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Ignition
probabilities
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RADD – Ignition probabilities
contents
1.0 Introduction ........................................................................ 1
2.0 Summary of Recommended Data ......................................... 1
2.1 Ignition Probability Curves ......................................................................... 1
2.2 Blowout Ignition Probabilities .................................................................. 16
3.0 Guidance on use of data .................................................... 17
3.1 General Validity.......................................................................................... 17
3.2 Alternative Approaches ............................................................................ 17
3.2.1 Releases addressed by datasheets in Section 2.0 ............................................ 17
3.2.2 Other releases ....................................................................................................... 20
3.3 Uncertainties .............................................................................................. 20
4.0 Review of data sources ...................................................... 20
5.0 Recommended data sources for further information ........... 22
6.0 References ......................................................................... 22
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RADD – Ignition probabilities
Abbreviations
FPSO Floating Production Storage and Offloading (Installation)
LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas
NAP Normal Atmospheric Pressure
NUI Normally Unmanned Installation
QRA Quantitative Risk Assessment
UKOOA United Kingdom Offshore Operators Association
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1.0 Introduction
The data presented in section 2 provide estimates of the probabilities of hydrocarbon
releases igniting to result in an explosion and/or a sustained fire. These data may be
applied to any on the leak types described in the Process Release Frequencies
datasheet1.
The values presented relate to “total” ignition probability, which can be considered as
the sum of the probabilities of immediate ignition and delayed ignition. Immediate
ignition can be considered as the situation where the fluid ignites immediately on
release through auto-ignition or because the accident which causes the release also
provided an ignition source. Delayed ignition is the result of the build-up of a
flammable vapour cloud which is ignited by a source remote from the release point. It
is assumed to result in flash fires or explosions, and also to burn back to the source
of the leak resulting in a jet fire and/or a pool fire.
These probabilities are considered appropriate for use in QRA studies where a
relatively coarse assessment is acceptable. Section 3.2 refers to a more detailed
approach for QRAs where this is considered to be required.
1
With the exception of “zero pressure” releases, where the limited inventory and hence cloud
size would result in a lower ignition probability than would be predicted using this approach.
2
Ignition probabilities in other atmospheres, e.g. oxygen enriched or chlorine, are outside the
scope of this datasheet.
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Table 2.2 and Table 2.3. The functions themselves are given in both tabular and
graphical form in the data sheets which follow.
The curves of ignition probability vs. release rate comprise between two and four
sections, each a straight line when plotted on log-log axes.
These curves represent “total” ignition probability. The method assumes that the
immediate ignition probability is 0.001 and is independent of the release rate. As a
result, all the curves start at a value of 0.001 relating to a release rate of 0.1 kg/s.
Users of the data may wish to adopt this value and to obtain delayed ignition
probabilities by subtracting 0.001 from the total ignition probability, e.g. an ignition
probability value of 0.004 obtained from the look-up correlations can be considered as
an immediate ignition probability of 0.001 and a delayed ignition probability of 0.003.
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Scenario
Look-up Release Type Application
No.
1 Pipe Liquid Industrial Releases of flammable liquids that do not have any significant flash fraction (10% or less) if
(Liquid Releases from onshore released from onshore cross-country pipelines running through industrial or urban areas.
pipeline in industrial area)
2 Pipe Liquid Rural Releases of flammable liquids that do not have any significant flash fraction (10% or less) if
(Liquid Releases from onshore released from onshore cross-country pipelines running through rural areas.
pipeline in industrial area)
3 Pipe Gas LPG Industrial Releases of flammable gases, vapour or liquids significantly above their normal (Normal
(Gas or LPG release from Atmospheric Pressure (NAP)) boiling point from onshore cross-country pipelines running
onshore pipeline in an through industrial or urban areas.
industrial area)
4 Pipe Gas LPG Rural Releases of flammable gases, vapour or liquids significantly above their normal (NAP) boiling
(Gas or LPG release from point from onshore cross-country pipelines running through rural areas.
onshore pipeline in a rural area)
5 Small Plant Gas LPG Releases of flammable gases, vapour or liquids significantly above their normal (NAP) boiling
(Gas or LPG release from small point from small onshore plants (plant area up to 1200 m2, site area up to 35,000 m2).
onshore plant)
6 Small Plant Liquid Releases of flammable liquids that do not have any significant flash fraction (10% or less) if
(Liquid release from small released from small onshore plants (plant area up to 1200 m2, site area up to 35,000 m2) and
onshore plant) which are not bunded or otherwise contained.
