched as shown in figure 7.5(a). From the plot, for the gain cross over frequency to
be 10 rad/s, the value of K =0.14. For K = 1, . The system is stable with K = 1.
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
14
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 15
Bode Diagram
20
0
Magnitude (dB)
-20
-40
-60
ar
180
m
135
90
Phase (deg)
Ku
45
d
-45
an
-90
-1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10
An
Frequency (rad/sec)
s,
(b) Solution:
m
te
Given
ys
The factors of this transfer function in order of their occurrence as frequency increases are as
follows:
1.
on
3. pole at factor
4. pole at
15
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 16
Table 7.4
ar
Straight line of 0dB for . Phase angle varies from .
m
Straight line of slope dB/decade Angle at is
for
Ku
Straight line of 0dB for Phase angle varies from
Straight line of slope dB/decade angle at is
d
for
an
The resultant magnitude plot: Upto the first corner frequency , the resultant magnitude plot is a
An
straight line with a slope of -20 dB/decade passing through the 0dB line at . For
it is a straight line with a slope of (-20 dB)+(-20 dB)= -40dB/decade. For it is a straight line
with a slope of (-40dB)+(-20dB)=-60dB/decade.
s,
ω
te
= 5, 78.69 45 = -270.99
= 10, 84.28 63.43 = -352.3
C
Based on the above information the resultant magnitude and phase plots are plotted as shown in figure
7.5(b). From the plots the value of K for a gain cross over frequency of 10 rad/s is K = 250. With
K = 1,
The system is stable with K = 1.
16
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 17
Bode Diagram
40
Magnitude (dB) 20
-20
-40
-60
-90
ar
-135
Phase (deg)
m
-180
Ku
-225
-270
d
-1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10
an
Frequency (rad/sec)
An
7.6 The frequency response test data of certain elements plotted on Bode diagrams and
Asymptotically approximated are shown in Figure P7.2. Find the transfer function of each
s,
5 12 30
log ω
ys
lS
-16 20 dB/decade
tro
dB
C
-20 dB/decade
50 -40 dB/decade
-20 dB/decade
2.5 10 50 log ω
(b)
17
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 18
dB
6 dB/octave
- 6 dB/octave
42
12 dB/octave -12 dB/octave
0.5 1 5 20
(c)
ar
Figure P7.2
m
(a) Solution:
In Figure 7.6 (a) shown, the initial part of the resultant magnitude plot has a slope of -
Ku
20dB/decade. It corresponds to a pole at the origin (i.e., factor . It has a magnitude of -
3.5dB at It corresponds to the open loop gain K, where
dB
d
log
or
an
An
At the slope changes from dB/decade to zero. So a zero factor with a
corner frequency of has to be added. At the slope changes from 0 to
s,
(b) Solution:
tro
In figure 7.6(b) shown, the initial part of the resultant magnitude plot is a straight line with slope
of -20 dB/decade. It corresponds to a pole at the origin. At , the resultant magnitude is
on
The slope changes from -20 dB/decade to -40 dB/decade at . This must be due to a pole
factor with a corner frequency At the slope changes from
-40dB/decade to 0dB/decade. This must be due to a zero factor of with a corner
frequency At the slope changes from 0dB/decade to -20dB/decade. This must
be due to a pole factor with a corner frequency of
18
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 19
(or)
(c) Solution:
In figure 7.6 (c), the initial part of the resultant magnitude plot is a straight line with a slope of
12dB/octave, i.e., 40dB/decade. So there should be a double zero (factor ) at the origin of
the s- plane. At the slope changes from +40dB/decade to +20dB/decade. So there
must be a pole (factor , with a corner frequency At the slope
ar
changes from +6dB/octave, i.e., 20dB/decade to 0dB/decade. So there must be a pole (factor
with a corner frequency At the slope changes from 0dB/octave to
m
-6dB/octave, i.e., to
- 20dB/decade. So there must be a pole (factor with a corner frequency .
Ku
At the slope changes from -20dB/decade to -40dB/decade. So there must be a
pole (factor with a corner frequency So the transfer function is
d
an
An
s,
19
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 1
CHAPTER-8
8.1 By using the Nyquist stability criterion, determine whether the closed-loop systems having
the following open-loop transfer functions are stable or not. If not, how many closed-loop
poles lie in the right half s-plane?
(a) (b)
(c)
ar
Solution:
m
(a) Given open-loop transfer function is
Ku
The open-loop sinusoidal transfer function is
Along the segment of the Nyquist contour of figure 8.1(a) on the -axis, s varies from
d
– to
At
an
An
At
s,
m
At
te
ys
At
lS
tro
So we get four points to draw an approximate Nyquist plot. Along the semicircular arc of the
Nyquist
on
1
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 2
jω s-plane
jv q(s)-plane
+ j∞ C2 jv q (s )- plane
jφ ω = - ∞ω = 0
-
C1 Re
R →∞
- 1 + j0 ω =∞ ω = 0
+ u
ar
Figure 8.1
There are no open-loop poles in RHS of s-plane. So P = 0. So for stability, the Nyquist plot must
m
not encircle the -1+j0 point in q(s)-plane. In reality the Nyquist plot did not encircle the -1+j0
Ku
point. So the system is not unstable. But a pair of complex roots are on the imaginary axis of s-
plane. So the system is oscillatory.
d
(b) Given open-loop transfer function is
an
An
Open-loop transfer function in sinusoidal form is
s,
m
Rationalizing we have
te
ys
lS
tro
on
Along the segment of the Nyquist contour of figure 8.1(c) on the jω-axis, varies from to
C
At
At
At
At
2
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 3
ar
So the magnitude is zero and phase varies from to i.e., from -270 to
m
+270 So the infinite semicircular arc is mapped on to a point at the origin joining the
Ku
and points in the q(s)-plane.
