AIR POLLUTION

The technological revolution has backfired like all other revolutions,

while at one end, it has hastened the consumption of scarce materials, it

has at the other end thrown up a lot of unwanted waste and heaps of

industrial products into air and on the land and water, which neither the

producer, nor the consumer wants. These wastes are piling up and have

already become unmanageable. Over the years, pollution has seeped into

the very fibre of human society all over the world. The air we breathe in,

the water we drink and the food we eat contain same kind of poisonous

chemicals which adversely affect the living and non-living things on the

planet. Because air requirement is 15 to 20 times more in amount that of

water/food requirements of human beings we require pollution

concentration in air to be of the order of magnitude lower than that we

allow in water / food.

1. Definition

Air pollution may be defined as any atmospheric condition in which

certain substances are present in such concentrations that they can

produce undesirable effect on and _____ environment.

These substances include gases (sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides,

carbon monoxides, hydrocarbons, etc.), particulate matter (smoke, dust,

fumes), radioactive materials and many others.

2. Basic Concepts

(i) Particulate matter

Particulate is used interchangeably with aerosol and is a dispersion

of solid or liquid particles of microscopic size in gaseous media, such as

dust, smoke, fumes, fog, or mist. Natural particulates are pattern grains,

bacterial, viruses, fungal spores and volcanic dust.

Particulates can be composed of inert or extremely reactive

materials, ranging in size from 100 m to 0.1 m and less. Most particulates in

urban air have sizes in the range of 0.1 to 10 m (1 microns = 0.001 mm).

The finest and the smallest particles are one which cause significant

damage to health. Particles from solids and mineral primary contain

calcium, aluminium and silicon compounds. Of all the different types of

particulates in the atmosphere, the presence trace elements such as

cadmium, lead, nickel and mercury may constitute the greatest health

hazard. Many of the trace metals are toxic and are concentrated in the

finest of particulate matter in a variety of combined forms such as oxides,

hydroxides, sulphates and nitrates.

(ii) Gaseous Pollutants

Gaseous pollutants like sulphur dioxides, Co, No, No 2 and ozone

affect the respiratory system and some of the adverse effects of these

pollutants include prevention of oxygen transfer to blood. Hydrocarbons

and photochemical oxidants are other main gaseous pollutants. At the

concentrations usually found in the urban air, the hydrocarbons cause no

adverse effects on human health. These produce undesirable effects only

in concentration 102 to 103 times higher than those usually found in

atmosphere. The major oxidant produced in photochemical process is

ozone which effects respiratory system. Many other oxidants particularly

peroxyacyl nitrates can cause eye irritation.

(iii) Dust

Dust is made up of solid particles predominantly larger than those

found in colloids and capable of forming temporary suspension in air or

other gases. Dust is produced by crushing, grinding, blasting etc. of organic

and inorganic materials. Generally, they are over 20 m in diameter, although

some are smaller, Flyash from chimneys varies from 80 m to 3 m, cement

from 150 m to 10 m, foundry dust from 200 m to 1 m. Most of the dust

particles settle to the ground as dusts fall, but particles 5 mor smaller tend

to form stable suspensions.

(iv) Fumes

These are fine solid particles (size 0.1 to 1 m) generated by

condensation from the gaseous state, generally after volatilization from

melted substances accompanied by a chemical reaction such as oxidation.

These are usually released from chemical or metallurgical processes.

Fumes flocculate and sometimes coalesce.

(v) Mist

This term refers to a law concentration dispersion of liquid particles

of somewhat larger size. These are formed by condensation of vapours in

ch_______ or are released from industrial operations such as formation of

H2SO4. In meteorology, a light (upto 10 m) dispersion of minute water

droplets suspended in the atmosphere. Normal mist particles formed from

water vapour in the atmosphere are rather large ranging from 500 - 50 m in

size. The particles may coalesce. If the mist is made up of water droplets

whose concentration is high or dense enough to obscure vision, then it is

called fog. In natural fog the size of particles ranges from 40 - 1 m.

(vi) Smoke

Smoke consists of finely divided particles produced by incomplete

combination of organic particles. It consists predominantly of carbon

particles and other combustible materials. Generally, the size of the

particles is less than 1 m. The size of coal smoke particles range from 0.2

to 0.1 m and oil smoke particles from 1.0 to 0.03 m.

