52 CIRCUIT CELLAR • JUNE 2017 #323

THE CONSUMMATE ENGINEER

Automatic Control (Part 2)

Frequency Domain Analysis
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Last time, George covered the basic

principles of automatic control, including
a simple closed-loop control system,
common control laws, and proportional
system shortcomings. This month, he
focuses on frequency domain analysis.

By George Novacek

I n Part 1 of this series, we discussed

automatic control systems in general. Let’s
step back a little now and take a quick look
s ≡ s + jw

under the hood of control theory. The widely
used frequency domain analysis represents
classic control theory, which is intuitive
to those of us who design analog circuits.
The same principles apply to all feedback
electronic circuits: oscillators, amplifiers of
all kinds, phase-locked loops, voltage and
current regulators, and so on. This series,
however, focuses on automatic systems
containing mechanical components.
It begins with Laplace transform:
∞
F(s) = ∫ f(t)e − st dt
0 It is obvious that for a DC signal where f is
The function f(t) is a function of time. s is
the Laplace operator. F(s) is the transformed
function. Typical Laplace transfer functions
are 1/s for integration. s for differentiation.
e —sT is for delay and so forth. Let’s say,
for example, that an input signal into an
integrator vi(t) generates output vo(t). Using
the Laplace transformation, we can write:
Vi (s)
Vo (s) =
s the values of k where an input r(t) produces
The Laplace operator s is defined:
This means that s is a complex variable. As
we know, j is the imaginary variable defined
as √–1. In electrical engineering, we prefer j
instead of i common in mathematics because
i often designates immediate current. Omega
w is the sign for circular frequency, which
equals to 2πf. Because control systems’
analyses investigate steady-state sinusoidal
signals, s is zero. Consequently, we can write:
s = j2πf
0, the resulting s is 0. Every circuit designer
knows that the gain of a differentiator or a
high-pass filter at DC is zero. An integrator,
on the other hand, would be approaching
infinity at f > 0 limited by saturation or by
attenuation for a low-pass filter.
The frequency domain analysis of a
system is valid for a range restricted to where
the system is linear and time invariant (i.e.,
the LTI range). For a system to be considered
LTI, three conditions must be satisfied.
Homogeneity: An element is homogenous for
output c(t), and then an input k × r(t) produces
output k × c(t). Superposition: If an input r1(t)
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

produces output c1(t) and input r2(t) produces
output c 2(t), then input r1(t) + r2(t) = c1(t) + George Novacek is a professional engineer
c 2(t). Time invariance: If r(t) generates c(t), with a degree in Cybernetics and Closed-
then r(t – τ) must generate c(t – t) for all t Loop Control. Now retired, he was most
> 0. re c e n t l y p re s i d e n t o f a m u l t i n a t i o n a l
These severe restrictions can be satisfied manufacturer for embedded control systems
within a limited range only. Therefore, our for aerospace applications. George wrote 26
design must come to LTI requirements as feature articles for Circuit Cellar between
much as possible. This is not an unusual 1999 and 2004. Contact him at gnovacek@
problem in engineering, including electronics. nexicom.net with “Circuit Cellar ”in the
No components (e.g., resistors, capacitors, subject line.
and inductors) are purely resistive or reactive.
They all contain parasitic components of the

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other types, but competent engineers know
how to select them so that the effects of those
parasitic characteristics can be ignored within
the operational range. Active components
also have limitations including saturation. We a)
must build amplifiers and other processing
circuits with sufficient headroom to make
them behave as LTI within the required scope.
With some notable exceptions, well
designed electronics are rarely the LTI limiting
component. Those exceptions are usually
within the plant characteristics where size,
weight and cost limitations may encroach on
some electronic components’ LTI.
I already mentioned transfer functions
of controller elements (i.e., an integrator, a
differentiator, and a delay). Given voltage V
and current I, let’s consider some transfer
functions of electronic components.
Inductance L:

V(s) = Ls × I(s)
di(t)
v(t) = L ×
dt
Capacitance C: b)

1 I(s)
V(s) = ×
C s
1
v(t) = v0 + ∫ i(t)dt
C

Resistance R:

V(s) = R × I(s)
v(t) = R × i(t)
Many transfer functions applying to
mechanical elements (e.g., velocity, mass,
spring, inertia, and pressure) have equivalents
in electronics. While common transfer
functions are available in books on control
systems, others may have to be determined.
The Circuit Cellar readers are mostly electrical
FIGURE 1
engineers, so they can relate to transfer
Bode plot of gain (a) and phase (b) trace with different damping factor a versus the frequency of a second-
functions of the electrical components order system.
 54 CIRCUIT CELLAR • JUNE 2017 #323
FIGURE 2
Combining the forward and the feedback
transfer functions into one OLG
FIGURE 3
OLG Bode plot of a controller
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circuitcellar.com/ccmaterials
RESOURCES
G. Ellis, Control System Design
Guide, Elsevier Academic
Press, 2002.
+
R(s) G(s)
−
H(s)
mentioned above. Mechanical components,
unfortunately, are seldom as intuitive to us.
In a perfect world the electronic controller
designer should be given the required gains
and limits, while leaving the selection, design
and characterization of the control system
and its components to mechanical engineers.
But that doesn’t always happen.
With the help of the transfer functions the
response of a control system can be calculated.
B. C. Kuo, Automatic Control Systems, Prentice
Hall, 2009.
G. Novacek, “Electro-Hydraulic Servo Valves,”
Circuit Cellar 253, 2011.
Wikipedia, Nyquist Stability Criterion,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Nyquist_stability_criterion.
C(s)
G(s)
R(s) C(s)
1 + G(s)H(s)
In the frequency domain analysis we use
sinewave, because it is the only waveform that
does not change its shape in an LTI system.
Using sinewaves does not cause a problem
because, thanks to M. Jean-Baptiste Joseph
Fourier we know that any waveform shape
can be generated by a series of sinewaves.
Therefore, the response of an LTI system
can be characterized by investigating the
gain and the phase of its frequency response
also referred to as the Bode plot. This can
be accomplished by calculations, computer
simulation or measurement and graphically
displayed.
Figure 1 is a Bode plot of a second-order
system with resonant frequency f = 10 Hz
and critical and low damping factors a, often
designated by x. Such a system’s response is
defined as:
w2
f(s) = 2
s + 2 × x × w × s + w2
In this instance, w = 2pf. x is the damping
coefficient and s is the Laplace operator. Both

FIGURE 4
Nyquist contours for the critically (left) and under damped (right) system described by Equation 8
the gain and the phase responses are affected
by the damping factor x.
Being from the slide ruler generation I
must admit that I never enjoyed making those
calculations. So quite often we minimized
the number of calculations by generating
asymptotes only. Anything more than a
second-order system response calculation
used to be nearly impossible, but thanks to
computers, the Bode plots can nowadays
be generated very quickly by the multitude
of simulation or mathematical tools such as
PSpice, LTSpice, Matlab, Mathcad, Simulink
and others.
To analyze automatic systems in frequency
or time domain, we start by defining it by a
block diagram. The functional blocks (there
can be many) are gradually combined into a
single block to obtain the transfer function
of the system. Figure 2 shows just two
blocks, the forward and the feedback paths
for simplicity. To check for stability the gain
and the phase are plotted with the feedback
disconnected. This is called an open loop gain
(OLG).
The result will be something like the Bode
plot in Figure 3. This one is the OLG response
of the analog electronic controller shown in
Part 1 with an actuator. I spread the plot
frequency until the phase reached 180° to
illustrate the phase and the gain margins.
The OLG vs. frequency is shown in decibels
(dB) and the phase in degrees. The main point
of interest for us to judge the potential for
unwanted oscillations is where the phase
reaches –180° while the OLG is greater than
0 dB. In our case, the phase at 0 dB OLG is
–89°. This means that the phase margin is
180 – 89 = 91°. Another point of interest is
where the phase reaches -180°. The OLG here
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is -29dB, thus the gain margin is 29dB. If the
OLG was greater than 0dB when the phase
reached 180° the system would oscillate after
closing the feedback loop. The large phase
and gain margins of Figure 3 will guarantee
no oscillations, but will not guarantee a
possibility of instability, namely in response
to a step input. Automatic systems are rarely
exposed to a step in the setpoint, but a step
input may be due to an external disturbance.
We shall address that issue when we discuss
the time domain response.
In many electromechanical systems the
plant, due to its inertia, stops responding
above certain, fairly low frequency. This is
not unusual. However, the bandwidth of the
electronic controller should always be at least
ten times the fastest component in the plant.
To complete our excursion into the
frequency domain analysis we must mention
the Nyquist plot also used for assessing the
system stability. Figure 4 shows the plots
related to the frequency, phase and damping
illustrated by Figure 1 and defined by
Equation 8. Nyquist contour is a parametric
plot of the frequency response of a system
transfer function with the feedback closed.
The real and the imaginary parts of the
transfer function are plotted in Cartesian
coordinates with the real part on the x-axis
and the imaginary part on the y-axis, with the
frequency as a parameter.
The system stability is assessed using the
Nyquist Stability Criterion. It is determined by
evaluating the Nyquist contour in relation to
the point at x = –1 and y = 0. Next month
we’ll discuss time domain analysis and digital
systems using z transform.