The infinitesimally small semicircular indent around the pole at the origin of figure 8.1(c)
d
represented by ( varying from through 0 to ) maps into
an
An
varies from Thus, the infinitesimal semicircular indent around the origin
s,
of the s-plane maps into a semicircular arc of infinite radius in G(s)H(s)-plane extending from
through as shown in figure 8.1(d).
m
- 5 + j∞
- 5 + j∞ q(s)-plane
q(s) -plane
te
jφ jv
jω s-plane
Re
ys
jv
+ j∞ R →∞
ω=∞
lS
ω=
C1 C2 - 0 + j0
ω=-∞
- 0.8 - 0 - j0 u
ω=∞
tro
ω = 12 - 0 + j0
j0+
X ω=-∞ u
j0- ∈ e jθ σ - 0.8 - 0 - j0
on
∈→ 0
- 5 - j∞ (d) Nyquist plot
C
- j∞
(c) Nyquist path
- 5 - j∞ (d) Nyquist plot
Figure 8.1
The point of intersection of the Nyquist plot on the real axis is obtained by equating the imaginary
part to zero, i.e.,
3
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 4
So the Nyquist plot does not encircle the -1+j0 point. In this problem P = 0. Therefore, for stability
the Nyquist plot must not encircle the -1+j0 point. So the given system is stable.
ar
m
Rationalizing we have
Ku
d
an
An
s,
m
Along the segment of the Nyquist contour of figure 8.1(e) on the jω-axis, s varies from to
.
te
At ,
ys
At
lS
At
tro
At ,
on
C
So we get four points to draw an approximate Nyquist plot. The infinitesimally small semicircular
arc of the Nyquist contour of Figure 8.1(e) represented by (where varies from -90
through 0 to +90 is mapped into
into a semicircle of infinite radius extending from +180 to as shown in Figure 8.1
(f).
4
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 5
The infinite semicircle of the Nyquist contour of figure 8.1(e) represented by ( varies
from +90 through 0 to ) is mapped into
The map turns around the origin from as sketched in figure 8.1(f).
The point of intersection of the Nyquist plot with the real axis is obtained by equating the
imaginary part to zero. i.e.,
0
ar
Based on the above information, an approximate Nyquist plot is drawn as shown in Figure 8.1(f).
Since , for stability, the Nyquist plot must not encircle the point. It can be
m
concluded that the system is unstable as the Nyquist plot encircles the point twice in the
Ku
clockwise direction. Two poles of the closed-loop system are in the RHS of s-plane.
jv
jω jφ s-plane q(s)-plane
Re
d
+ j∞ R →∞
ω = 0+
an
- ∞ + j∞
C1 C2 An
j0+
XX jθ
ω=∞
j0- ∈e σ 0 + j0
∈→ 0
ω =-∞ u
s,
- 1 + j0
0 - j0
m
te
- j∞
(e) Nyquist path ω = 0-
- ∞ - j∞
ys
Figure 8.1
8.2 Sketch the Nyquist plot for a system with the open-loop transfer function given below and
tro
Solution:
C
Rationalizing we have
5
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 6
Along the segment of the Nyquist contour of figure 8.1(a) on the -axis, s varies from
to
At ,
ar
m
At
Ku
At
d
an
At , An
So we get four points to draw an approximate Nyquist plot.
The infinite semicircular arc of the Nyquist contour of figure 8.1 (a) is mapped like
s,
this
m
te
ys
The point of intersection of the Nyquist plot with the real axis is obtained by equating the
imaginary part to zero, i.e.,
tro
on
i.e., and
C
Based on the above information an approximate Nyquist plot is drawn as shown in figure 8.2.
Since in this case P = 1, the Nyquist plot must encircle the -1+j0 point once in the anticlockwise
direction for the closed-loop system to be stable. From the plot we observe that this can happen if
, i.e., i.e.,
6
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 7
jv
q(s)-plane
ω = 0+ ω=-∞
−K K
+ j0 + j0
2 16
ω = 0- ω= ∞ u
−K K
2
- j0 - j0
16
- 0.0806K
ω = 0.6166
ar
8.3 Draw the Nyquist plot and assess the stability of the closed-loop system whose open-loop
m
transfer function is
Ku
Solution:
d
Given open-loop transfer function is
an
An
The open-loop sinusoidal transfer function is
s,
Rationalizing we have
m
te
ys
long the segment of the Nyquist contour of figure 8.1(a) on the -axis, s varies from
lS
to +
tro
At ,
on
At
C
At
At ,
So we get four points to draw an approximate Nyquist plot. The infinite semicircular arc of the
Nyquist contour of figure 8.1(a) represented by
is mapped into
7
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 8
The map turns around the origin from . Based on the above an approximate
Nyqyist plot is drawn as shown in figure 8.3.