(vii) Flyash

This consists of finely divided non-combustible particles present in

the gases arising from fuel combustion. It contains inorganic metallic or

mineral substances released when the organic part of coal is burnt.

(viii) Soot

Soot is agglomeration of carbon particles of size 1 to 10 m

impregnated with tar, formed due to incomplete combustion of

carbonaceous materials.
(ix) Plume Behaviour

(x) Smog

Smog is a synchrony of two words - smoke and fog. Smog can be of

two types - photochemical or coal induced. Photochemical smog is

restricted to highly motorized areas in metropolitan cities. It occurs under

adverse meteorological conditions when the air movement is restricted.

Smog is caused by the interaction of some hydrocarbons and oxidants

under the influence of sunlight giving rise to dangerous proxy acetyl nitrate

(PAN). Its main constituents are nitrogen oxides, PAN, hydrocarbon, Co

and O3.

It reduces visibility, causes eye irritation, damage to vegetation and

cracking of rubber.

The fog from burning coal covers urban area at night or on cold days

when the temperature is below 10 oC and when calm meteorological

conditions prevail. The fog consists of smoke, sulphur compounds and

flyash. Prolonged exposure to smog may result in light mortality rate

especially among the elderly and those who have histories of chronic

bronchitis, asthma, broncho-pneumonia and other lung and heart diseases.

3. Air Quality Standards

Permissible limits as per ISI and International Standards

Under normal air conditions the atmosphere has been found to

contain the following percentage of gases :

 Oxygen 20.94 %

Nitrogen 78.09 %

Argon 0.93 %

Carbon dioxide 0.03 %

Others 0.01 %

These are strictly hypothetical percentages, since nature and man

have injected many contaminants into the atmosphere to add to or displace

the normal atmospheric gases.

National ambient-air-quality standards

Pollutant Primary* Secondary*

Particulate matter
Annual (geometric 75 60
mean)
Maximum 24-h 260 150
concentration
Lead
Average over 3 month 1. same as primary
Hydrocarbons
Maximum 3-h (6-9 A.M.) 160 (0.24 same as primary
concentration ppm)
Carbon monoxide
Maximum 8-h 10 (9 ppm)
concentration~
Maximum 1-h 40 (35 ppm) same as primary
concentration~
Sulfur oxides
Annual (arithmetic 80 (0.03
mean) ppm)
 Maximum 24-h 365 (0.14
concentration ppm)
Maximum 3-h 1300 (0.5 ppm)
concentration
Nitrogen oxides
Annual (arithmetic 100 (0.05 same as primary
mean) ppm)
Photochemical oxidants
Maximum 1-h 240 (0.12 same as primary
concentration~ ppm)

* All measurements are express in micrograms per cubic meter (mg/m3)

except those for carob monoxide, which are expressed in milligrams per
cubic meter (mg/m3). Equivalent measurements in parts per million (ppm)
are given for gaseous pollutants only.

~ Not to be exceeded more than once a year

source : From Twelfth Annual Report. [7-12]

4. Air Pollutants

(a) Principle Materials Causing Pollution

Air contaminants include dust, fumes, smoke, vapour, gas, or any

combination of these. The principle materials causing pollution are mostly

by-products accompanying an energy-conversion process. These

materials can be clarified into three categories :

(i) Chemical - by their composition

(ii) Biological - by their interaction on living system

(iii) Economical - by their social characteristics

 Air pollution is a mixture of solids, liquids and gases, which are

dispersed rapidly by meteorological and topographic conditions. When

pollutants become concentrated because of a lack of movement of air

masses, air pollution disasters may occur. Also, otherwise harmless

emissions into the atmosphere may become serious air pollutants when

they combine with other materials present in the air.

(b) Factors that contribute to air pollution

The factors that contribute to the creation of air pollution are natural

and man-made.

Natural factors

These include meteorological and sometimes geographic conditions

that restrict the normal dilution of contaminant emissions. Also there are

many air-borne materials, such as po_____ from flowers, gas from

decaying matter, microorganisms (bacteria, virus, spores, molds) and

particulates from nature’s forest fires, dust storms and volcanic eruptions.

These are beyond man’s sphere of control.

