Halliburton Sperry-Sun Logging Systems

GEOLOGY HANDBOOK
 Contents
Section 1....................................................Petroleum Geology

Section 2........................ Sample Collection and Preparation

Section 3................................................ Descriptive Sequence

Section 4..................................Tests on Common Rock Types

Section 5............................................ Hydrocarbon Detection

Section 6........................................ Interpretation of Cuttings

Section 7.............................................Brent Field Case Study

 SECTION 1
PETROLEUM GEOLOGY

Petroleum Geology is a broad field covering many different aspects of geology and many disciplines in science.

Very simply, an accumulation of producible hydrocarbons depends on the generation of hydrocarbons from a suitable source
rock in a sedimentary rock sequence composed of alternating layers of porous reservoir rock overlain by impermeable seal
rocks. It is also necessary that these sedimentary rocks be shaped into the form of a trap by structural forces or stratigraphic
relationships. Since oil and gas typically have a lower density than water, it follows that they will float on top of water and, by
the very nature and action of gravity, will be enclosed in traps.

In historical geology the term correlation is applied to the process of determining the age equivalence of rock formations. The
basic requirement for correlation lies in the fact that no one area on the earth's surface presents a complete record of geologic
history. Sedimentation would be interrupted in one region while it proceeded in another. Crustal disturbance, generally
accompanied by vulcanism, would similarly be active elsewhere. The aim of correlation is to determine the relationship of the
rocks of one area to those in others. The tools of correlation are formation continuity, lithologic similarity, structural relations,
organic remains and fossils. Accurate correlation between formations is fundamental to petroleum geology.

Time does not permit a thorough and detailed investigation into petroleum geology in this course; however some information is
supplied herewith relating to sedimentary rocks, their structural and stratigraphic relationships, historical geology and
migration and accumulation of petroleum.

1.1 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Sedimentary (from the Latin word sedimentatum) is applied to the rocks formed by the deposition of materials on the earth's
surface. This includes rocks formed by the settling of materials in water, by materials precipitated from sea water, and materials
deposited upon the land by wind and ice. The great majority of all sedimentary rocks, however, were formed from materials
deposited in the ocean or in bodies of water directly connected with it.

Sedimentary rocks are the most common on the surface of the earth. They cover approximately 75 per cent of the land surface.
Geologists estimate that they range in thickness from a thin film to more than 40,000 feet.

Most of the material from which sedimentary rocks are composed comes from the weathering and erosion of older rocks. The
two materials produced by weathering are rock fragments and soluble salts. The fragments are called clastic (broken) materials,
while the soluble salts are called chemical materials. The former are transported from their place of origin by water or wind,
while the latter are removed in solution. A third category of material found in sediments is derived from plants and animals.
This is termed organic material. The deposition of these three types of material has formed all sedimentary rocks. Something of
the origin and history of sedimentary rocks can be learned by studying the materials from which they are composed.

At present, sediments are being deposited almost exclusively on the continental shelves. In the geological past sediments were
deposited far inland in seas no longer existing.

1.1.1 Clastic material

The deposition of clastic materials produces clastic rocks such as shales, sandstones, and conglomerates. The essential
difference between these rocks is in the size of the fragments of which they are composed.

A size scale of clastic materials is shown in the following table. These sizes are the ones commonly accepted by geologists.
 Material type Diameter (mm)

Boulders over 256

Cobbles 64 to 256

Pebbles 4 to 64

Granules 2 to 4

Sand 1/16 to 2

Silt 1/256 to 1/16

Clay under 1/256

Table 1-1: Sizes of Clastic Material

Clastic fragments are sorted by the action of various transporting agents. Thus, if the materials have about the same specific
gravity, fragments of about the same size will be deposited together. If the materials differ in specific gravity, large fragments
of light material will be mixed with small fragments of heavy material in deposition.

The shapes of fragments may be described as angular, sub-angular, and rounded. Rounded fragments usually result from wear
during prolonged transportation. Sharp, broken fragments generally have been deposited near their source. Thus, the shape and
size of clastic materials are important guides to geologists.

1.1.2 Chemical materials

The most abundant soluble salts are calcium carbonate, silica, sodium chloride, and compounds of magnesium, potassium,
iron and aluminium.

These salts are of varying solubilities in river water. Some of them are very soluble in sea water, while others are not. The
manner in which these compounds form sedimentary rocks will be discussed later.

1.1.3 Organic Materials

The organic materials which form a small part of the sedimentary rocks are derived from land and marine plants and animals.
These contribute organic material in the form of carbon. Under very special conditions, depositions of carbonaceous materials
become coal or petroleum. Swamps and lagoons along shores are ideal sites for the deposition of carbonaceous material.

The hard skeletons or shells of marine animals are relatively insoluble in sea water. They are composed largely of calcium
carbonate (calcite) or silicon dioxide (silica). In some areas, these materials have formed thick deposits of sedimentary rocks.

1.2 COMMON SEDIMENTARY ROCK TYPES

1.2.1 Breccia
Breccia is a rock composed of cemented angular fragments of other rocks. They are common along fault zones. They
sometimes grade into conglomerates when the fragments are slightly rounded.

Breccias are deposited very near their source. When the fragments from which they are composed are carried a greater distance
from the source, they become more rounded through water action, and a conglomerate results.

Breccias are very difficult to detect during drilling. Knowledge of the area is usually necessary. Useful indicators are the
corners of angular fragments and grains with straight edges. Fracture breccias may be recognised from intersecting fractures
and the presence of fragments with straight margins, often with a druse of cement crystals growing along them.
1.2.2 Conglomerates
A conglomerate may be made up of any kind of rock fragments held together by some cementing material, such as shale or
clay. It's distinguishing characteristic is the presence of rounded, coarse fragments. Conglomerates are necessarily younger than
the fragments which they contain.

Like breccias, conglomerates are difficult to detect in cuttings samples since the pebbles are broken up. Chips with rounded
edges are good indicators.

1.2.3 Sandstones
Sandstone is a cemented sand mass. The cement may be calcite, iron oxide, silica or clay. Most sands are made up
predominantly of quartz fragments. Sandstones grade through coarse-grained sands into conglomerates, and through
fine-grained sands into siltstones and shales.

Friable and loose formations are more problematical, especially if they are very fine grained. these may be washed through
sieves during collection and preparation of samples. They may even pass through the shaker screens themselves. A sample from
the desander should be collected if a lack of cuttings is seen on the shaker screens.

1.2.4 Shale
Shale is composed of compacted beds of mud or clay. Shales containing sand are arenaceous; those that contain calcite are
calcareous; those containing iron are ferruginous; those containing large amounts of organic matter are carbonaceous. The
last are usually black, and some grade into coal.

Shales grade into siltstones and sandstones in the direction of the shoreline, and seawards grade into limestones.

Great care must be taken when washing very soft clays, to prevent them from being washed out of the sample.

1.2.5 Limestones
Limestones, the most abundant nonclastic sediment, are composed principally of calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ). This may be in
the form of organic matter (shells and skeletons of calcareous plants and animals) or in the form of precipitate (from sea
water).

Different types of limestones include chalk, coquina and reefs. Limestones are formed in relatively clear, shallow, warm
water where life is abundant and where the adjacent land areas do not contribute large quantities of clastic sediments. Calcium
carbonate may be deposited in sea water by bacterial or chemical precipitation.

1.2.6 Dolomite
If a large part of the calcium in a limestone is replaced by magnesium, the rock is dolomite (Ca,Mg(CO3 )2 ). Dolomitization is
a common process in limestones of all ages, and it is often accomplished during the process of sedimentation. In fact, many
so-called limestones are dolomites.

1.2.7 Chalk
Chalk is a special type of limestone composed of small shells, or fragments, cemented together. Foraminifera shells constitute a
large part of the material, but the presence of shells of other organisms is common.

Chalk is usually soft, porous, and white or grey. Some of it is massive in appearance. The chalk cliffs of Dover, England, are an
example. Some of the chalks of the South-West USA, particularly those of Texas, grade into denser beds that are as well
consolidated as ordinary limestones.
1.2.8 Reefs
Fossilized corals and associated marine life form another type of limestone known as coral reefs. These limestones possess the
skeletal features of the organisms from which they are formed.

Reefs occur in tropical waters along the shore of land masses and around islands. They were probably formed in all of the
ancient inland seas. Reefs are more technically known as bioherms .

1.2.9 Chert
Chert is a hard, compact, dense, siliceous material that occurs as distinct layers or as pebbles in the beds of other rocks.

Formation of chert occurred either through colloidal silica being deposited with the other sediments, or silica-bearing waters
partially replaced the associated sediments after deposition.

1.2.10 Diatomaceous Earth

Diatoms are minute plants that live in great numbers in the sea and in fresh water lakes. When they die, their siliceous skeletons
accumulate to form diatomaceous earth. At many places diatomaceous earth is found interbedded with shales.

1.2.ll Coal
Coal is formed by the compaction and partial decomposition of vegetable accumulations. The alteration of vegetation into peat,
lignite and various other grades of coal is a long process. The grade of coal is dependent upon the kind of material deposited
and the amount of alteration that has taken place.

1.2.12 Salts and Gypsum

Several different metallic salts are present in sea water. They are listed in the following table

Composition Percentage

Sodium chloride NaCl 77.758

Magnesium chloride MgCl2 10.878

Magnesium sulphate MgSO4 4.737

Calcium sulphate CaSO4 3.600

Potassium sulphate K2 SO4 2.465

Calcium carbonate CaCO3 0.345

Magnesium bromide MgBr2 0.217

Table 1-2: Salt Content of the Ocean

When sea water is evaporated to dryness, the salts precipitate out and are deposited. The least soluble salts are deposited
first,ie calcium carbonate and iron oxide, if present in the water. Gypsum follows, and often with it some anhydrite. After
gypsum, sodium chloride (or common table salt) is next to be deposited. The bitter salts, consisting of sulphates and chlorides
of potassium and magnesium, are deposited last. These are so soluble that they are not always deposited with salt and gypsum.
The rocks formed in this manner are called evaporites. Thick deposits of evaporites were probably formed in evaporating
bodies of sea water which intermittently received influxes of more sea water.
Associated with salt and gypsum, in many places, are red beds which are composed mainly of red sandstones and shales. These
are red because they contain small amounts of iron oxide. It is believed that they have been formed under arid conditions.

1.3 STRATIGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS OF SEDIMENTS

1.3.1 Conformity and Unconformity

Deposition of materials in an area is not always constant. When the area is elevated or uplifted, deposition ceases and erosion
naturally begins. When an area subsides or sinks, erosion ceases and deposition begins.

When the deposition of a series of beds is constant, one bed is said to lie on the other with conformity.

If there is an interruption in deposition and erosion takes place, the bed deposited immediately after the interruption is said to
lie on the eroded surface in a disconformable manner.

If the beds below the eroded surface are tilted so that they form an angle with the overlying bed, the contact is called an angular
unconformity.

1.3.2 Onlap
An onlap is generally defined as the progressive pinching out, toward the margins of a depositional basin, of the sedimentary
units of a conformable sequence of rocks. The term onlap is a synonym for transgressive overlap.