jv
q(s)-plane
ω = 0-
ω=-∞ 3
+ j0
2
- 0 + j0
ω=∞ ω = 0+ u
- 0 - j0
3
2
- j0
ar
Figure 8.3 Nyquist Plot
m
Ku
8.4 Sketch the Nyquist plot and comment on the stability of the closed-loop system whose open-
loop transfer function is
d
an
Solution: An
Given open-loop transfer function is
The sinusoidal open-loop transfer function is
s,
m
Rationalizing we get
te
ys
lS
tro
on
Along the segment of the Nyquist contour of figure 8.1(c) on the -axis, s varies from -
C
At
At
At
At
8
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 9
So we get four points to draw an appropriate Nyquist plot. The semicircular indent around the
pole at the origin of the Nyquist contour of Figure 8.1(c) represented by ( varying from
through ) maps into
This is an infinite semicircular arc in the left half of the -plane with clockwise direction as
in figure 8.4.
ar
The infinite semicircular arc of the Nyquist contour (segment ) of figure 8.1(c) represented by
m
( varying from +90 through 0 to -90 ) is mapped into
Ku
d
an
The map turns around the origin from as sketched in figure 8.4.
The point of intersection of the Nyquist plot with the real axis is obtained by equating the
An
imaginary part of to zero, i.e.
s,
m
The value of at that point is obtained by substituting this value of in the real part of
te
i.e.,
ys
Based on the above information an approximate Nyquist plot is drawn as shown in figure
lS
8.4.
tro
3
− K + j∞
2 jv
ω = 0+
q(s)-plane
on
C
ω= 8 ω=-∞
- 0 + j0
−K
ω=∞ u
2
- 0 - j0
ω = 0-
3
− K - j∞
2
9
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 10
In this case P = 1. So for stability of closed-loop system, the Nyquist plot must encircle the -1+j0
point once in the counter clockwise direction. From the plot we observe that this can happen if
i.e., So the system is stable for
8.5 Sketch the Nyquist plot and assess the stability of the closed-loop system whose open-loop
transfer function is
Solution:
Given open-loop transfer function is
ar
The open-loop sinusoidal transfer function is
m
Ku
Rationalizing we get
d
an
An
s,
Along the segment of the Nyquist contour of figure 8.1(a) on the -axis, varies from
m
to +
te
At ,
ys
At
lS
At
tro
At ,
on
So we get four points to draw an approximate Nyquist plot. The infinite semicircular arc of the
C
The map turns around the origin from as sketched in figure 8.5.
10
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 11
The point of intersection of the Nyquist plot on the real axis is obtained by equating the imaginary
part to zero, i.e.,
i.e., and
The value of at this point is obtained by substituting this value of in the real part of
Therefore
ar
Based on the above information, an approximate Nyquist plot is drawn as shown in figure 8.5.
m
Examination of this plot reveals that for i.e., the Nyquist plot encircles the
point once in the clockwise direction.
Ku
In this case P = 0. So for stability the Nyquist plot must not encircle the point. Since for
d
the Nyquist plot encircles the point, the system is stable only for
an
jv q(s) plane
An
s,
ω = 0+ ω=-∞
−
3
K + j0 0 + j0
m
2
ω =30- u
- 1 + j0 ω=∞ K
− K - j0 0 - j0 256 ω = 28
te
2
ys
lS
8.6 Sketch the Nyquist plot and there from assess the stability of the closed-loop system whose
open-loop transfer function is
on
C
Solution:
Given open-loop transfer function is
11
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 12
Along the segment of the Nyquist contour of figure 8.1(e) on the -axis, s varies from to
.
At ,
At
At
ar
At ,
m
Ku
So we get four points to draw an approximate Nyquist plot. The semicircular indent around the pole
at the origin of the Nyquist contour of Figure 8.1(e) represented by ( varying from -90
d
through 0 to +90 ) is mapped into
an
An
s,
m
It is an infinite circular arc with clockwise directions. The infinite semicircular arc of the Nyquist
contour (segment ) of figure 8.1(e) represented by ( varying from + 90 through 0 to -
te
90 ) is mapped into
ys
lS
tro
The map turns around the origin from as sketched in Figure 8.6.
on
Looking at the imaginary part of , we observe that the Nyquist plot intersects the real
axis at
C
Based on the above information, an approximate Nyquist plot is drawn as shown in figure 8.6. In
this case P = 0. So for the closed-loop system to be stable, the Nyquist plot must not encircle the
point. So it can be concluded that the system is unstable as the Nyquist plot encircles the
point twice in the clockwise direction.
12
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 13
jv q(s)-plane
ω = 0+
- ∞ + j∞
ω=∞
- 0 + j0
ω=-∞ u
- 1 + j0
- 0 - j0
ar
ω = 0-
- ∞ - j∞
m
Figure 8.6 Nyquist plot
Ku
8.7 Sketch the Nyquist plot and determine there from the stability of the following feedback
control system with
d
Solution:
an
An
Given open-loop transfer function is
s,
Along the segment of the Nyquist contour of figure 8.1(c) on the -axis, varies from to
.
At ,
At
13
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 14
At
At ,
The semicircular indent around the pole at the origin of the Nyquist contour of figure 8.1(c)
represented by ( varying from -90 through 0 to +90 maps into
ar
m
Ku
It is an infinite circular arc with clockwise directions.
d
an
The infinite semicircular arc of the Nyquist contour of figure 8.1(c) represented by
( varying form +90 through 0 to -90 is mapped into
An
s,
0
m
te
The map turns around the origin from as sketched in Figure 8.7. The
point of intersection of the Nyquist plot with the real axis is obtained by equating the imaginary
ys
i.e.,
on
The value of at that point is obtained by substituting this value of in the real part of
, i.e.,
C
Based on the above information, an approximate Nyquist plot is drawn as shown in figure 8.7. It
crosses the real axis at with an intercept of .