Man-made factors

These are more susceptible to control. Man-made pollutants result

from :

(i) eat and power generation (including nuclear power plant)

(ii) solid - waste disposal

(iii) industrial processing

(iv) various types of transportation usage

(v) nuclear war heard explosions, and

(vi) man manipulated uses of radioactive isotopes.

Man-made pollutants are sometimes categorized generally as

industrial air pollution, typical of the big cities where a great deal of coal

and other fossil full are burnt, or as photochemical air pollution, which

results when the sun’s rays combine with gaseous emissions to produce

secondary air pollutants after related to wealth inversions and high

automobile density. On this basis pollutants can also be classified as

primary pollutants and secondary pollutants.

(c) Types of pollutants - classification of air pollutants (primary and

secondary) based on origin of primary pollutants

If the pollutants are entitled directly into the atmosphere, such as

sulphur oxides released by burning fossil fuels (i.e. coal and oil), they are

classified as “primary pollutants” . These also include solids, aerosol, such

as carbon particles, metallic dust, fluorides, cigarettes and industrial or

vehicular smoke etc.

Secondary pollutants

If the pollutants are formed after emission into the atmosphere as a

result of some reaction with matter already in the atmosphere, the resultant

pollutant is classified a ‘secondary pollutant’ or in other words secondary

pollutants are produced by interaction among two or more primary

pollutants or by or without the aid of sun-light.

 But most secondary pollutants result from photochemical reactions

that utilize energy from the sun’s rays. As an examples, oxygen atoms may

be split off from nitrogen oxides to combine with oxygen in the atmosphere

to form ozone (O3) a secondary pollutant.

However, other non-photo chemical reactions may also produce

secondary pollutants. For instance, “hydrolysis” a chemical process of

decomposition involving the splitting of a chemical board and addition of

water, can create secondary pollutants. As an example, sulphur oxides

may combine with water in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid, a very

corrosive secondary pollutant.

“Catalytic oxidation”, a chemical process wherein electrons are

removed from a molecule, aided by a substance that itself is not altered in

the reaction, may also produce secondary pollutants. An example of this is

the catalytic oxidation of sulphur oxides after being absorbed on the

surface of suspended solid particles. These particulate sulphates are often

responsible for reduced visibility.

Classification of air contaminants on basis of their physical state/state

of matter
Air contaminants are classified by their physical state into particulate

pollutants (minute fragments of mater in solid liquid form) or as gaseous

pollutants. Gaseous pollutants may be further divided accordingly to

chemical composition as inorganic or organic gases.

Particulate pollutants
 These are finally divided solid or liquid particles larger than a single

small molecule (about 0.0002 micron in diameter) but smaller than about

500 microns (1m is 1/1000 mm). Particles in this size range have a life time

in the suspended state varying from a few seconds to several months.

Fumes and smoke formed as combustion products and

photochemical aerosols make up a large fraction of the particulates in the

range from 0.1 to 1m diameter. Because of their small size, these

particulates tend to remain suspended in a free-floating state for long

periods of time, and are broadly termed “suspended particulates”. Some

examples are metallic fumes, as droplets of oil, tar or acid.

Particles between 1 m and 10 m generally include soil, fine dust and

soot emitted by industry. Industrial services include cement plants, steel

mills, sulphuric acid factors and craft mills.

Particles larger than 10 m frequently result from mechanical

processes such as highway construction, grinding, spraying, pulverization

of materials. Particles layer than 1 m tend to settle one of the atmosphere,

due to gravitational pull because of their size and are broadly referred to as

settleable particles.
Gaseous Pollutants

The pollutants present in the atmosphere in the physical state of a

gas rather than a solid or liquid. These gaseous pollutant emitted from

various sources become scattered or mixed in with the atmospheric gases

that one present under normal air conditions. Gaseous’ pollutants may be

further classified on the basis of chemical composition (Inorganic, Organic

pollutants).

Inorganic gases

These are composed of matter other than plant or animal in origin.

Except for very simple carbon components, carbon monoxide and carbon

dioxide, these inorganic gases are non-carbon containing components.

Those inorganic gases of most concern are :

(i) Sulphur compounds

The sulphur oxides (SO2, SO3) and hydrogen sulfide (H 2S) resulting

from burning of coal, oil and diesel fuels and the processing of petroleum

chemicals, metals and minerals.