1.3.3 Lateral and Vertical Variation of Sediments

In a sedimentary basin constantly receiving sediments at a uniform rate, the sediments become graded laterally prior to
deposition.

The coarse gravels are deposited near the shoreline; the pebbles and sands are deposited farther out; the silts and clays are
deposited still farther out; and the limes and calcareous oozes are deposited out beyond the clays in relatively quiet water. The
deposition of these sediments may extend to cover an area several hundreds of miles in length and width. The layer of rock that
is formed from sediments graded in this manner may occur as a conglomerate in one geographical area, a sandstone in another
area, a shale in a third area, and a limestone in another.

The different types of rocks formed by this grading process within a given geographical area are sedimentary equivalents, and
they are called facies. This name indicates that they were formed during the same period of deposition.

During a period of deposition, thick layers of like sediments may accumulate only if the supply of sediments remains uniform
and the shoreline remains stable. In other words, conglomerates are deposited on top of conglomerates, sands are deposited on
sands etc.

If the shoreline shifts (because of changing velocity of the streams and rivers), the lateral sequence of deposition is also shifted.
Repeated lateral shifting of the depositional sequence causes conglomerates to be deposited over shales, when the shoreline
shifts seaward. The reverse occurs when the shoreline shifts inland. This results in an interfingering, or interbedding, of
lateral facies. Detailed studies of such lateral changes are of utmost importance in the search for petroleum.

1.3.4 Fossils and Their Significance

Fossil refers to any remains of, or direct evidence of, plant or animal life preserved in the rocks of the earth's crust.

Since plants have few preservable parts they are not so well represented by fossils as are animals shells and skeletons.
However, some plant fossils do occur as graphitic remains or as impressions of leaves and stems in shales and sandstones. The
woody fibres of other plants have been filled in by silica.
The shells, bones, teeth, and general skeletal remains of animals (even their tracks, trails, and burrows) have been fossilized. In
some cases the entire animal has been preserved, constituting unique fossils of great value.

Such remnants show the development of life through the long ages of the earth's history. The more primitive forms of life are
found in the earliest rock formations. Evolutionary changes are recorded by the fossils in the rocks of succeeding time. In other
words, the oldest sedimentary rocks contain the oldest, most primitive forms of animals and the youngest sediments, those
being formed now, will contain today's forms of animal life.

A fossil-bearing rock may be dated by the fossils it contains. Thus, geologists have come to recognize certain fossil forms as
indices or guides to certain geologic ages. Many animals evolved into the animal forms of today, whereas many others became
extinct at various times during the geologic past. Some of these animals lived for such a short time that their traces may be
found only in ext remely thin zones within a rock formation. These are called horizon markers and they are excellent guides
for correlating across facies changes. If the fossils occurring in the sedimentary rocks of two widely separated areas are alike,
it follows that these sediments were accumulating during approximately the same period of geologic history.

1.3.5 Isostatic Control of Sediments

As shown by fossils and other features, a large part of the sedimentary rocks were formed in shallow seas and oceans. In several
mountain ranges these sediments are tens of thousands of feet thick. The inference is that the accumulation of such thick
deposits of sediments in shallow waters was made possible by progressive subsidence of the sites of deposition. This
subsidence is attributed to isostatic movement. Subsequently, continental drift has created large mountain ranges through the
collision of crustal plates.

1.4 DIASTROPHISM AND STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Sedimentary rocks are normally deposited horizontally in parallel layers. After deposition some of these rocks are subjected to
forces which cause them to become warped, tilted, uplifted or otherwise changed from their original positions and elevations.
The forces which cause these changes are called diastrophic or mountain building forces. The resulting changes are grouped
together under the term diastrophism.

The rock patterns formed by diastrophic forces acting on parallel layers of rocks are called structures. Certain types of
structures form traps in which petroleum may be found. Many methods of petroleum prospecting are therefore based on the
location and identification of subsurface structures. For this reason, structural geology is an essential subject in the study of
petroleum geology.

Structures may be classed as gentle warps, folds , joints, and faults. Since these structures are not usually seen in their entirety,
the attitude of the rocks within them may serve as a guide to identification.

1.4.1 Attitude of Strata

The attitude of a bed of rock, or stratum, refers to its dip and strike.

The term dip designates the angle to which a bed is tilted from its original horizontal position. Dip is measured in the direction
of steepest inclination. For example, a bed may have a dip of 30? toward the southeast.

The term strike designates the direction of the line of intersection of a bed of rock with the horizontal plane. The direction of
strike is measured by a compass at a right angle to the direction of dip. In the above example the strike of the bed is northeast.

1.4.2 Gentle Folding

Rocks which have been folded form gently sloping structures, such as irregular shaped basins and domes. The beds of rocks in
such structures are gently tilted.
1.4.3 Folds
Where beds of rock have been subjected to extreme horizontal forces, they bend into folds with alternating crests and troughs.
The principal types of folded structures are anticlines, synclines, domes, and basins.

Where the beds of rocks are arched up like the roof of a house, they form an anticline, ie the beds dip away from each other.

Downfolds, where the beds dip toward one another, are called synclines.

Anticlines and synclines may be several miles in length, but they are seldom more than two or three miles in width. At the
margins of these structures the beds of rocks flatten out into their normal horizontal position.

A dome is a roughly symmetrical upfold in which the beds dip away from the crest in all directions. Circular, symmetrical
domes are rare, but elongated oval-shaped domes are very common. Every gradation may be found between circular domes and
elongated anticlines. Both are upfolds.

In some regions domes occur as isolated structures. These may be the result of intruded igneous masses such as laccoliths or
batholiths. The familiar salt domes of the southern North Sea are the result of upward-moving masses of rock salt (diapirism).

A basin is a structural depression in which beds of rocks dip toward the centre from all sides. In a basin, the individual layers
of rocks would resemb le a stack of saucers, if each one were smaller in surface area than the next one below.

1.4.4 Joints
Joints are fractures or cracks running across the strata, along which there has been no displacement. Joints are developed in
rocks as the result of tension, compression, shear or torsion.

Tensional joints are formed in rocks on the crests of anticlines and domes as the result of stretching the rock layers.

1.4.5 Faults
Faults are fractures along which displacement has occurred. Faults occur in all types of rocks, but they are most easily detected
in sedimentary rocks where the offsetting of distinct beds is easily recognized. The amount of displacement may be a fraction
of an inch or tens of thousands of feet.

The plane of fracture along which displacement has taken place is the fault plane. The fault plane is usually smoothed and in
many places it may be polished to a slick surface. The term slickenside is applied to any striations on the plane, which indicate
direction of movement of the fault.

If the plane is not definite, there may be crushing of the wall rocks during the act of slipping. If the fragments that result are
coarse, the material is called fault breccia.

Since most faults are inclined, one wall will overhang the other. It is customary to speak of the rock above the fault plane as the
hanging wall and that below the fault as the foot wall. The side of the fault that appears to have moved up is the upthrow side,
and that which appears to have moved down is the downthrow side.

Where the upthrow side breaks the surface of the earth it may give rise to a cliff referred to as a fault scarp.

Fault Types
For most purposes, the most satisfactory classification of faults is of the genetic type. A genetic classification should consider
the forces responsible for faulting, such as compression, tension, shearing and torsion.

A thrust or reverse fault is a one along which the hanging wall has moved up relative to the footwall.
A gravity or dip-slip fault is one in which the hanging wall has moved down relative to the footwall. These are also referred to
as normal faults.

Strike-slip faults are those along which displacement has been essentially parallel to the strike of the fault, ie the dip-slip
component is small compared to the strike slip component. Rift or tear faults, such as the San Andreas fault, fall into the
category of strike-slip faults.

A block depressed between two faults is a graben, and a block raised between two faults is a horst. It is the graben which is so
important in the North Sea.

1.5 INTERNAL STRUCTURES WITHIN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

1.5.1 Stratification
The most distinctive structural feature of sedimentary rocks is their arrangement in beds, layers or strata.

1.5.2 Cross-bedding
Sediments that show parallel bedding at an angle to the planes of general stratification are cross-bedded. Whenever steep
slopes are produced by the rapid deposition of sediments (as at the front of a delta or on offshore bars, barriers, etc)
cross-bedding occurs.

Wind-lain (aeolian) deposits, such as sand dunes, are characteristically cross-bedded.

1.5.3 Graded Bedding

When a mixture of particle grains is brought to the site of deposition, the coarser and heavier grains settle more rapidly than
others. The smaller and lighter grains follow in a progressive series. It follows that the bed of sediment finally accumulated
shows a segregation of the grains as determined by their relative rates of settling. Thus, the bottom portion of a bed may consist
of coarse or heavy particles, whereas the upper portion is made up of relatively fine or light particles. Such an arrangement is
called graded bedding.
The presence of graded bedding in rocks indicates seasonal deposition within a relatively still body of water.
 SECTION 2
SAMPLE COLLECTION AND PREPARATION

2.1 RELATIONSHIP OF SAMPLES TO DEPTH

Cuttings samples are collected in such a way that they represent a depth interval rather than a specific depth. If rate of penetration
allows, this is generally 10 feet or equivalent.

An interval is sampled by introducing a board below the lowest shaker screen on one of the shale shakers. Cuttings will then
accumulate on the board instead of being washed over the side.

Care must be taken when sampling to ensure that the cuttings represent the entire interval. If a sample is taken from the top of the
pile only, the sample analyzed will only represent the formation drilled towards the base of the depth interval. A scoop should be
used to dig out each sample from top to bottom of the pile.

By using bit depth (from kelly or block position sensor output) together with calculated or measured bottoms up time, it is possible
to collect each sample as the base of the desired interval reaches the surface. A computer display of depth of returns (lagged depth)
is normally utilised to indicate when samples should be taken.

Individual samples can also be lagged using the pump stroke counters available within the Insite software. These would be zeroed
when a depth interval has been cut. When the calculated bottoms up time is displayed on these counters, the cuttings from the base
of the interval will have been displaced to the surface. The entire 10 foot interval should now be available for collection on the
sample board.

Once all samples for a given interval have been caught, the board must be thoroughly washed down to remove all unwanted
cuttings. In this way the purity of each interval is maintained.

An arrangement should be made with the shaker hands to ensure that they do not wash away cuttings in between samples. If the
pile gets too large there will be a temptation on their part to clear the board. Prior to this, a sample must be taken and combined with
the rest of the interval when the basal cuttings reach the surface.

2.1.1 Calculation of Lag Times

Between actual drilling of formation at a sample depth, and the collection of the cuttings from that depth at the surface, there is a
time difference known as lag time or bottoms up time. To ensure that samples are correctly related to their depth of generation, this
lag must be calculated and checked periodically.

Cuttings are transported to the surface by mud pumped up the annulus between the hole and drill pipe. Calculation of this annular
volume, together with the output of the pump per stroke, allows calculation of the lag time in terms of pump strokes.

Obviously, it is also possible to calculate lag time in terms of minutes, but this can be complicated by the pumps being switched off
during connections, or for other reasons. By using a digital pump stroke counter, this can be overcome.

Annular volume, in imperial units is calculated from

where Ann Vol = annular volume of section in bbls
D = hole/casing ID in inches
d = pipe/collar OD in inches
L = length of section in feet D2-d2
Ann vol = xL
Total annular volume is therefore the sum of all hole sections.
1029.4

Lag time in strokes is this summed annular volume divided by pump output, measured in bbls per stroke.