The given open-loop transfer function has no poles in the RHS of s-plane. So P = 0. For the closed-
loop system to be stable the Nyquist plot must not encircle the -1+j0 point. From the plot we can
see that for this to happen i.e.,
14
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 15
jv
ω = 0- q(s)-plane
−K
18
+ j∞
ω=∞
ω= 6 - 0 + j0
−K ω=-∞ u
- 0 - j0
12
ar
m
ω = 0+
−K
- j∞
18
Figure 8.7 Nyquist plot
Ku
8.8 Sketch the inverse polar plot and there from assess the stability of a control system with an
d
open-loop transfer function
an
An
Solution:
Given open-loop transfer function is
s,
m
te
=
lS
Along the segment of the Nyquist contour of figure 8.1(c) on the -axis, s varies from to
.
tro
At ,
on
At
C
At
At ,
The semicircular indent around the origin of the Nyquist contour of Figure 8.1(c) represented by
; where varies from - 90 through 0 to + 90 is mapped into plane as
15
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 16
which is a circle of infinite radius with phase angle varying from +180 .
ar
The inverse polar plot of obtained from the above steps is shown in
Figure 8.8. It is observed that the point is not encircled by locus. Since
m
has no poles in the right half s-plane, the system is stable.
Ku
jv
1
G (s )H (s )
-plane
d
an
ω = +∞
- ∞ + j∞ ω = 0+
An
- 0 + j0
ω = 0- u
ω=-∞ - 0 - j0
- ∞ - j∞
s,
m
te
ys
At the phase crossover frequency , the is real and so equate the imaginary part to zero
and solve for . Therefore
Since
The Nyquist plot intersects the real axis at a point where is real
16
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 17
ar
Taking the on both sides,
m
Ku
d
an
0.01732 An 0.52
we get
s,
Hence
m
te
i.e.,
ys
lS
Determine the gain crossover frequency, phase crossover frequency, gain margin, and
on
phase margin of a system with the open-loop transfer function given below and comment on the
stability of the system.
C
Solution:
Determination of phase crossover frequency and gain margin :
The given open-loop transfer function is .
The sinusoidal transfer function is
17
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 18
At the phase crossover frequency the imaginary part of is zero. Hence put in
the imaginary part and equate it to zero to solve for . Therefore
Since
i.e.,
The gain margin is defined as the reciprocal of the magnitude of at the phase crossover
frequency.
ar
Therefore,
m
Ku
in dB = dB
Determination of gain crossover frequency and phase margin for the given
d
an
An
s,
m
At
tro
18
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 1
CHAPTER-9
9.1 The open-loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is
ar
m
Solution:
Ku
The given open-loop transfer function is
d
Given
an
An
The open-loop transfer function in sinusoidal time constant form is
s,
m
The Bode plots of the system with are drawn as shown in Figure 9.1. The phase margin of the
uncompensated system is and the gain crossover frequency is 4.5 rad/s. GM = ∞ and phase crossover
te
frequency = ∞. Since a lead compensator is to be designed, the phase lead required at the new gain crossover
frequency is given by
ys
Therefore, the frequency at which the uncompensated system has a magnitude of becomes the new
crossover frequency when the lead network is added. From the Bode plot of figure 9.1, we find
C
.
Lower corner frequency of the network,
The transfer function of the lead network (with amplifier) therefore becomes
1
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 2
The magnitude and phase Bode plots of the lead compensated system are drawn as shown in Figure 9.1
From the plots, the new gain crossover frequency is 6.2 rad/sec and the corresponding phase margin is
which satisfies the requirement of The phase crossover frequency = ∞ and the GM = ∞. So the
design is complete.
Bode plots of uncompensated system
Up to the first corner frequency , the resultant magnitude plot is a straight line with a slope of
ar
-20dB/decade passing through the For it is a straight line with a
slope of .
m
The resultant phase plot is with phase angle i.e. with
at at at
Ku
at , at at and at rad/s.
Bode plots of lead compensated system
Up to the first corner frequency the resultant magnitude plot is a straight line with a slope of
d
having a magnitude of 21.6 dB at . From to it is a straight line a slope of
an
dB/decade. From to it is a straight line with a slope of and for
rad/sec it is a straight line with a slope of dB/decade with corrections.
An
The phase plot is with phase angle
rad/sec.
m
Bode Diagram
te
40
20
ys
Magnitude (dB)
0
lS
-20
tro
-40
-90
on
Phase (deg)
-135
C
-180
-1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
Figure 9.1
2
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 3
Solution:
ar
m
The given open-loop transfer function in sinusoidal time constant form is
Ku
The magnitude and phase Bode plots of the above system are drawn as shown in Figure 9.2. From these plots, it
d
can be seen that the gain crossover frequency is rad/s, and the phase margin is The
an
phase crossover frequency = 0 and GM is negative. The uncompensated system is absolutely unstable.