7 Small Plant Liquid Bund Rural Releases of flammable liquids that do not have any significant flash fraction (10% or less) if
(Liquid release from small released from small onshore plants (plant area up to 1200 m2, site area up to 35,000 m2) and
onshore plant where the spill is where the liquid releases from the plant area are suitably bunded or otherwise contained.
bunded)
8 Large Plant Gas LPG Releases of flammable gases, vapour or liquids significantly above their normal (NAP) boiling
(Gas or LPG release from large point from large onshore outdoor plants (plant area above 1200 m2, site area above 35,000
onshore plant) m2).
9 Large Plant Liquid Releases of flammable liquids that do not have any significant flash fraction (10% or less) if
(Liquid release from large released from large onshore outdoor plants (plant area above 1200 m2, site area above 35,000
onshore plant) m2) and which are not bunded or otherwise contained.
10 Large Plant Liquid Bund Rural Releases of flammable liquids that do not have any significant flash fraction (10% or less) if
(Liquid Released from large released from large onshore outdoor plants (plant area above 1200 m2, site area above 35,000
onshore plant where spill is m2) and where the liquid releases from the plant area are suitably bunded or otherwise
bunded) contained.
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Scenario
Look-up Release Type Application
No.
11 Large Plant Congested Gas Releases of flammable gases, vapour or liquids significantly above their normal (NAP) boiling
LPG point from large onshore plants (plant area above 1200 m2, site area above 35,000 m2), where
(Gas or LPG released from a the plant is partially walled/roofed or within a shelter or very congested.
large confined or congested
onshore plant)
12 Tank Liquid 300m x 300m Bund Releases flammable liquids that do not have any significant flash fraction (10% or less) if
(Liquid release from a large released from very large onshore outdoor storage area 'tank farm' (e.g. spill in a large multi-
confined or congested onshore tank bund over 25,000 m2 area).
plant) See curve No. 30 “Tank Liquid – diesel, fuel oil’ if liquids are stored at ambient conditions
below their flash point.
13 Tank Liquid 100m x 100m Bund Releases of flammable liquids that do not have any significant flash fraction (10% or less) if
(Liquid release from onshore released from onshore outdoor storage area 'tank farm' (e.g. spill in a large tank bund
tank farm where spill is limited containing four or fewer tanks, or any other bund less than 25,000 m2 area).
by small or medium sized bund) See curve No. 30 “Tank Liquid – diesel, fuel oil’ if liquids are stored at ambient conditions
below their flash point.
14 Tank Gas LPG Plant Releases of flammable gases, vapour or liquids significantly above their normal (NAP) boiling
(gas or LPG release from point from onshore outdoor storage tanks located in a 'tank farm' entirely surrounded by
onshore tank farm within the plants. For tank farms adjacent to plants use curve No. 15 “Tank Gas LPG Storage Industrial”
plant) or Curve No. 16 “Tank Gas LPG Storage Only Rural” look-up correlations. Releases from
process vessels or tanks inside plant areas should be treated as plant releases.
15 Tank Gas LPG Storage Releases of flammable gases, vapour or liquids significantly above their normal (NAP) boiling
Industrial point from onshore outdoor storage tanks located in a 'tank farm' adjacent to plants or
(Gas or LPG released from situated away from plants in an industrial or urban area.
onshore tank farm sited
adjacent to a plant or away from
the plant in an industrial area)
16 Tank Gas LPG Storage Only Releases of flammable gases, vapour or liquids significantly above their normal (NAP) boiling
Rural point from onshore outdoor storage tanks located in a 'tank farm' adjacent to plants or
(Gas or LPG released from situated away from plants in a rural area.
onshore tank farm sited
adjacent to a plant or away from
the plant in an industrial area)
Source: Energy Institute [1]
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Scenario
Look-up Release Type Application
No.
17 Offshore Process Liquid Releases of flammable liquids that do not have any significant flash fraction (10% or less) if
(Liquid release from offshore released from within offshore process modules.
process module)
18 Offshore Process Liquid NUI Releases of flammable liquids that do not have any significant flash fraction (10% or less) if
(Liquid release from offshore released from within offshore process modules or decks on NUIs.
process area on NUI)
19 Offshore Process Gas Open Releases of flammable gases, vapour or liquids significantly above their normal (NAP) boiling
Deck NUI point from an offshore process weather deck/ open deck on NUIs. Can also be used for
(Gas release from offshore open/uncongested weather decks with limited process equipment on larger attended
process open deck area on NUI) integrated platforms.