Output =
 2
Pump output for triplex pumps is given by Output = d xLxex3
where d = liner size of pump in inches
L = length of pump stroke in feet
1029.4
e = pump efficiency as a decimal fraction of 1 (eg. 97% efficiency would be 0.97)
3 = number of cylinders in pump (triplex or duplex)

2.1.2 Measurement of Lag Times

Lag times can be measured to allow for variations in open hole diameter due to formation washout or heave. This is usually done
by performing a carbide lag check.

Calcium carbide reacts with water to produce acetylene gas. A carbide bomb is introduced just prior to reconnecting the drill string
during a connection. The bomb consists of a fist sized package of carbide grains wrapped in flimsy tissue paper. The paper will be
broken up by the mud when pumping resumes, and the carbide reacts with the water in the mud.

In oil based mud systems some mud must be scooped out of the drill pipe in the slips, and water from a hose pipe run into the pipe
to replace this. The carbide bomb is then inserted into the water.

The pump stroke counter in the Insite software should be zeroed before pump ing is resumed. The number of strokes required to
circulate the gas around the hole is then counted. Counting stops when the acetylene is seen on the gas detector charts. It is best to
use the lag strokes recorded from the peak of the carbide gas.

Note that the carbide check measures the sum of surface to bit strokes, lag strokes, and the time delay between reaching the top of
the riser or casing and being output to the computer.

This last can be measured by putting some carbide below the gas trap in the header tank and measuring the number of strokes
pumped before a response on the gas on the computer is seen. Subtraction of the gas trap to computer time from the measured
strokes will give the time from surface to header tank.

Since the internal diameters of the drill pipe and drill collars are accurately known, subtraction of surface to bit time from the surface
to header tank time calculated above gives the bit to header tank time.

Only the open hole annulus is likely to alter during drilling, so any discrepancy between the calculated and measured lag times will
be due to this alteration. The average hole diameter can then be calculated, and used in catching subsequent samples.

Under normal drilling conditions carbide checks should be carried out once per shift.

Gas peaks returned from drilling breaks can also be used to monitor the actual lag versus calculated lag. If the gas peaks returned
form the drilling breaks occur at the correct lagged depth then you can assume the hole is in good shape.

2.2 SAMPLE TYPES

Several types of sample may be collected, depending on the requirements of the client. Usually the most comprehensive set will be
caught on exploration wells. The number of each type depends on the number of partners in the well.

Sample types include unwashed, un-sieved for micro-palaeontological analysis onshore; unwashed, un-sieved for geochemical
analysis onshore; washed sieved and dried for wellsite reference; washed sieved and wet for wellsite microscopic and fluoroscopic
analysis; cuttings gas sample for breakdown in a blender.

Each of the above will be discussed in turn.

2.2.1 Micro-palaeontological Samples
These will be placed in cloth bags immediately upon collection. No washing or sieving is required as these samples are processed in
the onshore palaeo laboratory.

If oil based mud is in use, a plastic (minigrip) bag should be put into the cloth bag so that the oil cannot seep through the cloth.

2.2.2 Geochemical Samples

Depending on the client, these are collected in either 1 litre paint tins or in sealable plastic bags. Both must be airtight. The latter are
heat sealed in the SDL unit.

Commonly geochemical samples are only collected over 30 foot intervals, so each 10 foot sample should contribute one third. Once
the third sample is collected, some bactericide is added and the container sealed. The bactericide prevents destruction of any
hydrocarbons in the cuttings through bacterial action during storage.

Like the micro-palaeontological samples above, there is no need to wash or sieve these samples, as processing will be done in the
onshore geochemical laboratory.

2.2.3 Dried Reference Samples

The sample should be washed through the coarse sieve into the fine sieve or sieves. A sample tray can then be filled with washed
cuttings and placed in a drying oven. Note that a depth identification tag should be placed on each sample to ensure that they are
stored in the correct order.

Once fully dried, the cuttings are transferred to packets for storage.

Note that with oil based mud cuttings, a final wash in detergent should be carried out to remove oil from the cuttings before drying.
If the cuttings are placed in the oven oil wet, there is a possibility that the flash point temperature of the base oil will be exceeded,
and the oil vapours in the oven will ignite.

2.2.4 Microscope Samples

The sample to be examined under the binocular microscope and fluoroscope is also taken from the fine sieve after washing. A flat
tray, eg the sample drying tray, is recommended rather than the concave watch glass. The use of a flat tray prevents heavier particles
from sinking to the bottom and going undetected.

The tray does not have to be completely filled for microscopic analysis. It is better to use a small quantity, spread around the tray
into a layer one cutting thick.

If watch glasses are to be used, it is worthwhile to look through the glass at the bottom to reveal the presence of pyrite or other heavy
particles.

Spot Samples
A special case of the microscope sample is the spot sample. This is taken to represent the formation at a given depth of interest, eg
to investigate a drill break. It is collected in such a way that it does not represent an interval, and is usually for microscopic and
fluoroscopic examination only.
Spot samples are collected by holding the sieves below the lowermost shaker screen until sufficient material to form a washed
cuttings sample is obtained. Obviously this is only done when the pump stroke counters show that the bottoms up time has been
pumped from the depth of interest.

Coarse Sieve Sample

The contents of the coarse sieve should not be disregarded after washing. They may provide larger samples of the rock being drilled
and so reveal some more detail about internal sedimentary features.

More importantly, the coarse sieve may contain obvious pressure cavings which indicate developing underbalance conditions.
These must be reported immediately they are discovered.

2.2.5 Desander/Desilter Samples

If fine material is seen to be washed through the fine sieve, or if this is suspected, a sample should be collected from the desander, or
the desilter. This can then be analyzed under the microscope and the findings combined with those of the conventional sample.

2.2.6 Cuttings Gas Samples

This method is now rarely used. These samples are collected as unwashed and unsieved samples, usually in a paper coffee cup or
other container of similar size. The samples are broken down using a blender to release gas still trapped within the pores of the
cuttings. The gas thus produced is then drawn into a gas detector for measurement.

2.3 THE WASHING PROCESS

2.3.1 Sieves
At least two sieves must be used for collecting and preparing cuttings samples. Some clients may require three to be used.

Unless otherwise instructed by the client company, Halliburton Sperry-Sun SDL uses 2mm mesh as the coarse sieve, and 250µ as
the fine sieve. A third, finer sieve can be used, and this is usually 125µ mesh. The finest sieve stocked by Halliburton Sperry-Sun
SDL is 64µ mesh and can be obtained by requisition if needed.

Spare sieves should always be kept at the wellsite, and a damaged sieve should never be used.

2.3.2 Washing Water Based Mud Samples

A scoop of cuttings is placed in the coarse sieve. A gentle jet of water is then used to wash the cuttings through the coarse sieve into
the fine. This can be performed at the shaker screens provided the water source can be controlled. A strong jet should never be used
as this may cause extremely fine material to be washed through the finest sieves, resulting in unrepresentative samples.

When enough material has been collected, the scoop and coarse sieve can be stored neatly in the shaker house, and the fine sieve and
other samples taken back to the SDL unit. Be very careful, since both hands are often required to carry these samples. If necessary,
a plastic bucket or similar container could be used to carry the samples, leaving one hand free to hold rails and open doors.

All unwashed samples must be carefully stored away, in depth sequence.

Gumbo
A disadvantage of water based mud is the reaction between the water and any swelling clays in the cuttings. Clays such as
montmorillonite will adsorb water into their mineral lattice, causing the rock to break down (table 3-2, section 3.3.1). This produces
a soft, plastic, almost liquid substance which is exceptionally difficult to wash through the coarse sieve and retain in the fine sieve.

It is best to take unwashed samples of this for microscopic examination, thus preserving the quantified relationship between the
gumbo clays and any other material contained within the rock (such as shells or sand grains). It is all too easy to give the traces of
other material significant percentages in the sample description, especially if the sample is overwashed.

2.3.3 Washing Oil Based Mud Samples

The washing process for oil based muds is slightly more complex than for water based due to the need to remove as much of the oil
as possible to facilitate drying of the sample, and fluoroscopic inspection.

Initial washing is done using clean base oil, rather than a water jet. This is best contained in a barrel or large bucket beside the shale
shakers. With the coarse sieve on top, the sieves are dipped into the oil, and then gently shook to allow the diesel to carry the 2mm
and less cuttings through the coarse mesh. Ensure that the oil falls back into the bucket to prevent dangerous spillage.

The next stage is to dip the fine sieve in a bucket of detergent, to remove the base oil. This bucket can also be kept in the shaker
house. Obtain a chemical data sheet covering the hazards of detergent from the drilling company, or whoever supplies it.

When enough material has been collected, the scoop and coarse sieve can be stored neatly in the shaker house, and the fine sieve and
other samples taken back to the SDL unit. Be very careful, since both hands are often required to carry these samples. If necessary,
a plastic bucket or similar container could be used to carry the samples, leaving one hand free to hold rails and open doors. Keep all
unit door handles clean.

The sample can now be taken into the SDL unit for treatment with detergent to remove the base oil. It is good practice if this is
assisted by a gentle water jet. Again, a strong jet may force fine material through the fine sieve mesh. This washing can continue
until the cuttings no longer float on the water.

Note that it is virtually impossible to remove all base oil from the sample, even with detergent. This will become apparent under the
fluoroscope. It is essential that a control sample of oil base mud is kept near the fluoroscope for comparison with the cuttings.

Acid and water should be applied to cuttings broken up with a dissecting needle to ensure that the reaction observed is from a fresh
rock face, and is unhindered by the presence of a thin oil film.

There should be no problem with water swelling clays when oil based mud is used. Consequently, the quality of cuttings taken from
oil based mud is generally much better.
 SECTION 3
SAMPLE ANALYSIS

The majority of Surface Data Logging (SDL) engineers are geology graduates and will understand the importance of an
accurate, detailed lithological description with a standard sequence. In order to maintain a standard, Halliburton SDL adopts a
slightly modified sequence of the Shell Tape Worm. This standard is used when there are no specific instructions from the
client company.

1. Name of Rock
2. Colour
3. Texture
a) Siliclastic b) Carbonate (if sedimentary)
i) Grain size i) Dunham classification
ii) Grain shape with
iii) Grain sphericity ia) Particle description
iv) Sorting ib) Matrix description
v) Clay type if crystalline
ii) crystal size

4. Hardness
5. Cementation
6. Porosity estimate
7. Fracture
8. Accessory components
9. Sedimentary structures
10. Fluorescence
11. Cut
12. Crush cut

A brief description of each of the above parameters is given below. More detailed discussion is to be found in later sections of
this manual.

3.1 NAME OF ROCK

In general, the name of a sedimentary rock is based on grain/crystal size classification and the mineral type. To simplify the
procedure these are classified in three groups. These are siliclastics, carbonates, and evaporites.

3.1.1 Siliclastics

Rock types Abbreviation

Claystones and Shales CLST and SH
Siltstone SLTST
Sandstone SST
Conglomerate CGL

Table 3-1: Siliclastic Rocks

The differentiation is based on grain size (table 3-1). Note that the Claystone and shale group is extended to include mudstone.