Since the required phase margin is , the phase lead needed at the gain crossover frequency of the
An
compensated system is obtained as
Here is the estimated reduction in the phase angle of fixed part of the transfer function since
s,
A large value of has been selected because is decreasing at a faster rate, since the final slope
m
Since using a single lead network to give such a large phase lead is not advisable, a double lead
ys
network is selected so that each section has to provide a maximum phase lead of
Therefore .
lS
From the plot of the uncompensated system, we can see that the gain
on
occurs at rad/s. This should be the gain crossover frequency of the compensated system. Choosing
C
3
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 4
The net additional amplifier gain required is . Cascading this amplifier between the
two sections of the lead network provides the isolation needed to prevent the second section from
loading the first one.
The open-loop transfer function of the system compensated by the double lead network is given by
The Bode plots of the lead compensated system are drawn as shown in Figure 9.2. From the Bode plots, we can
see that the phase margin at the new gain crossover frequency of is . The phase crossover
ar
frequency = 11.5 rad/s and the GM = 4dB. This indicates that the system has become stable and the desired
phase margin is also fully achieved.
m
Bode plots of uncompensated system
Ku
Up to the first corner frequency , the resultant magnitude plot is a straight line with a slope of
dB/decade passing through the dB point at . For it is a straight line with a
slope of dB/decade.
d
The resultant phase plot is with phase angle
an
, i.e. with
at at at
An
at , at at
at , at , and at rad/s
s,
Up to the first corner frequency the resultant magnitude plot is a straight line with a slope of
having a magnitude of 20 dB at . For .518 upto it is a straight line with zero
te
at at , at
at at at .
on
C
4
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 5
Bode Diagram
60
40
Magnitude (dB)
20
-20
-40
-135
-180
Phase (deg)
ar
-225
m
-270
-1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
Ku
Figure 9.2
d
9.3 A unity feedback system has an open-loop transfer function
an
An
Design a phase-lag compensator for this system to meet the following specifications.
s,
• Phase margin
te
Also compare the crossover frequencies of the uncompensated and compensated systems.
ys
Solution:
lS
The magnitude and phase Bode plots of are drawn as shown in Figure 9.3. From these plots we
observe that the phase margin is and the gain crossover frequency is 3.2 rad/s. The phase crossover
frequency = 3.2 rad/s and the gain margin = 1dB. The uncompensated system is just stable.
From the Bode plots we can observe that, neglecting the phase lag contribution of the lag network, the specified
phase margin of is obtained, if the gain crossover frequency is 1.1 rad/s. Since this is fairly low, the upper
5
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 6
cutoff frequency of the lag network cannot be taken far to its left in order to avoid large time constants. That
means, the phase lag contribution of the lag network at the new crossover frequency will be considerable and
may be guessed as The uncompensated system must therefore make a phase margin contribution of
at which is found from the Bode plots of Figure 9.3 to be 0.8 rad/s.
Placing the upper corner frequency of the compensator two octaves below , we have
rad/s or
To bring the log magnitude curve down to zero dB at , the lag network must provide an attenuation of 20dB.
Therefore,
or
The lower corner frequency of the lag network is then fixed at
rad/s or
ar
The transfer function of the compensating network is then
m
Ku
Phase lag introduced by the lag network at is
d
So it would have been appropriate to take .
an
The open-loop transfer function of the compensated system becomes
An
The Bode plot of the lag compensated system G(s) is as shown in Figure 9.3. From that plot, the phase margin of
the compensated system is found to be which is almost equal to the expected value. The new gain crossover
s,
frequency is 0.8 rad/s. The phase crossover frequency = 2.8 rad/s and the GM = 12dB
m
Up to the first corner frequency the magnitude plot is a straight line with a slope of dB/decade
having a magnitude of 20dB at . From to it is a straight line with a slope of dB/decade
ys
and for , it is a straight line with a slope of dB/decade with necessary corrections.
The phase plot is with a phase angle
lS
, i.e. with
at at at
tro
at , at at
at , at , and at
at and at rad/s.
on
6
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 7
at and at rad/s.
Bode Diagram
60
40
Magnitude (dB)
20
-20
-40
-60
-90
-135
Phase (deg)
ar
-180
m
-225
Ku
-270
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
d
Figure 9.3
an
9.4 Consider a system with an open-loop transfer function
An
s,
• Bandwidth
lS
Also compare the crossover frequencies of the uncompensated and compensated systems.
Solution:
tro
The magnitude and phase Bode plots of are drawn as shown in Figure 9.4. From the Bode plots, it is
seen that the uncompensated system has a gain crossover frequency of 8.5 rad/s ( ) and a phase margin of
. The phase crossover frequency = 7.5 rad/s and the GM = 1dB. The uncompensated system is therefore
unstable for the specified . A lag-lead compensator is to be provided.