20 Offshore Process Gas Typical Releases of flammable gases, vapour or liquids significantly above their normal (NAP) boiling
(Gas release from typical point from within offshore process modules or decks on integrated deck / conventional
offshore process module) installations). Process modules include separation, compression, pumps, condensate
handling, power generation, etc. If the module is mechanically ventilated or very congested –
see curve No. 22 “Offshore Process Gas Congested or Mechanical Vented Module”.
21 Offshore Process Gas Large Releases of flammable gases, vapour or liquids significantly above their normal (NAP) boiling
Module point from within large offshore process modules or decks on integrated deck / conventional
(gas release from typical installations (module greater than 1000 m2 floor area). Process modules include separation,
offshore process module) compression, pumps, condensate handling, power generation, etc. If the module is
mechanically ventilated or very congested – see curve No. 22 'Offshore Process Gas
Congested or Mechanical Vented Module'.
22 Offshore Process Gas Releases of flammable gases, vapour or liquids significantly above their normal (NAP) boiling
Congested or Mechanical point from within offshore process modules or decks on integrated deck / conventional
Vented Module installations: applies where the module is enclosed and has a mechanical ventilation system
(Gas released from a or is very congested (volume blockage ratio => 0.14 and less than 25% of area of the end
mechanically ventilated or very walls open for natural ventilation)
congested offshore process
module)
23 Offshore Riser Releases from offshore installation risers in the air gap area where there is little chance of the
(Gas release from typical release entering process areas on the installation (e.g. solid decks, wind walls). Applies to
offshore riser in air gap) partial flashing oil or gas releases.
May also be used for blowouts with well positioned diverters directing any release away from
the installation (see also curve No. 27 “Offshore Engulf – blowout riser”).
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RADD – Ignition probabilities
Scenario
Look-up Release Type Application
No.
24 Offshore FPSO Gas Releases of flammable gases, vapour or liquids significantly above their normal (NAP) boiling
(Gas release from offshore point from within offshore process modules or decks on FPSOs. See curve No. 25 “offshore
FPSO process module) FPSO Gas Wall” if the release is from an area downwind of a transverse wall across the FPSO
deck.
25 Offshore FPSO Gas Wall Releases of flammable gases, vapour or liquids significantly above their normal (NAP) boiling
(Gas release from offshore point from within offshore process modules or decks on FPSOs. This correlation applies if
FPSO process module behind a the release is from an area downwind of a transverse wall across the FPSO deck.
transverse solid wall)
26 Offshore FPSO Liquid Releases of flammable liquids that do not have any significant flash fraction (10% or less) if
(Liquid release from typical released from within offshore process modules or decks on FPSOs
offshore FPSO process
module)
27 Offshore Engulf – blowout – Releases from drilling or well working blowouts or riser failures under open grated deck
riser areas where the release could engulf the entire installation and reach into platform areas:
(Major release which can engulf applies to partial flashing oil or gas releases. (see also curve No. 23 “Offshore Riser” for riser
an entire offshore installation) releases and blowouts with divertors)
Source: Energy Institute [1]
Note. Curve Nos. 28 and 29 related to Cox, Lees and Ang formulation which were included in the document for comparison
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Notes:
1. A flammable substance above its auto-ignition temperature is likely to ignite on
release and should be modelled as having an ignition probability of one.
2. Very reactive substances are unlikely to found in oil and gas processing
operations but if present it is suggested that the values given in the look-up
correlations are doubled, subject to a maximum of 1. Such substances include
hydrogen, acetylene, ethylene oxide and carbon disulphide.
3. High flash point (>55°C) liquids stored at or near ambient conditions are
significantly less likely to ignite than suggested in the look-up correlations. It is
suggested that an ignition probability from the look-up correlations is multiplied by
a factor of 0.1 subject to a minimum of 0.001 and taking account of the 0.001
immediate ignition probability.
4. For liquids with flash fractions above 10% it is suggested that the ignition
probability is estimated by combining the relevant liquid ignition probability with a
suitable gas/LPG ignition probability. The appropriate release rates should be
obtained from the flash fraction, e.g. a 10 kg/s release with a 20% flash fraction
should give rise to an equivalent 2 kg/s gas release and 8 kg/s liquid release.