A pure claystone will contain 90% clay minerals, which have a particle size of 0.004mm. Particular clay minerals have
characteristic features.

For example, montmorillonite has an ionic structure which allows the absorption of water molecules, which causes the clay to
swell. This type of clay is often referred to as Gumbo. It is renowned throughout the industry for its affect on water based
drilling fluids and for giving hole problems.

Shale is a particular claystone which exhibits a high degree of fissility. This is related to compaction processes and the
presence of mica.

Siltstone, when pure, is a quartzitic rock with a grain size of between 0.004mm and 0.062mm.

Sandstones are also quartzitic rocks, with a grain size between 0.062mm and 2mm.

Conglomerate contains rock particles, in addition to grains, between 2mm and 256mm.

On numerous occasions it will be found that a mixture of two grain sizes and mineral types are present in a rock cutting. In this
case, the name of the rock will be derived from the most abundant grain size, and the least abundant will be written in brackets
as a qualifier, eg CLST(slt) = Silty Claystone.

In the case where the least abundant grain size is 10% or less of the total matrix, it is simply mentioned in the description and is
not used as a name qualifier.

The name of the rock is always written in upper case. The qualifier is in brackets, in lower case. The description itself is
written in lower case, with each parameter separated by a semi-colon.

3.1.2 Carbonates
Carbonate rocks are sediments formed during a quiet period of orogeny (mountain building) and which are accordingly mainly
associated with quartzose type reservoir rocks. The development of thick carbonate rocks requires a slowly sinking, shallow
continental shelf which gives an opportunity for the development of abundant sea life.

Carbonate rock classification is based upon the mode of origin of the rock. There are four main categories.

Accretionary limestones, which include bioherms (reefs) and biostromes.

Clastic limestones, which are those redeposited from a weathered limestone landmass.

Chemical limestones, which are formed by direct chemical precipitation.

Dolomitic limestones, formed by molecular replacement of Ca by Mg in the original limestone. In this process the grain density
increases from 2.71 to 2.86 SG, and secondary porosity to the extent of 12% of bulk rock volume may thus develop.

3.2 COLOUR
The colour of a rock is mainly dependant on mineral composition, environment of deposition, diagenesis and weathering
(in the case of uplifted and reburied rocks). Colour alone is not diagnostic, but is useful when used in conjunction with other
parameters.

Colour description is highly subjective. A standard colour chart is therefore very helpful. Recognition of colour changes is
more important than the specific name of the colour.
3.3 TEXTURE
Texture is the single most important diagnostic feature to the geologist. It is important for deducing the palaeoenvironment on
a micro and macro scale. It is also very important in assessing reservoir characteristics if the rock is oil bearing. It is therefore
imperative that an accurate and detailed description of the textural qualities of a rock is made.
The following parameters must be described.

3.3.1 Siliclastic
Grain Size This gives a more detailed account of the grain size characteristic which is implied by the name of the rock. For
detailed classification see grain size chart.
Grain Shape This expresses the degree of roundness. Six degrees of roundness are recognised. These are very angular;
angular; sub angular; sub rounded; rounded; very rounded.
Grain Sphericity Six degrees of sphericity are recognised. These are very elongated; elongated; sub elongated; sub spherical;
spherical; very spherical.
Sorting The sorting characteristic is a measure of the distribution of grain sizes. An extremely well sorted sample will have
grains of all the same size. Again six degrees of sorting occur. These are very poorly sorted; poorly sorted; moderately sorted;
well sorted; very well sorted; extremely well sorted.
Clay Type As discussed before, certain clay types can adsorb water and thus exhibit a swelling characteristic. To describe
this feature, distilled water must be added to the clay and the reaction observed.

Clay type Particle reaction

Non swelling Does not break up

Hygroturgid Swelling in a random manner

Hygroclastic Swelling into irregular pieces

Hygrofissile Swelling into flakes

Cryptofissile Swelling into flakes only after applying 10% HCl

Table 3-2: Clay Reaction to Water

In general, swelling clays will tend to be soft and sticky. The initial coarse sieving will therefore be difficult. However,
vigorous washing will remove a large percentage of clay from the fine sieve, so this must be avoided.
Under the microscope, discrete globular aggregates of fine clay particles will be noted. These aggregates will readily disperse,
often forming a dense cloud which shields the rest of the sample from view.

3.3.2 Sedimentary Limestones

The textural description of sedimentary limestones is based on Dunhams Textural Classification.

Rock type Description

Mudstone Carbonate mud with less than 10% particles

Wackestone Greater than 10% particles in carbonate mud support

Packestone Grain supported, less than 5% mud

Grainstone Grain supported with sparry cement

Boundstone Components bound together during compaction, eg reefs

Table 3-3: Dunham's Classification

After deciding on the textural classification, the description of both the carbonate mud and contained particles must follow.
3.4 HARDNESS
Hardness is a measure of the degree of lithification. It depends on the matrix type (if any), degree of cementation, cement type,
and the burial characteristics (i.e. rate of subsidence and sediment influx, temperature, pressure, and diagenetic affects. It is an
important parameter in the estimation of porosity.

Eight degrees of hardness are given after the Bouma Scale (1962).

Hardness Definition

Loose Grains fall apart in dry conditions

Friable Grains can be detached by fingernails, or a rock sample crumbles between the fingers

Moderately hard Grains can be detached using a knife or needle. Small chips are easily broken by hand

Hard Grains cannot be detached using knife of needle. Rock sample fractures between grains

Very hard Rock fractures through grains

Soft as in swelling clays

Plastic plastic clay, deforms easily

Brittle as in coal

Table 3-4: Hardness Definition

3.5 CEMENTATION
Cementation is complimentary to hardness; often it will qualify the state of hardness.

Both the degree and type of cementation must be noted.

Degree of cementation Definition

Unconsolidated (loose) No cement

Consolidated Cementing agent present

Strongly consolidated Cement filling majority of pore space

Table 3-5: Cementation

Type of cement Test

Calcitic test with cold 10% HCl

Dolomitic test with 10% HCL

Anhydritic test with BaCl2

Quartzitic inference

Cherty inference

Table 3-6: Cement Type

3.6 POROSITY
It is impossible to give a quantitative value of the percentage porosity by visual examination. Porosity is expressed in
qualitative terms which are based on texture, hardness and cementation. For example

A coarse, unconsolidated sandstone, with well rounded, spherical, extremely well sorted grains, would have extremely good
porosity (25-30%)

whereas

A fine to coarse, well cemented sandstone with angular, elongated to sub-spherical, very poorly sorted grains, will have very
poor porosity (less than 5%).

Porosity is expressed in the six degrees contained in table 3-7.

Description Porosity

Very poor porosity 0 - 5%

Poor porosity 5 - 10%

Fair porosity 10 - 15%

Good porosity 15 - 20%

Very good porosity 20 - 25%

Extremely good porosity 25 - 30%

Table 3-7: Porosity Estimation

3.6.1 Porosity in Carbonates

Several types of porosity occur in carbonate rocks.

Intercrystalline
This is also called primary porosity, and results from interstitial voids between individual crystals or grains, and their
arrangement within the rock. Primary porosity tends to be discontinuous because of the filling of void spaces by fine material
and cement.

Primary porosity seldom gives economic oil reservoirs.

Oolitic Porosity
This type results from the packing of fossil spheres (ooliths) of almost uniform diameter. Original packing usually approaches
the hexagonal pattern of 26% porosity. Subsequent leaching or cementation may raise or lower this value.

Irregularly shaped clastic grains may be mixed in varying degrees with the ooliths, and cementing crystallisation may reduce
the available pore space by a large amount. Void space may also exist inside the ooliths themselves, and this may or may not be
linked with the interconnected pore network between the ooliths.
Intergranular
Intergranular porosity in limestones is specifically the pore development in heterogeneously packed clastic sediments. Chalk
exhibits a typical intergranular porosity, as the chalk grains basically constitute a fine calcareous powder. Chalk has a high
porosity (up to 30%) but a low permeability (up to l md).

Vuggy
This porosity results from leaching of carbonate rocks by solutions or circulating waters and is characterised by channels and
large openings (vugs) within the rocks.

Porosity of this type is often underestimated.

Fracture
Fracture porosity results from earth movements which create joints and faults, through which solution waters may gain easy
access. Mineralising waters may also circulate, and be responsible for dolomitic replacement as well as for the infilling of
previously developed channels and cavities.

Fractures and fracture porosity can be recognised from the presence of straight sides on chips, and veins of calcite, dolomite,
silica or anhydrite within the chips. Loose calcite or silica crystals in the bottom of the samp le tray are another possible
indicator.

Fossiliferous
Porosity of this type is developed by leaching when fossil remains within a carbonate rock are more soluble than the rock itself.

Reef
This is a type of fossiliferous porosity which is present in fossil coral and algal reef structures as a result of the decay of organic
matter originally filling the openings.

Cherty Limestones
Cherty limestones often show fields of porosity development, since fracturing is responsible for chert mineralisation by
circulating waters. Weathered cherty limestones may also show high porosity through the removal of carbonates.

Summary
Although porosity development in carbonate reservoirs is mostly due to the action of circulating waters, these may also lead to
filling of previously existing pores by chert, salt and sulphates. From the point of view of reservoir formation evaluation and
well log interpretation it is convenient to view the development of porosity in carbonates as made up of two parts.

Matrix or block porosity In this case the pore sizes are generally small. Accordingly, the permeability is small, but because
of the comparatively large volumes of the blocks compared to fractures and vugs, most of the fluid storage volume is contained
within such blocks.

Fracture, fissure, joint and vug porosity Here the pore size is large and the permeability is also large, yet the storage
capacity is small.
3.7 FRACTURE
This is not such a universally diagnostic feature, but it is helpful at certain times.

The property of fracture can be described as the line of break in rock or mineral. The attitude and surface texture of this line
will have characteristics which relate to mineral composition, hardness and cementation. The various types of break or fracture
are listed in below.

Angular break; conchoidal break; crumbly break; fissile break; sub fissile; blocky break; splintery break.

3.8 ACCESSORY COMPONENTS

This section includes all accessory allogenic and authogenic minerals in trace quantities, fossils, concretions, and nodules.

Examples include mica, pyrite, glauconite, micro and macro fossils or fossil fragments, carbonaceous materials, limonite,
haematite, etc.

3.9 SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES

The cuttings size will limit these descriptions to micro structures, such as micro bedding, micro laminae, convolutions,
bioturbation, graded bedding, flame structures etc.

3.10 HYDROCARBON EVALUATION

Fluorescence, cut, and crush cut will be discussed at length in a later section. It is essential that all samples are assessed for
hydrocarbon potential as soon as possible after collection
 SECTION 4
TESTS ON COMMON ROCK TYPES

4.1 SHALE
Shale is a member of the clastics, ie rocks composed of fragments of rock weathered away from their point of origin and
transported some distance to a point where they are redeposited, buried, and eventually lithified. By definition shale is
composed of fragments of a diameter less than l/256 mm.

4.1.1 Visual Inspection

Under the microscope at l0X, shale cuttings will appear as a solid mass with little or no surface textural evidence to indicate
that the shale is actually a collection of very small fragments compacted and cemented together.