(ii) Nitrogen compounds

The nitrogen oxides (NOs, NO2) are released by petroleum

operations and by industrial and automobile combustion. Ammonia (NH 3) is

another nitrogenous gaseous inorganic pollutants.

(iii) Chloride compounds

The most common primary pollutant forms artificial chlorine gas and

hydrogen chloride gas produced from processes like bleaching of e.g.

cotton etc. or in petroleum refining. A secondary pollutant, hydrochloric

acid, may be produced by hydrolysis of hydrogen chloride gas.

(iv) Fluoride compounds

This active non-metal produces primary pollutants of silicon

tetrafluoride (Si Fu) and gaseous hydrogen fluoride (HF). These emissions

are principally from petroleum refineries, fertilizer factories, aluminium

producers, steel plants, pottery works and brick plants.

Organic gases

These are composed of matter mostly derived from living organisms,

compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen and may contain other

elements. Organic compounds may be further defined as compounds with

covalent bonding or sharing of electrons and compounds with C-C linkage

or C-H linkage. These organic gases of most concern are :

(i) Hydrocarbons (HC)

These are the organic gases containing only H & C. The principal

source of these primary pollutants is petroleum production and the

inefficient combustion of fuels by gasoline and diesel powered vehicles,

gas - turbined and jet aircraft and solvent usage.

(ii) Derivatives of Hydrocarbons

 These may be released as primary pollutants or they may be

secondary pollutants formed in the atmosphere as a result of certain

photochemical reactions.

These may be oxygenated hydrocarbons (HC derived from

combination with oxygen) such as aldehydes and acrolein which are

byproducts of decomposition and surface cooling. These may be

halogenated hydrocarbons (HC derived from combination with fluorine,

chlorine, bromine and iodine), such as ____ly, that are by-products of

degreasing, dry-cleaning and the use of solvents.

(d) Principal Sources of Air Pollution

On a tonnage basis, the national emission of major air pollutants

indicate that the four principal sources of air pollution are therefore,

transportation, fuel combustion, industrial processes and solid waste

disposal. Process industries are industries that process raw materials into

useful products. Examples are smatters, steel mill, petroleum refineries,

producers of rubber products, textile and chemicals. These industries

produce specific process pollutants in addition to the general pollutants

produced b y the combustion of fuel to produce energy of operation of the

processing plant. Solid waste disposal produces air pollution from open

burning, dumps, incinerators and improperly operated sanitary landfills.

5. Effects of Pollutants

(a) Effects of air pollutants on man

Man’s health may be effected by air pollution indirectly by ingestion

of foods contaminated by air pollution or directly by inhaling gases and

particulates through the human respiratory system. However, scientists

engaged in studies designed to pinpoint relationship between air pollution

and disease have concentrated on the human organ system - the eyes and

the respiratory system, since these two systems are most effected by air

pollution. No lasting damage to the eye has been reported but reduction in

sharpness of vision, from excess carbon monoxide is very common. Some

of the particulates cause bronchitis and lung cancer. Carbon monoxide

causes headache, loss of muscular coordination and loss of oxygen from

blood. Intense irritation, reduction of visibility, contribution to respiratory

diseases and cardiac ailments have also been recorded from

epidemiological studies pertaining to sulphur oxides. Oxides of nitrogen

may cause lung cancer also.

(b) Effects of air pollutants on animals

A few air pollutants such as arsenic, fluorine, lead and selenium

have caused acute injury and death unlike air pollution effect on human

beings, the route of exposure in animals is mainly through ingestion of

pollutants contaminated for feed.

Arsenical air pollution poisoning has caused deleterious effects on

animals grazing near smelters processing arsenical areas. Arsenic

appears to have a depressing effect upon the central nervous system,

thereby animal develop loss of appetite, loss of weight and eventually

become paralyzed and die. Acute lead poisoning of animals is

characterized by nervous breakdown, frothing at the mouth and even

collapse.

(c) Effects of air pollutants on vegetation

Acute injury by air pollution to plants is a severe, visible damage to

leaf tissues. Chronic injury as differing from acute injury, is injury resulting

from long term exposure to lower levels of pollutants and often shown up as

a colour change and with dark brown, black purple or red spots appearing.