First let us select a lag compensator so that it partially compensates the requirement of phase margin. Let it
provide a phase margin of so that the new crossover frequency will be 4 rad/s. For this to become the
7
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 8
crossover frequency, as seen from the Bode plot, the magnitude plot must be down by 13dB. So the parameter
of the lag section is
Let us now choose the upper corner frequency of lag section two octaves below this new gain crossover
frequency of 4 rad/sec. Therefore
ar
Therefore, the transfer function of the lag compensator is
m
Ku
So the lag section compensated system is
d
The magnitude and phase Bode plots of the lag section compensated system are shown in Figure 9.4. From the
an
plots, it can be seen that the lag section compensated system has a phase margin of and a gain crossover
frequency of 3.3 rad/s. The phase crossover frequency = 6.8 rad/s and GM = 10 dB
An
To design the lead section, select
s,
The maximum phase lead that can be provided by the lead network is
m
te
To fully utilize the lead effect, choose the compensated crossover frequency to coincide with . So is the
ys
From the magnitude Bode plot of the lag compensated system, it can be observed that dB magnitude plot
occurs at rad/s. Then the lower corner frequency of the lead network is
tro
or
on
or
8
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 9
The magnitude and phase Bode plots of the lag-lead compensated system are shown in Figure 9.4. From the
Bode plots we can see that the phase margin of the compensated system is and the gain crossover frequency
is 7 rad/s. The phase crossover frequency = 9 rad/s and the gain margin = 10dB.
Bode plots of uncompensated system
Up to the first corner frequency of , it is a straight line with a slope of dB/decade having a magnitude
of dB at From to it is a straight line with a slope of dB/decade and
for rad/s it is a straight line with a slope of dB/decade with necessary corrections. Its phase is with
a phase angle.
ar
, i.e. with
at at at
m
at , at at
at , at , and at
Ku
Bode plots of lag compensated system
Up to the first corner frequency of it is a straight line with a slope of -20 dB/decade having a
d
magnitude of 28dB at . From 0.188 to it is a straight line with a slope of -40 dB/decade. From
an
it is a straight line with a slope of – 20 dB/decade. From to it is a straight line with
a slope of -40dB/decade. For rad/s it is a straight line with a slope of -60dB/decade with necessary
An
corrections.
i.e with
at , at at
te
at at , at
at , at , at rad/s.
ys
Up to the first corner frequency of it is a straight line with a slope of -20 dB/decade having a
magnitude of 28 dB at . From to it is a straight line with a slope of dB/decade, from
C
9
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 10
Bode Diagram
80
60
40
Magnitude (dB)
20
-20
-40
-90
-135
Phase (deg)
ar
-180
m
-225
Ku
-270
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
Figure 9.4
d
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
10
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 1
CHAPTER-10
10.1 A feedback system has a closed-loop transfer function
Construct three different state models for this system and give block diagram representation for
each state model.
Solution:
ar
(a) Given
m
Ku
(i) Direct decomposition
d
an
Express the numerator and denominator in negative powers of s.
An
Multiply and divide by a dummy variable
s,
m
te
Equate the numerators and denominators on both sides of the above equation.
ys
lS
Construct the state diagram based on the above equations as shown below.
on
C
1
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 2
10
-8
State diagram for direct decomposition
ar
m
The state variables are defined as the outputs of the integrators.
Ku
From the state diagram the dynamic equations are
d
Writing them in matrix form the state model is
an
An
s,
m
te
To obtain the state diagram decompose each product term using direct decomposition and connect
them in cascade as shown in figure below.
on
1
s-1 s-1
C
10 1 1 s-1 3
U(s)
Y(s) x2
x3 x3 x2 x1 x1
-2 -4
State diagram for cascade decomposition
2
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 3
ar
The given transfer function can be written in terms of partial fractions as
m
Ku
The state diagram of the system is shown in figure below.
d
an
s-1 3.75
x1 x1
An
1 1
1 1 s-1 - 2.5 1 1
U(s) Y(s)
s,
U(s) x2 x2 Y(s)
1
m
-2 1
s-1 2.5
te
x3 x3
ys
lS
-4
State diagram for parallel decomposition
tro
3
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 4
(b) Given
(i) Direct decomposition
ar
Multiply and divide by a dummy variable X(s)
m
Ku
d
an
Equate the numerators and denominators on both sides of the above equation.
An
Write the equation for U(s) in cause and effect form
s,
Construct the state diagram based on the above equations as shown below.
m
-5
lS
-8
tro
-4
State diagram for direct decomposition
on
4
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 5
To obtain the state diagram decompose each product term using direct decomposition and connect
them in cascade as shown in figure below.
ar
m
5 s-1 1 s-1 1 s-1 1
U(s) Y(s)
Ku
x3 x3 x2 x2 x1 x1
-1 -2 -2
d
State diagram for cascade decomposition
an
An
Considering the outputs of integrators as state variables, we have
s,
m
te
5
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 6
s-1 5
x1 x1
1 -1 1
1 s-1 -5 1
U(s) x2 Y(s)
U(s) x2 Y(s)
-2
1
s-1
x3 x3 - 5
-2
State diagram for parallel decomposition
ar
m
Ku
Selecting the outputs of the integrators as state variables we have
d
an
An
The state model is
s,
m
te
ys
lS
(c) Given
tro
6
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 7
Construct the state diagram based on the above equations as shown below.
ar
m
9
23
Ku
1 s-1 x3 s-1 x2 s-1 x1 15
U(s) Y(s)
d
x(s) s-1x(s) s-2x(s) s-3x(s) C(s)
-12
an
An
- 44
s,
- 48
State diagram for direct decomposition
m
te
ys
Taking the outputs of the integrators as state variables from the state diagram the dynamic
equations are
lS
tro
on
7
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 8
To obtain the state diagram decompose each product term using direct decomposition and connect
them in cascade as shown in figure below.