The sample is examined wet and the following properties noted and recorded: colour, lustre, fossils, induration, bedding, and
mineral inclusions, as indicated in the descriptive sequence above.

4.1.2 Cementation
Selected cuttings may then be tested with 10% HCl to determine cement type and concentration. Calcite will effervesce in cold
acid. Dolomite and siderite (Fe carbonate) will effervesce in hot acid. Siderite may be differentiated from dolomite by its
yellow-brown or reddish-brown colour. Siderite will impart a yellow colour to the hot acid.

Anhydrite is usually observable in shale at the examination stage due to its intense bluish white colour. A further check may be
made after heating in acid, looking for acicular crystals around the sample tray. The most diagnostic test involves reacting with
BaCl2 .

A chip that is hard to crush may be siliceous, ie it may contain interstitial silica. Detrital quartz, as silt and sand, may also make
shale cuttings difficult to crush. However, when the chip is broken down, the separate grains of sand and silt can be observed
and measured.

A glass rod, rubbed on the bottom of the sample tray or dimple tray, is useful in detecting minor amounts of silt and sand.

4.2 MARLSTONE
Marl, or marlstone, is a rather vague category defined as an indurated mixture of clay materials and calcite (rarely dolomite),
normally containing 25% - 75% clay.

The term marlstone should not be used unless specifically asked for by the client.

4.3 SILTSTONE
Simply stated, siltstone is a very fine grained, consolidated clastic rock composed predominantly of particles of silt grade
ranging in size from 1/256 mm to 1/16 mm.

4.3.1 Visual Inspection

At 10X under the microscope, siltstone will appear to have a rough surface texture indicating the presence of the grains it is
composed of. However, individual grains can be distinguished only with effort.
The sample is examined wet for colour, lustre, hardness, induration, bedding, and inclusions.
4.3.2 Cementation
Selected chips are then tested with firstly cold 10% HCl. The amount of calcite, dolomite, or siderite cement may be then be
determined.

Crush the chip or chips. The resistance to crushing determines the presence of silica cement. Examine and measure the particle
size in the crushed chip. Estimate percentage of sand. Check the residue for argillaceous, carbonaceous, or bituminous material.

4.4 SANDSTONES
Sandstone is defined as a cemented or otherwise compacted detrital sediment composed predominantly of grains in the range
of the sand sized particles (1/16 to 2 mm). While sandstones are most commonly made up of quartz (SiO2 ), any rock composed
predominantly of grains in the defined size range may be classified as a sandstone with the appropriate compositional modifier,
eg carbonate sandstone, feldspathic sandstone, etc. More specifically, the sandstone group is broken down into several grain
size categories which are listed in table 4-1.

Description Size range (mm)

Very fine grained 1/16 to 1/8

Fine grained 1/8 to 1/4

Medium grained 1/4 to 1/2

Coarse grained 1/2 to 1

Very coarse grained 1 to 2

Table 4-1: Sandstone Classification

4.4.1 Initial Visual Inspection

Sandstones are examined for colour, porosity, average grain size, lustre, induration, bedding, percentage secondary cement,
light reflective minerals (quartz overgrowths, mica, feldspar), and oil stain. Friability is checked with tweezers.

4.4.2 Cementation
If the rock cutting is still cemented after heating strongly in acid, the cement is likely to be anhydrite or silica.

If anhydrite is the main cement type the rock should crush easily. Also, acicular crystals will be obtained upon cooling, or a
white precipitate will be formed with BaCl2 solution.

Silica cement is insoluble in acid and makes the rock difficult to crush. With 10% silica cement, quartz overgrowths will be
observed and the rock will offer slight resistance to crushing. With 20% silica cement the sand will offer good resistance to
crushing. 30% silica cement makes the sand almost impossible to crush without splintering.

Kaolin cement occurs as earthy white, through buff, to light green patches found between grains, or very plate-like crystals
between grains, or as grain coatings. Kaolin is best observed in the sample tray and most often occurs in arkosic sandstones as
an alteration product of feldspar.

4.4.3 Further Examination

After determining the type and amount of cement, the chip should be crushed under acid or water. Measure the grains with the
micrometer disc in the microscope and determine the amount of silt. Note the rounding and sorting of the sand grains. Note the
amount of argillaceous, carbonaceous and bituminous material in the sample. A better estimate of accessory mineral grains may
be made at this stage.

4.5 CARBONATE ROCKS

The two main members of the carbonate rock series are limestone (CaCO3 ) and dolomite (Ca,Mg(CO3 )2 ). These rocks are
chemical in origin and are usually, though not always, represented structurally as crystalline intergrowths.

4.5.1 Chemical Carbonates

The chemical carbonates are those precipitated out of solution or formed by chemical alteration into crystalline intergrowths.
These intergrowths can be solid or highly porous (as seen in sucrosic textures). These crystalline rocks are graded according to
crystal size in the same manner as the clastic rocks as shown in table 4-2.

Description Crystal size (mm)

Cryptocrystalline less than 1/256

Microcrystalline 1/256 to 1/16

Very fine crystalline 1/16 to 1/8

Fine crystalline 1/8 to 1/4

Medium crystalline 1/4 to 1/2

Coarse crystalline 1/2 to 1

Very coarse crystalline 1 to 2

Table 4-2: Carbonate Size Classification

Rocks displaying crystal intergrowths of a size larger than listed in table 4-2 above are probably, but not necessarily, the
product of metamorphism or secondary mineralization.

Reaction With 10% HCl

Limestone and dolomite may be distinguished from each other by their reaction to cold dilute HCl. Pure limestone reacts very
vigorously almost causing the acid surrounding the sample to foam, while dolomite reacts very slowly, a bubble or two
forming here and there on the sample. In practice, it will be found that all possible combinations between the two carbonates
exist.

The rock in question, if it is a carbonate, will effervesce in cold dilute HCl in direct proportion to the amount of CaCO3 present.
If a sample reacts slowly in cold acid and begins to effervesce rapidly on heating, it is probably dolomite. Care should be taken
to avoid confusion of dolomite with siderite (FeCO3 ) and anhydrite. Refer to the specific test sequences listed for these.

4.5.2 Examples of Chemical Carbonate Rocks

Mudstone
The texture of carbonate mudstones is such that crystalline components are too small to be distinguished with the unaided eye,
ie microcrystalline and cryptocrystalline textures. They are usually pale grey in colour. The colour darkens as the proportion
of terrigenous material increases and the rock grades into the argillaceous group. They break with a conchoidal fracture.
Oolite and Pisolite
These two types of carbonate rock are characterized by the presence of large quantities of spherical bodies. The term oolite is
used because of their resemblance to fish eggs. Oolites are small with a diameter of less than l.0mm, while in pisolites the
spherical grains can reach the size of peas.

An oolite, cut in half, usually reveals a nucleus of shell or quartz or other material around which calcite has been precipitated in
a concentric manner much like that in the annual rings of trees. Also, calcite rods may radiate from the centre giving the
impression of spokes in a wheel. If the rock undergoes alteration to dolomite, the internal structure of the oolites will generally
be obliterated. Modern oolites are currently forming on the shores of the Great Salt Lake in Utah.

4.5.3 Organic Carbonate Rocks

The organic carbonates are those in which there is a high proportion of the skeletal remains of animals and plants. The animal
remains are generally invertebrate and marine, although some freshwater deposits do occur. The plant remains are chiefly algal.

4.5.4 Mechanically Formed Carbonate Rocks

Almost all types of carbonates contain some truly clastic material. Generally, the clastic portion of the rock is not high. A few
carbonates, however, consist mainly of clastic detritus weathered and transported from older carbonate rocks. Such rocks show
variation in grain size from boulders down to clay sized particles. It seems reasonable to assume that the material forming these
rocks could not be transported far since their solubility and relative softness would ensure their rapid destruction. However, if
the transporting waters were saturated with carbonate material, then the clastic material could be carried a considerable
distance, dependent only on the softness of the material being transported.

After deposition, the detrital material is cemented, usually by more carbonate material. There is some difficulty in recognizing
these rocks, particularly the finer grained ones, as recrystallization, replacement, and cementation during diagenesis tend to
obliterate the original form.

4.5.5 Description of Carbonate Samples

Wet examination is made for colour, texture, porosity and oil stain.

An initial acid test is given to determine whether the rock is limestone or dolomite, as discussed above. If a mixture of both
carbonates is present, the percentages of each should be estimated. This is best done through calcimetry measurements.

Limestone
Examine the cuttings wet to determine structure, type of particle (eg ooliths or fragments), grain to mud ratio and relationship,
secondary cement, etc.

The cuttings should be etched with 10% HCl. This can be combined with wet examination. Etching will clean up the surface of
the rock, and insolubles will stand out in relief. Percentages of accessories, inclusions, and alterations may be estimated, eg
dolomite, clay, or silica as replacement or cement, silt and sand, anhydrite or gypsum, bituminous or carbonaceous material.

If further definition of insolubles is needed, an insoluble residue should be made by dissolving the rock chip as completely as
possible.

Dolomite
Wet examination may be useful in dolomites to see remnants of original structure of the limestone which the dolomite replaces.

The sample is etched with cold acid to find the percentage of calcite. The calcite may be present as unreplaced original
limestone or as secondary calcite cement in porosity.

The sample and acid are then heated to dissolve dolomite. Insoluble accessories, inclusions and alterations may then be
estimated. This process may be applied just to the surface of the rock (a hot acid etch) or may be continued until all the
dolomite is dissolved, leaving insoluble material. A glass rod may be used to detect silica. Examination of residue should be
made with high power to detect the differences between quartz and silt. Sand grains are readily seen. Andydrite tests may be
applied if anhydrite is suspected. Argillaceous, carbonaceous or bituminous material should be noted in the insoluble residue.

4.5.6 Summary of Tests for Carbonates

With Dilute Hydrochloric Acid

Limestone Instantaneous, violent reaction; specimen supported by gas bubbles; dissolves in about five minutes.

Dolomitic Limestone Moderate but continuous reaction.

Calcareous Dolomite Weak, but accelerating after a few minutes.

Dolomite Beads of gas form slowly over a period of up to half hour. Acid becomes milky. Reaction speeds up rapidly if
mixture is greatly heated.

Stain Test
Cuttings samples are treated with the following mixture, and the resultant colour noted.

0.2% Hydrochloric Acid + 0.2% Alizarin Red + 0.5% Saturated Ferricyanide.

Colour Carbonate type

Red Pure calcite

Mauve Ferroan calcite, Fe2+ poor

Purple Ferroan calcite, Fe2+ rich

Light blue Ferroan dolomite

Dark blue Ankerite

Not stained Dolomite

Table 4-3: Carbonate Stain Test

4.6 FLINT AND CHERT

This takes the form of a compact siliceous rock of varying colour composed of microorganisms or precipitated silica grains. It
occurs as nodules, lenses, or layers in limestone and shales. Chert is a very hard material, usually opaque although it can be
translucent on thin edges, which displays a conchoidal fracture. Freshly broken chips will have very sharp edges. Chert will not
react in HCl, hot or cold. Characteristically, when drilling in any significant amount of chert, the penetration rate will be
drastically reduced.