Growth alternates are a hidden injury not always readily detected by may

shown up as growth reduction, simulated lateral growth, leaf drop or failure

of flower to open properly.

(d) Effects of air pollutants on non-living material

Materials may be damaged directly by air pollutants in an abrasive

action, which is more physical than chemical or the damage may be due to

direct chemical attack, such as therefore, tarnishing of silver and etching of

metallic surface by an acid mist. The effect may be indirect chemical

attack, such as the absorption of sulphur oxides by leather followed by

added moisture which produces sulphuric acid that destroys the leather.

Electrochemical corrosion of ferrous metals occur when a layer of water

containing air pollutants provide electrical conductivity that destroys the

protective film of oxygen on metal surface.

6. Remedial measures to control air-pollution

Solution of air pollution problem lies in determining the type or

quality of air that is most desirable, identifying the types of air

contaminants, their sources of emission and their ill-effects and then

introducing the control techniques for abatement and prevention of air

pollutants.

Common man has a very important role in the protection of

environment. Everyone should be involved in pollution control. They

should be made aware of importance of quality of air in terms of hygienic

conditions and ill-effects of polluted air. Vehicles need to be services and

engine turned to help keep down pollution levels. Wherever possible, lead

free petrol should be used. Ecofriendly refrigerates and air conditioners

which do not use CFCs should be used.

Air pollution control is exercised by natural cleansing capacity of

environment which takes place by dispersion, gravitational setting,

absorption and rain out. Dispersion reduces concentration at one place by

winds by diluting mechanism. Gravitational setting means heavy particles

settle down on buildings, trees etc. Absorption process implies gaseous as

well as particulates get collected on rain and settle down (below cloud

level) falling rain dues the wash out. Rain out is the process whose

precipitates above cloud level particles serve as condensation nuclei and

fall out as rain drop.

Equipment used for removal of particulate matter and gases

In case of air pollution control, real economy can be effected when

control factors are considered at the time when an industry is designed and

built, but in most cases air pollution control is an afterthought and ways and

means have to be devised to treat the polluted effluents.

 Basically, four means are available for the control of effluent

discharges into the atmosphere and thereby control of their detrimental

effects. They are :

(i) Reduction of pollution discharge at the source by the application of

control equipment.

(ii) Reduction at the source through raw material charges, operational

charges, or modification, or replacement of process equipment.

(iii) Dilution of the source discharge by the use of tall stacks.

(iv) Dispersion of source locations through allocation of land usage i.e.

proper planning and zoning of industrial area.

But most effective methods are reduction at the source by the

application of control equipment and process control. To remove

particulate matter from gas streams, various types of control equipment are

available. But to select the required equipment, certain basic data must be

available.

(A) Quality of gas to be treated and its variation with time.

(B) Nature and concentration of the particulate matter to be removed.

(C) Temperature and pressure of the gas streams.

(D) Nature of the gas phase (for solubility and corrosive effects).

(E) Desired quality of the treated effluents, i.e. efficiency of removal of

particulates required.

(A) Quality of gas to be treated and its variation with time.

Types of collection equipment

A list of common types of collection equipment for particulate

contaminates are :
1. Cyclone separator

2. Electrostatic precipitators

3. Fabric filters

4. Wet scrubbers

and common control equipment for gaseous contaminates are :

1. Catalytic combustion equipment

2. Thermal incinerator

3. Adsorbers

Efficiency of a separating device

The commonly used method of defining efficiency is as follows :

Quality of particulates collected from the gas

Quality of particulates initially present in the gas and efficiency is

generally expressed as a percentage.

Choice of equipment

While selecting a particular collector from various equipment

available, the following factors must be taken into consideration :

1. Particulate size, shape and density

2. Particulate loading (mg/m3)

3. Efficiency required

4. Properties of carrier g as like composition, tempering pressure, density

etc.

5. Flow characteristics of the carrier gas

6. Specific properties of the contaminants like composition, solubility,

reactivity, etc.

7. Allowable pressure drop

8. Contaminate disposal

9. Capital and operating costs of the equipment

10. Ease of maintenance and reliability.

Normally the choice of control equipment will be a compromise

based on collection efficiency, resistance to wear, space available,

installation cost, operational cost, maintenance, etc.