1 1
1
-2 -4 -6
ar
State diagram for cascade decomposition
m
Ku
Considering the outputs of the integrators as state variables, we have
d
an
An
The state model is
s,
m
te
ys
lS
8
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 9
s-1 - 3/8
1 x1 x1 1
1 -2 1
1 1 s-1 - 3/4 1 1
U(s) Y(s)
U(s) x2 x2
1 -4 1
s-1 - 15/8
x3 x3
ar
-6
m
State diagram for parallel decomposition
Ku
Selecting the outputs of the integrators as state variables, we have
d
an
An
The state model is
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
10.2 Using parallel decomposition, construct state models for the systems represented by
on
Solution:
(a) Given transfer function can be written as
9
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 10
s-1 1/2
x1
-1 x1
s-1 1/4 1
x2 x2
-1 1
1 1 s-1 - 13/4 1 1
U(s) x3 Y(s)
U(s) x3 Y(s)
ar
-1 1
m
s-1 2
x4
x4 1
Ku
-2
s-1 5 1
d
x5 x5
-2
an
An
s-1 5/8
x6 x6
s,
-3
State diagram for parallel decomposition
m
te
ys
10
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 11
ar
m
(b) The given transfer function is
Ku
d
The state diagram of the system is shown in figure below.
an
An
s-1 -1
x1
s,
-1 x1
m
te
s-1 0 1
x2 x2
ys
-1
1
lS
1 s-1 -1 1 1
U(s) x3 Y(s)
U(s) Y(s)
tro
x3
1 1
-1
on
s-1 1/2
1
x4
C
1 x4
-2
s-1 1/2
x5 x5
State diagram for parallel decomposition
11
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 12
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
(c) The given transfer function is
s,
m
s-1 10/3
x1
lS
x1
1
tro
-3
1 1 s-1 -5/9 1 1
on
U(s) Y(s)
U(s) x2 x2 Y(s)
C
1 -3
1
s-1 5/3
x3 x3
State diagram for parallel decomposition
12
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 13
ar
m
10.3 Construct state models for the following differential equations
Ku
(a) (b)
d
(c) (d)
an
An
(e) (f)
Solution:
s,
No derivatives of input are present in the differential equation. So the state variables can be
te
phase variables.
ys
So the first order differential equations constituting the state equations are
13
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 14
ar
No derivatives of input are present in the differential equation. So state variables can be phase
m
variables.
Define the state variables as
Ku
d
an
Equating the highest order term to other terms, we have
An
s,
The first order differential equations constituting the state equations are
m
te
ys
There are no derivates of input in the differential equation. So the state variables can be phase
variables.
14
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 15
So the first order differential equations constituting the state equations are
ar
m
The output equation is
Ku
The state model based on the above equations is
d
an
An
s,
m
te
Derivatives of input are also present in the given differential equation so state variables cannot be
the phase variables. Comparing this with the standard third-order differential equation
tro
on
we have
C
Therefore
15
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 16
Also
ar
m
Ku
(e) Given differential equation is
d
Derivatives of input are also present in the given differential equation, so state variables cannot be
an
phase variables.
Comparing this with the standard third order differential equation, we have
An
s,
Therefore
m
te
ys
Also
The state and output equations are therefore
C
16
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 17
Derivatives of input are present in the obtained differential equation so state variables cannot be
phase variables.
ar
Comparing this with the standard fourth order differential equation, we have
m
Ku
Therefore
d
an
An
The state variables are defined as
s,
m
te
ys
Also
lS
17
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 18
Find the state transition matrix , the characteristic equation and the eigen values of A and
stability for the following cases.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
ar
(g) (h)
m
(i) (j)
Ku
(k) (l)
(m) (n)
d
an
(o) (p)
Solution:
An
(a) Given
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
18
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 19
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
(c)
on
C
19
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 20
(d) Given
ar
The characteristic equation is . The roots are . So the eigen values
are There are a pair of complex conjugate roots on the imaginary axis. So
m
the system is marginally stable.
Ku
(e)
d
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
eigen
values are All the roots have only negative real parts. So the system is
tro
stable.
(f)
on
C
20
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 21
(g)
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
The characteristic equation is . The roots are So the
eigen
s,
values are Since both the roots have only negative real parts the system is
m
stable.
te
(h)
ys
lS
tro
on
C
21
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 22
eigen values are Since both the roots have only negative real parts
the system is stable.
(i)
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
The characteristic equation is . The roots are So the eigen
values are Since both the roots have negative real parts the system is
stable.
s,
m
(j)
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
The characteristic equation is . The roots are So the eigen values are
. Since one root is at the origin the system is marginally stable.
(k)
22
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 23
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
The characteristic equation is . The roots are
s,
(l)
ys
lS
tro
on
C
= =
23
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 24
(m)
ar
m
Ku
d
The characteristic equation is
an
The roots are s = 0, s = -5. So the eigen
An
values are Since there is one root at the origin of the s-plane the
system is marginally stable.
s,
(n) Given
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
(o) Given
24
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 25
ar
The characteristic equation of the system is . The roots are . So the
m
eigen values are Since there is a pair of roots on the imaginary axis the
given system is limitedly stable.
Ku
(p)
d
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
Since both the roots have only negative real parts the system is stable.
C
Find the state transition matrix , the characteristic equation, and the eigen values of A and
stability for the following cases.