4.7 EVAPORITES
Anhydrite (CaSO4 ) and Gypsum (CaSO4 .2H2 O) commonly occur as massive beds or as a filling in fractures and vugs. More
rarely, they will occur as euhedral crystals in fractures and vugs. Since the two are often identical in appearance, the following
should be used to distinguish them. Anhydrite is relatively hard and considered to be brittle while gypsum is quite soft and can
be scratched with the fingernail.

The sample may be examined wet for elements of structure, eg nodular or mosaic structure.
Test the sample with cold acid for calcite, then heat to check for dolomite percentage. Anhydrite tests may be applied if, for
example, anhydrite is mixed with dolomite and argillaceous material.

Note that anhydrite tends to be ground to a paste under the action of the drill bit. This paste is often washed away, leaving little
indication of anhydrite in the sample. A white pasty appearance to the samples may indicate anhydrite, also the presence of
rounded white, sticky lumps with a large amount of cavings.

ROP is characteristically very slow when drilling through anhydrite formations.

4.7.1 Salt
Salt (halite) is, by definition, a crystalline compound composed of sodium chloride (NaCl). During drilling operations salt will
be penetrated very rapidly, usually at a 60 feet/hour or faster.

Salt is usually identified at the examination stage by its cubic crystals, its lustre and its taste. If examined wet, it is soluble and
the sample chips are generally rounded or leached by the drilling fluid and washing.

If the sample is examined wet or etched, hopper shaped crystals will form gradually on the edges of the container.

Sylvite (KCl) and carnallite (K,MgCl3 .6H2 O) generally occur with salt and are identifiable by their bitter taste, colour and
greater solubility than salt. The Zechstein (S. North Sea) should be differentiated with regard to its salt sequence.

Inhibited (salt saturated) muds are used where salt sections are expected otherwise solution occurs. However, the sample which
reaches the surface should still give a conservative estimate of salt percentage in the formation drilled.

If the mud is not inhibited the salt will likely dissolve. Watch for spaces where salt crystals have been, eg salt casts in dolomite,
anhydrites, etc. Also look for ragged shrinkage cracks in shale and mudstone. A glaze of salt may be present over the dried
sample.

Characteristic associations of salt are

1. Reddish/greenish dolomitic shales or mudstones

2. Earthy or microsucrosic dolomites

3. Anhydrites

4.7.2 Summary of Evaporite tests

Potassium and Magnesian Salts extremely soluble in water

Rock Salt (halite, NaCl)m soluble in water, taste

Gypsum (CaSO4 .2H2 O) less stable form, occurring at depths shallower than 500 m; scratches with the fingernail; goes white
if held over a flame; floats on bromoform (note that bromoform is carcinogenic. Halliburton SDL uses zinc bromide instead).

Anhydrite (CaSO4 ) stable form occurring at depths below 500-700m; sinks in bromoform; not scratched with the fingernail.
Can be brittle and crystalline, or soft and mushy.

Test for sulphates using the following solution.

Put some cuttings into a test tube and dissolve with 10% HCL. Add a few drops of BaC12 . If a dense white precipitate forms,
then sulphate is present.
4.8 THE COAL GROUP
Coal is very common in the N. Sea in Jurassic and Carboniferous horizons. The most essential element in the composition of
these rocks is carbon, the variation in the amount of which determines the nature of the particular coal. The remaining
components are oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen. Small quantities of sulphur are often present, usually in the form of pyrite or
marcasite. The proportion of the various components of the coals is listed below.

Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen

Peat 59.0 6.0 33.0 2.0

Lignite 73.61 4.51 17.69 2.15

Bituminous coal 82.0 5.0 13.0 0.8

Anthracite 95.0 2.5 2.5 trace

Table 4-4: Components of the Coal Group

The above figures are averaged and serve to show that from peat to anthracite there is an increase in carbon and a decrease in
the combined amounts of oxygen and hydrogen.

4.8.1 Peat
Peat is a loose fibrous mass of plant debris. The plant material is easily recognized by the unaided eye. It is usually brown to
yellow in colour, becoming darker towards the base of the deposits as compaction increases. It is readily formed in areas where
bacterial decay is at a minimum and steady accumulations of material can occur over long periods of time.

4.8.2 Lignite
A dull, soft, brown to black material, lignite is more compact than peat but with the plant material still recognizable to the
unaided eye. Hardness varies from 1.0 to 2.5 on Mohs scale, depending on how well the material is compacted. The moisture
content is high at about 36%. In air, lignite dries and cracks readily.

Lignite will burn in a spirit lamp flame.

4.8.3 Sub-bituminous Coal

This is a transitional type between lignite and bituminous coal. It differs from lignite in being blacker in colour and in the
absence of readily vis ible organic structures, and differs from bituminous coals in its ready weathering and crumbling in air
drying conditions.

Coals will burn in a spirit lamp flame. A distinctive odour will be detected from the bitumen.

4.8.4 Bituminous Coal

A dense black, distinctly layered coal which breaks with a cuboidal fracture owing to the presence of two sets of joints at right
angles to each other and each normal to the bedding. Bedding layers may appear alternately bright and dull. This is a
consequence of the variation in the materials constituting the layers. Handling will soil the hands.

Coals will burn in a spirit lamp flame. A distinctive odour will be detected from the bitumen.

4.8.5 Anthracite
A coal that is dense black in colour, has a brilliant lustre and is not obviously layered. It exhibits a conchoidal fracture. It does
not soil the hands.

Coals will burn in a spirit lamp flame.

4.8.6 Other Helpful Characteristics

Described above are the various types of coal and some of their descriptive characteristics. As a further aid to identifying coals
during drilling operations, the following are given.

1. Coals will drill at a very rapid rate.

2. Usually, but not always, penetration of coal seams will be accompanied by a large increase in methane gas.

3. If it is coal, it will burn.

4.9 CONTAMINANTS

4.9.l Cement
Cement appears like grey, calcareous siltstone (may be tinted brownish, by the mud). Testing with phenolphthalein turns the
cement pink .

4.9.2 Lost Circulation Material

Mica, walnut shells, cellophane, etc are used to control lost circulation, and so will be present in subsequent cuttings samples.
There are too many of these products in use to list their properties here. It is recommended that samples of all LCM used at the
wellsite are obtained for comparison with cuttings samples, and kept near the microscope.

4.9.3 Pipe Dope

This is a fluorescent grease used on pipe joints. It can be easily mistaken for a hydrocarbon show under long wave UV light.
The colour of fluorescence is variable so a sample of the dope used at each wellsite should be obtained for comparison with
suspected shows.

4.9.4 Casing Paint

Black, bituminous and practically indistinguishable from bitumen.

4.9.5 Metal
Metal in cuttings samples generally comes from junk or casing wear. Excess metal must be reported to the company
representative immediately.

4.9.6 Rubber
Black and hard. This comes from stabilisers or pipe protectors.
4.9.7 Shoe Material
Various types occur. Check before each shoe is run.

4.9.8 Mud Additives

Apart from LCM, a number of additives are mixed into the drilling fluid for various reasons. Some of these may be confused
with drill cuttings.

In particular lignosulphonate can be mistaken for coal. Fine quartz spheres which are added to reduce drilling torque can be
mistaken for loose sand grains.

In general, it is recommended that a sample of each mud additive used in the current mud system be obtained and kept available
for comparison with cuttings samples. Establish a system whereby the mud engineer informs the SDL crew whenever a new
additive is to be mixed.

4.10 COMPOSITION OF SAMPLES

Cuttings samples fall into two categories. These are samples caught over a depth interval and spot samples.

Interval samples should represent the full interval, usually 10 feet, and as such may contain a mixture of rock types if, for
example, a formation top is penetrated, or an interbedded sequence is being drilled. Where a cuttings sample contains more than
one rock type it is useful to ascertain the percentage of sample forming each type. Halliburton SDL only requires samples to be
estimated to the nearest 10% for input into the litholog. This is due primarily to the scales used in constructing these logs.
Concentrations less than 10% are usually referred to as trace.

Care should be taken when interpreting the stratigraphy represented by the cuttings, since a number of complicating factors
exist which can confuse the relative importance of each rock type. In particular, cavings and the effect of drilling fluid flow
regimes are the most significant of these. For this reason trace quantities of any given rock must not be dismissed.

Stratigraphic interpretation is best done by considering the drilling parameter responses, measured at the surface, together with
cuttings. The most useful of these are rate of penetration and torque, although weight on bit, rotary speed and pump rate must
be considered also.

Spot samples are taken when a particular depth of interest reaches the surface, eg to check a drilling break. In this case, only the
rock type at the depth in question is of interest, so it is unlikely that a mixture of rocks should be found.

A chart to assist in assessing these percentages is provided in figure 4-1.

4.11 SUMMARY OF COMMON ROCK PROPERTIES AND TESTS

The following tables summarise the properties and diagnostic tests of the more commonly occurring sedimentary rocks. They
are by no means complete, but could prove useful as reminders when describing samples in the field.
Rock Colour Texture Tests to identify Remarks
type
Sand / white, grey, tan, coarse, medium, fine, visual, feel, chew for gritty taste, can be oil, gas or water producing; generally
sandstone black, buff, yellow, very fine grained sand grains generally quartz with drills fast; well cemented sand can drill
orange, red, brown various types of cement slowly; wears out bits quickly

Shale grey, black, red, plastic, smooth waxy, visual, non porous, particle size non productive; can contain gas (high pressure
brown, purple, silty, sandy, splintery, less than silt low volume); drills slow; can heave or fracture
green, maroon, tan, carbonaceous in well; will usually predominate cuttings due
yellow to heaving

Limestone white, grey, tan, dense, crystalline, will react with weak solution of can produce gas, oil or water; may produce
buff, brown, black, oolitic, chalky, shaly, HCl, may have pale yellow mineral from fractures with no visible porosity seen;
pink, red, green sandy, granular, clastic, fluorescence, generally hard with may contain H2 S; generally drills and cores
mealy, fossiliferous jagged edges when broken hard; non abrasive to bit

Lignite black, brown slick, shiny, rough, dries while obse rving, will float on non productive; will give off methane; drills
looks like asphalt or water when dry, will burn fast; thick beds only found at shallow depths
coal

Anhydrite white, grey, massive (no crystals) will not react with weak HCl, non productive; will generally cause mud
colourless forms white precipitate when viscosity to increase
reacted with BaCl2

Pyrite gold, brass crystals non productive; occurs in small amounts only

Salt colourless, white granular, cubic crystals taste, dissolves easily in water non productive; drills very fast; will dissolve
(halite) in mud, crystals not seen in sample, but
increases mud viscosity and chloride content

Shells, white, grey, black, amorphous generally react with weak HCl, productive when associated with fossiliferous
fossils brown, red may have mineral fluorescence limestone

Gypsum white, grey granular, fibrous, soft, often looks like sugar non productive; often found around salt domes
crystals

Calcite colourless, white, crystals (many shaped) Reacts with weak HCl, may have Oil fluoresence may be found
varicoloured mineral fluorescence

Table 4-5a: Sample Evaluation

Rock Colour Texture Tests to identify Remarks

type
Glauconite bright to dark green amorphous generally found embedded in sand non productive; usually found in small
or shale amounts