The two probabilities can be combined using the following equation;
Alternatively the higher of the two ignition probabilities can be used on the basis
that the areas covered by the liquid and gas are likely to have considerable
overlap.
5. Since the correlations are based on typical combinations of ignition sources, it
follows that they should not be used in situations where particularly strong
sources such as fired heaters are present. In this case the full UKOOA ignition
model is more appropriate.
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Table 2.2 and Table 2.3 best matches the scenario under consideration. There may be
situations where the scenario under consideration lies between two of the described
scenarios, in which case the analysts may attempt to interpolate between two curves.
The data presented in the tables in Section 2.0 can be used in three ways:
1. Estimate from the graphs
2. Obtain probability based on the tabulated values
3. Use values in Table 3.1 to calculate the probability. Note that, in interpolating
between the data points, it is necessary to take logarithms of the release rate and
probabilities, interpolate between these to find the logarithm of the required
probability and then obtain the value itself, i.e.:
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RADD – Ignition probabilities
A more accurate assessment may be obtained by the use of the full UKOOA ignition
model which is described in 1. This has been implemented in a spreadsheet tool
which is made available on a CD which accompanies the report. This allows the user
to input specific data relating to release conditions, platform layout and ignition
sources. However, this requires more effort on the part of the analyst and the
availability of more installation specific data compared with the relative ease with
which the look-up functions can be used.
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RADD – Ignition probabilities
3.3 Uncertainties
The assessment of ignition probability is subject to a large degree of uncertainty. The
spreadsheet model produced under phase I of the joint industry project is itself
subject to uncertainties in the analytical approach taken and in the data used. The
adoption of the lookup correlations based on this model introduces more
uncertainties because a compromise has to be made in selecting the most appropriate
curve and these curves themselves are approximations to the curves produced by the
model itself.
Ignition probabilities are influenced by design layout, the number and separation of
ignition sources, the quality of maintenance of equipment, and thereby the control of
ignition sources.
Despite these uncertainties, the approach is considered to be an advance on other
formulations which relate ignition probability to release rate only with no regard for
the presence of ignition sources, the nature of the fluids or the layout of the plant.
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RADD – Ignition probabilities
probability by considering the size of the gas cloud which would be formed by the
release and taking into account the number and type of ignition sources which the
cloud, at sufficient concentration, might reach. As a result of the complexity of the
model, users are required to obtain and enter a significant amount of data relating to
the platform configuration and the distribution of ignition sources.
Having completed the work to establish a model, a second phase was commissioned
to consider representative scenarios which would generate look-up correlations which
could be used in QRA studies without the need for the user to gather the data required
for the full model. The following summarises the release types considered.
• Gas releases
• LPG (flashing liquefied gas) releases
• Pressurised liquid oil releases – leading to a spray release with flashing/
evaporation/ aerosol formation
• Low pressure liquid oil releases – leading to a spreading pool only (no aerosol
formation or flashing)
• Release rates from 0.1 to 1000 kg/s – (graphs shown in the data sheets are
extended to 10000 kg/s where the probability function does not reach a maximum
below 1000 kg/s)
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Prior to the introduction of the UKOOA ignition model approach outlined above, the
formulation attributed to Cox, Lees and Ang 4 was widely used. This gained
acceptance largely because of the proportion of analysts using it rather than because
of the rigour of the theory underlying it. Ignition probabilities predicted by this
method were in excess of what was found to occur in practice and this was partly
responsible for instigating the work which resulted in the UKOOA ignition model.
References in this report to “UKOOA (spreadsheet) model” and “UKOOA look-up
correlations” relate respectively to the output from the two phases of the project [1].
6.0 References
1. Ignition Probability Review, Model Development and Look-Up Correlations, Research
Report published by the Energy Institute, January 2006. ISBN 978 0 85293 454 8
2. Scandpower Risk Management AS 2006. Blowout and Well Release Frequencies –
Based on SINTEF Offshore Blowout Database, 2006, Report No. 90.005.001/R2.
3. Guidelines for quantitative risk assessment (Purple book), Part 1, Establishment,
CPR18 E, Committee for the Prevention of Disasters (CPR), National Institute of
Public Health and Environment (RIVM), Ministry of Transport, Public Works &
Water Assessment Management, AVIV Adviserend Ingenieurs Save Ingenieurs
(Adviesbureau), 1999.
4. Cox, Lees and Ang, 1991. Classification of Hazardous Locations, Rugby: Institution
of Chemical Engineers, ISBN 0 85295 258 9.
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