(a) , (b)
25
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 26
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
(g) (h)
Solution:
ar
m
(a) Given ,
Ku
d
an
An
=
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
26
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 27
(b) Given
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
(c) Given
C
27
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 28
ar
m
Ku
d
The characteristic equation of the system is
an The roots are
An
So the eigen values are and Since one of the roots is
at the origin the system is limitedly stable.
s,
m
(d) Given
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
28
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 29
ar
The characteristic equation is The roots of the characteristic equation are
m
So the given eigen values are
Ku
Since all the roots have only negative real parts the system is stable.
d
(e) Given
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
29
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 30
(f) Given
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
30
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 31
(g) Given
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
31
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 32
(h) Given
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
32
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 33
(a)
(b)
ar
m
(c)
Ku
d
(d)
an
An
(e)
s,
m
(f)
te
ys
(g)
lS
tro
(h)
on
Solution:
C
(a) x
Here
33
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 34
(b) Given
ar
m
Ku
Here
d
an
An
s,
=
ys
lS
Here
34
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 35
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
s,
Here
tro
on
C
35
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 36
ar
m
(e) Given state model is
Ku
d
an
Here
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
36
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 37
ar
m
Ku
(f) Given state model is
d
an
An
Here
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
37
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 38
Here
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
s,
m
te
38
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 39
Here
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
The transfer function corresponding to the given state model is
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
39
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 40
(b) Find the state transition equations for the system described by
ar
where u is unit-step input.
m
Ku
Solution:
d
(a) Given state model is
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
40
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 41
(ii.) If it has a forcing function – a unit step function and B = , then the solution is
ar
m
Ku
Taking inverse Laplace transform
d
an
An
s,
Here A =
lS
tro
Therefore,
on
C
41
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 42
ar
m
Ku
d
Therefore
an
An
s,
= =
ys
(ii)
42
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 43
ar
10.8 Consider the system
m
Ku
(a) Determine the stability of the system
d
(b) Find the response of the system to a unit-step input.
an
(c) Also determine the output of the system.
An
Solution:
Here
lS
tro
on
C
43
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 44
ar
The output of the system is given by
m
Ku
d
an
An
Taking inverse Laplace transform we get the output
s,
m
te
10.9 (a) Obtain the state variable model in Jordan canonical form, for the system with
ys
transfer function
lS
tro
(b) Find the response to a unit-step input using the state variable model in (a)
on
(c) Give s block diagram for the analog computer simulation of the transfer function
C
Solution:
44
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 45
The root at s=-1 is a repeated root. So the parallel form decomposition is as shown below.
x1 s-1 x1 1
-1
ar
s-1 x2 1
x2
m
1
-1
Ku
s-1 1 1 1
U(s) Y(s)
U(s) x3 x3
d
-2
an
Parallel form decomposition
An
From the above decomposition we can write the state model in Jordan Canonical form as
s,
m
te
.
tro
on
Therefore
45
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 46
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
46
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 47
ar
m
Ku
10.10 Diagonalize the following system matrix.
d
(a) (b)
an
An
(c) (d)
s,
m
(e)
te
ys
Solution:
lS
(a)
tro
on
i.e
C
47
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 48
ar
m
Ku
d
The diagonal matrix is given by
an
An
s,
m
te
ys
(b) Given
lS
tro
on
C
. Since they are all zeros consider cofactors along the second row.
.
48
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 49
Since the eigen value is repeated, the third eigen vector can be obtained by differentiating the coefficients
ar
corresponding to
m
Ku
d
an
An
The modal matrix based on the eigen vectors is
s,
m
te
ys
(c) Given
49
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 50
ar
m
Ku
The cofactors along the first row are all zeros.
d
an
The cofactors along the second row are
An
Therefore the eigen vector associated with
s,
m
te
ys
The cofactors along the first row are all zeros. The cofactors along the second row are
lS
50
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 51
ar
(d) Given
m
Ku
d
an
An
So the eigen values are
s,
m
te
ys
Since this eigen value is repeated, the second eigen vector can be obtained by differentiating the
coefficients corresponding to
on
C
51
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 52
ar
m
Ku
d
an
An
s,
m
te
(e) Given
ys
lS
tro
on
C
The cofactors along the first row are all zeors. The cofactors along the second row are
. So the eigen vector associated with is .
52
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 53
Since the eigen value is repeated the third eigen vector can be obtained by differentiating
the coefficients corresponding to
ar
m
Ku
d
an
So the modal matrix is An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
10.11 Determine the state controllability, output controllability and observability of the
system
53
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 54
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
ar
m
(e)
Ku
(f) A = , B= , C=
d
(a)Given
an
An
For state controllability
s,
m
te
ys
lS
54
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 55
So the given system is completely state controllable, output controllable and observable.
(b) Given
ar
m
Ku
So the system is completely output controllable.
d
an
= An
s,
So the given system is completely state controllable, output controllable and observable.
te
ys
(c) Given
lS
tro
on
C
55
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 56
= ,
So the given system is completely state controllable, output controllable and observable.
ar
(d) Given
m
Ku
d
an
An
So the system is completely state controllable.
s,
m
te
ys
lS
So the given system is completely state controllable and output controllable, but not
observable.
(e) Given
56
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 57
ar
m
Ku
So the system is completely output controllable.
d
an
An
s,
m
te
So the given system is completely state controllable and output controllable but not
lS
observable.
tro
on
57
Control Systems, ANAND KUMAR 58
ar
m
Ku
d
So the system is observable.
an
So the system is completely state controllable, output controllable, and observable.
An
s,
m
te
ys
lS
tro
on
C
58