Dolomite colourless, white, dense, crystalline, reacts slowly with weak HCl, may produce oil, gas or water; produces from
pink, tan, grey, massive, porous, compared to calcite fractured or porous zones
black, buff fossiliferous

Chert blue, grey amorphous very hard non productive; drills very slow; occurs in
small amounts

Table 4-5b: Sample Evaluation

Texture Hand sample Microscope sample Remarks
Compact crystalline, hard, dense, sharp edges and matrix made up of tightly interlocking primary porosity up to 3% never permeable
crystalline smooth faces when broken, resinous or crystals allowing no visible pore space if no secondary porosity; becomes
vitreous appearance, shiny fracture between crystals; commomly producing permeable over 5% primary porosity; when
feather edge on breaking due to the 10 to 15% porosity occurs can be
fracturing of clusters of crystals in thin commercial reservoir
flakes

Chalky dull, earthy, chalky; no crystalline
appearance because small crystals are less
tightly interlocked, thus reflecting light in
different directions, or may be made up of
very fine granules or sea organisms; may
be siliceous or argillaceous; fractures have
earthy look
crystals less effectively interlocking
compared to the above, joining at
different angles (imbricated packing);
grain size generally less than 0.05mm
primary porosity up tp 30%, becoming
permeable at 15%; can form commercial
reservoirs over 25% porosity and over 0.1
md permeability; may require larger
porosity development to become
commercial because of fine chalky powder
between the crystals

Granular sandy or sucrosic appearance; crystal sizes crystals interlocking at different angles, primary porosity up to 25%, becomes
saccharoidal very fine 0.05mm generally allowing space for permeable at 10% porosity, and
fine 0.10 mm considerable porosity between crystals; commercial at 15% porosity with over 0.1
medium 0.20 mm oolitic and similar textures fall into this md permeability
coarse 0.40 mm class

Table 4-6: Classification of Carbonate Reservoir Rocks (after Archie)

 SECTION 5
HYDROCARBON DETECTION

5.1 INTRODUCTION
This is one of the most important analyses performed by the SDL engineer. Immediately after preparing a washed and sieved
sample on the sample tray, a check for any hydrocarbon must be performed.

Information regarding the hydrocarbon potential of a formation is collated from a variety of sources including gas detectors,
visible oil staining and bleeding from cuttings and cores, smell, acid bounce test, direct fluorescence of cuttings and cores,
solvent cuts.

During drilling, routine evaluation includes the observation of direct fluorescence, solvent cut type and discolouration, and
solvent cut fluorescence from cuttings samples.

The isopropanol and acetone tests requiring dried samples are more time consuming than those performed on microscope
cuttings samples. As special tests they can provide confirmation of good indications from the routine tests, and may indicate the
nature of the detected liquid hydrocarbons.

Note The harmful nature of acetone is such that Halliburton Sperry-Sun SDL no longer use this test. A discussion has
been included in this manual to allow interpretation to be made from offset well data where this test may have been performed.

5.2 ROUTINE TESTS

5.2.1 Direct Fluorescence

Lightly washed cuttings, sidewall cores or core chips are observed under long wave ultraviolet light. Fresh, wet material must
be used since very light oils or condensates may not fluoresce after drying. The colour, intensity and distribution of the
fluorescence are noted.

A qualitative indication of the gravity of the oil may be inferred from the colour. Darker colours (browns) are associated with
heavier crudes and lighter colours (yellows) are associated with light oils. Refined oils (low toxicity base oils) are often used as
a mud additive during drilling. These may display a bluish-white fluorescence. When drilling with oil based mud it is essential
that a mud sample be available for analysis under the UV light.

Fluoroscopic examination of cuttings allows an assessment of percentage cuttings showing fluorescence, and also allows a
rough estimation of API gravity of the oil as seen in table 5-1.

Weight API gravity ? Colour

2 - 10 Non fluorescent - dull brown

Heavy 10 - 18 yellow-brown - gold

Light 18 - 45 gold - pale yellow

over 45 blue white - white

Table 5-1: Assessment of Natural Fluorescence

In addition to entrapped or contaminant hydrocarbons, the constituent minerals of the rock may contribute to the sample
fluorescence. Examination of the solvent cut fluorescence is required because mineral fluorescence will not be leached into the
solvent.

The intensity of the sample fluorescence may indicate the fluid content of reservoir rocks, since although oil and gas may still
present below the oil-water contact, fluorescence is of lower intensity.

Intensity is reported as none; very weak; weak; moderate; good; bright.

Distribution should be reported as none; pinpoint, few scattered spots; spotted; patchy, common spot occurrences; mottled,
laminated, or streaked; even, spread throughout.

5.2.2 Solvent Cuts

A few cuttings are placed in one of the dimples of a porcelain test plate and a few drops of solvent (isopropanol) are added.
Black tape should be placed over the dimples to enhance the fluorescence of the cuttings.

The cut is the coloration imparted to the solvent by the sample when observed with the naked eye. The colour and type of cut
is reported. The heavier oils usually give stronger cuts than light oils for a given concentration but oils of equal gravity show
appreciable differences according to their chemical composition. Napthenic (asphaltic) oils generally show darker cuts than
alkanid (paraffinic) oils. Condensate will give a light to very light cut. In addition to the cut, an oil ring can often be observed
on the side of the test plate after the evaporation of the solvent.

Note All solvents must be checked under UV light for purity before using, since they can become contaminated. Pure
solvents will not fluoresce.

An alternative method facilitating colour description is as follows.

Place 1 cc of crushed cuttings and 2 cc of solvent into a 10 cc test tube and shake. Allow the rock to settle and hold the tube to
the light or against a sheet of white paper.

The type of solvent cut, ie streaming, blooming, or slow is noted; this might be a quantitative indicator of hydrocarbon
saturation and/or permeability.

The cut fluorescence colour and intensity is also recorded by placing the test plate or test tube under ultraviolet light, taking
care to fill a test tube or an empty dimple of the test plate with pure solvent as a control.

It is sometimes useful to withdraw some of the solvent with a pipette from the test plate and to drop it on a piece of filter
paper. A brown ring may be formed and/or the spot may fluoresce.

Halliburton Sperry-Sun SDL uses Isopropanol as its standard solvent. Refer to the sheet in Appendix A for details on the
properties of this chemical.

5.3 SPECIAL TESTS

5.3.1 Light Oil and Condensate Detection in Rock Specimens

Acetone Test (old test- not normally done and for reference only)
Acetone tests are used to indicate the presence of otherwise colourless light oil or condensates. Acetone shows coloration from
carbonaceous material and so is not satisfactory for colour observation. It is suggested that acetone tests be made for rock
specimens having an odour or whose content is of a doubtful nature particularly if the samples cannot be tested with gas
analysis instruments.

As stated in the introduction to this section, the acetone test is no longer performed by Halliburton Sperry-Sun SDL. This
discussion is for information only, should acetone tests be mentioned in connection with previous wells.

The procedure for an acetone test is outlined below.

1. Select clean pieces of sample which have been carefully dried, and not overheated.

2. Grind up the sample until individual grains are separated. Care must be taken to avoid any contamination of the sample.

3. Put 3 cm material into a dry test tube, fill up with acetone to 1 cm above the sample, mix well, wait 15 to 20 minutes, and
then filter.

4. Add an equal volume of distilled water to the filtrate. The solution may turn milky white.

5. Report the density of this milky white discolouration as indicated in table 5-2.

Reaction Interpretation

zero not diagnostic

weak not diagnostic

moderate light oil or condensate

good light oil or condensate

Table 5-2: Acetone Test Results

Note When oil-based mud is used, the reaction is always weak.

5.3.2 Heavy Oil Detection in Rock Specimens

Isopropanol Test
Put about 3 cm of freshly powdered, drilling mud-free rock into a test tube. Add Isopropanol up to 1 cm above the powdered
sample and shake well. Wait 15 to 20 minutes, then report the coloration of solvent.

Colour Interpretation

clear no hydrocarbons

very light light hydrocarbons

light tea

normal tea

dark tea

dark coffee heavy hydrocarbons

Table 5-3: Isopropanol Test Cuts

5.4 EVALUATION AND DESCRIPTION OF SHOWS
There are many factors which have to be taken into consideration when evaluating an oil show in the cuttings samples. A
description of hydrocarbon shows should include

1. Percent of sample stained, colour of staining, and state of hydrocarbon, ie live oil stain (LOS), dead oil stain (DOS), or gas.

Examining cuttings covered in water under the fluoroscope gives an indication of the state or life of the oil. With high gas
content, oil tends to float readily to the surface of the water and spread rapidly. Dead or residual oils tend to be released very
slowly and form a scum, usually with a very dull fluorescence.

2. Occurrence and colour of fluorescence. The colour of fluorescence ranges from dull yellow to light yellow to light blue.
Refer to Table 5-1.

3. Reaction to cutting agent, ie flash cut (an immediate and short-lived dispersal of oil from rock sample into cutting medium),
cloudy cut (the oil leaves the rock sample and enters the cutting medium in a manner similar to an expanding cloud),
streaming cut (individual streams of oil can be seen leaving the rock sample), crush cut (occurs only upon crushing the sample
in the cutting medium, indicating little or no permeability), bleeding gas (individual gas bubbles seen leaving rock sample). All
types of cuts can be graded as poor, fair, or good, depending on the intensity of fluorescence in the cutting medium.

Since shales act as source rocks, periodic crush cut tests will help to establish their source potential.

5.5 FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE A SHOW

5.5.1 Rock Properties

The type and magnitude of porosity and permeability greatly influences the magnitude or amount of the show. Highly porous
and permeable rocks are rapidly, and often completely, flushed by the mud filtrate. Thus there may be a large show in the mud
stream, detected by oil in the pits, while the cuttings will have very little residual oil and only a slight show. Impermeable
rocks tend to retain their formation fluids throughout the drilling process, so there will be a small show in the mud stream but a
comparatively larger show in the cuttings samples.

Vuggy or fracture porosity has very high permeability coupled with very simple pore geometry. This type of rock may be
flushed almost entirely of its contained fluids the instant it is penetrated, so that shows will be quite small even for good
producing intervals.

5.5.2 Type of Hydrocarbon

In general, heavy oil will be flushed away less easily than light oils or gas.

The static reservoir condition will govern the gas-in-mud and oil-in-mud concentrations.
Dry gas and distillate reservoirs are difficult to evaluate because of the lack of oil in either the mud or the cuttings. For these, a
chromatographic analysis of the mud gas is useful. An oil reservoir is easier to detect because the cuttings provide evidence.

5.5.3 Drilling Rate

The magnitude of the show in the drilling mud will be directly proportional to the rate of penetration because this rate governs
the rate at which hydrocarbons are added to the mud stream. A rapid penetration rate reduces the time the formation is
subjected to the high impact forces which may exist between the mud and formation fluids, thereby diminishing the flushing
effect.

5.5.4 Density and Viscosity of the Drilling Fluid

The greater the density or weight of the drilling fluid, the greater will be the pressure differential existing between the mud and
the formation fluid pressure, resulting in increased flushing action. Jet drilling bits also increase the flushing action. If the mud
is too light, there will be a tendency for the formation higher up the hole to bleed gas into the mud and provide an undesirable
background of gas.

When the mud has a high viscosity the release of the gas from the mud is inhibited. If the mud is not degassed, the gas detector
will show a large background reading. Care must be taken to adjust the range of the gas detector to prevent saturation as the gas
levels build up. Saturation of the detector would mask any new hydrocarbon shows, apart from the obvious safety hazards.

5.5.5 Depth of Well

A deep well is usually associated with high pressure differentials and slow drilling rates, both of which will reduce the
magnitude of any shows. In deep wells the hole size is usually smaller so that less rock is pulverised per foot of penetration.

Circulation times are longer, resulting in greater chances for mixing and dilution of the cuttings. All of these tend to reduce the
magnitude of the shows in these holes.

Direct fluorescence Solvent cut in natural light Solvent cut in UV light

Colour Intensity Type Colour Colour Intensity
blue/white good streaming colourless blue/white good
white moderate blooming light yellow white moderate
yellow weak slow yellow milky white weak
yellow brown zero yellow brown green brown zero
grey dark brown
green brown

Table 5-4: Description of Shows

5.5.6 Miscellaneous Drilling Conditions

Occasionally one will encounter an anomalous show, ie one that just does not seem valid.

For gas shows, suspect the addition of some chemicals to the mud. Some additives used in the mud may cause the mud to foam.
Occasionally the driller will put a pipe float valve in the drill string to prevent plugged bits in a badly caving hole. This means
the drill pipe may be full of air because circulation is resumed on trips. Seven or eight thousand feet of air associated with the
trip gas can make quite a blow and until the SDL engineer is aware of what is happening, this can look like a good gas show.

5.6 CUTTINGS GAS (Old test, generally not done- reference only)
Blender results are important in assessing features of the show, i.e. whether the formation is tight or not.
The ability of cuttings to retain gas in the pores of the rock is inversely proportional to the permeability of that rock.

Also, the larger molecules are more likely to be retained than lighter molecules, such as methane and ethane. Consequently,
chromatographic analysis of cuttings gas samples may aid in the identification of potential source rocks.
 SECTION 6
INTERPRETATION OF CUTTINGS

6.1 INTRODUCTION
The primary purpose of collecting drill cuttings samples is to determine the stratigraphy of the formations being drilled. This
allows the logging geologists at the wellsite to make correlations between the current well and offset well data, so that the depth at
which the target horizons will be penetrated can be more accurately estimated. Seismic formation top predictions can also be
reassessed as each key reflecting horizon is encountered.

Although cuttings samples allow the logging geologist to determine the rock types being drilled, it should be remembered that the
samples themselves are composites of at best a 10 foot interval. Any stratigraphic variation within this interval cannot be detected
by cuttings analysis alone. This is illustrated in the example below.

Example
A cuttings sample was collected which represented a 10 foot interval. Subsequent analysis showed it to be comprised of 50%
sandstone and 50% claystone. A number of interpretations were possible.
Figure 6-1: Interpretations From Cuttings
The above do not allow for the
presence of caved material, the effects
of lost circulation, the effects of
drilling fluid hydraulics, etc., which
would allow an even greater range of
(erroneous) interpretations to be made
(section 6.5).

Clearly some way of interpreting the

samples which does not rely solely on
the cuttings themselves must be
found. A more frequent sample
interval, e.g. 1 foot, appears to solve
these problems but is impractical at
even moderate drilling rates.

The solution is to consider the

response of drilling parameters
measurable at the surface. The key
parameters are rate of penetration
and torque, but weight on bit, bit
rotary speed and pump rate must also
be considered.

6.2 RATE OF PENETRATION

The rate of penetration (ROP) through a rock is governed primarily by the porosity of the rock. The greater the porosity, the faster
the penetration will be. Since porosity is a fundamental characteristic of a formation, it follows that ROP must be a good indicator of
porosity and hence lithological change.
Variations in ROP can therefore be used to detect transitions from one rock type to another, or to detect change in the internal
characteristics of a given formation.

These changes are referred to as drilling breaks, with transition to a faster rate being termed a positive break, and to a slower rate
being a negative break.

The depths at which drill breaks occur indicate the formation tops, and should be logged onto worksheets and lithologs.

Sharp breaks are expected when passing from one rock type to another which is quite different, e.g. sandstone and claystone
interbedded sequences.

Progressive breaks will occur if the formation changes gradually, eg in a fining upward sequence where coarse material is found at
the base of the formation, but grades into finer material at the top. In such a case, penetration would show a gradual increase in rate
as the formation is drilled from the top down.

All positive drill breaks must be investigated by taking a spot sample when the cuttings associated with the break reach the surface.
If the drill break occurs at a depth which may be a target zone, a flow check should be recommended before circulating bottoms up.

If the well program requires a core to be taken, it is imperative that the driller be informed after no more than 5 feet are drilled at the
faster rate. The client company geologist can be informed once the flow check is underway. A decision to circulate the last drilled
cuttings to the surface (CBU) before resuming drilling can then be taken.

6.3 TORQUE
This is less clearly definable than ROP in terms of lithological indications. The importance in the case of torque is not the numerical
value, but more the change in character of the torque trace on a time based log.

Some rocks are sticky, others abrasive, still others may be hard and competent. All will therefore cause different reactions as a drill
bit is rotated within them.

In general, one can say that an increase in torque together with a positive drill break is indicative of a sand or sandstone being
penetrated.

Torque increase coupled with ROP reduction is more ambiguous. This could indicate that a sticky shale is now being drilled, but
equally could indicate problems developing with the bit bearings.

Reduction in torque coupled with reduction in ROP may mean that a particularly hard, competent rock such as chert is now being
drilled. Alternatively the teeth may be extremely worn, although the bearings still intact.

To summarise, all torque changes (as well as ROP change) should be investigated by collecting a spot sample when the cuttings
associated with the change reach the surface. Torque variation should be used as a prompt for further investigation. All changes
should be noted o n worksheets and lithologs, and significant changes reported to the driller and company man immediately.

6.4 OTHER DRILLING PARAMETERS

Penetration rate and torque can also be affected by alterations made to the drilling parameters by the driller, whose job it is to get the
best performance from the bit. As a result he may deem it necessary to alter the weight on the bit (WOB), bit rotary speed (RPM),
or pump rate (SPM).

Almost all SDL units have sensors to monitor these parameters. If changes in ROP or torque are noticed, the first action of the
logging engineer is to check these drilling parameters for change. If the realtime displays show that the driller has not altered
anything, the change in ROP or torque can be considered to be downhole, and the necessary reports made.
6.5 COMPLICATING FACTORS

6.5.1 Drilling Fluid Flow Regimes

In order to protect the open hole against erosion, and so optimise wireline log quality, it is desirable for the drilling fluid to be
pumped at such a rate that the flow regime is laminar in all annular sections. In any given well, the most critical section from this
point of view is the one with the minimum annular size, i.e. the drill collars in open hole section. By maintaining laminar flow, the
erosive turbulence associated with the alternative transitional and turbulent flow regimes can be avoided.
Very simply, laminar flow can be considered analogous to a pack of playing cards. The fluid is contained within adjacent planes. If
force is applied from below, those planes experiencing the least friction will move most rapidly. Thus planes in the central part of the
annulus move fastest as they are only in contact with other mud planes. The planes adjacent to the open hole walls will experience
greatest friction and so move slowest. This is also true, although to a lesser extent, of those planes in contact with the drill string.
As a consequence of this differential friction, there will exist a differential fluid velocity across the annulus. Any cuttings entrained
within the central planes will therefore reach the surface earlier than those entrained in the marginal planes. The cuttings samples
reflect this by having traces of previously drilled lithologies continuing to appear in the samples long after the formation itself has
been drilled through. These must be disregarded when interpreting the stratigraphy downhole.
Consideration of penetration rates and drilling torques assist in deciding if the traces are due to fluid hydraulic delays or real, but
thin, interbeds.

6.5.2 Cuttings Slip

The difference in density between the drilling fluid and rock material will cause the cuttings to drop down through the mud column.
It is essential that the mud is pumped at such a rate that the upward movement of the mud exceeds this downward cuttings slip,
thereby cleaning the hole of cuttings.
Calculation of cuttings slip velocity, and hence delay in cuttings reaching the surface, is very complicated and rarely done without
the use of a computer. The Insite/Planit hydraulics software packages calculate slip velocity and cuttings arrival delay.
Delays of several minutes, between the mud from a desired depth and the associated cuttings from that depth, are possible. This
should be borne in mind when interpreting stratigraphy.

6.5.3 Lost Circulation

If full returns are not reaching the surface, this will have an effect on the lag times. Cuttings will still reach the surface, but will
appear to come from much greater depths if the loss rate is not accounted for. In this situation, carbide lag checks should be
performed at much greater frequency than normal.
The presence of Lost Circulation Material (LCM) in the cuttings samples may make interpretation more difficult. Ensure that
samples of all LCM types in the mud are obtained from the mud engineer as soon as they are added.

6.5.4 Tripping Without Circulating Bottoms Up

If a sample has not reached the surface prior to a trip, and it is decided not to circulate bottoms up, the sample will become confused.
Firstly the drill string is pulled up through it, while cuttings slip separates the differing density rocks, and finally the new bit is run
back through the mud.
The digital pump stroke counters can be left on their final values in anticipation of catching the sample once circulation has been
resumed, but this must be noted on the logs and on any samples returned to shore. Samples of this type rarely prove to be of any use.

6.5.5 Underbalanced Drilling

When drilling impermeable formations with a drilling fluid whose hydrostatic head is less than the pore pressure of the formation,
there is a tendency for the formation to bulge into the well bore. Eventually this becomes so pronounced that the rock fails, and
pieces of rock fall into the wellbore. When these formations are claystone or shale, they are referred to as sloughing shales.
The material falling into the well becomes mixed with the drilled cuttings in the drilling fluid, so that a combination of drilled
cuttings and these pressure cavings is collected at the surface.
Recognition of cavings is important both from the point of view of interpreting the stratigraphy of the formations being drilled, and
also because the bulging clays could trap the drillstring in the hole if proper action is not taken.
Pressure cavings tend to be elongated in one direction, with a concave appearance. Their size increases as the degree of
underbalance increases. Usually they are discovered in the contents of the coarse sieve after washing. If this is so, then the past few
microscope samples should be re-examined to detect the first appearance of caved material. Once recognised in the coarse sample,
they are relatively easy to spot under the microscope.

Example of pressure caving

6.5.6 Bit Type

Some bit types produce characteristic cuttings which are a function of their operating principles.

Rock Flour
Polycrystalline Diamond Compact (PDC or Stratapax) bits may pulverise certain rock types resulting in a powder rather than
distinct cutting being produced. This is also true of diamond bits.
In particular, some sandstones and anhydrite are affected by this. The cuttings sample will contain soft, plastic, amorphous blobs.
These can easily be lost in the washing process, so if there is no evidence of an anticipated rock type in the samples, check the
desander or desilter for this powder.

PDC Bits and Claystone

The planing action of the PDC bit on the bottom produces a characteristic cutting in claystones. Unlike wood which produces a curly
shaving when planed, the clay cutting will break as it curls. however, a great deal of heat is produced during cutting which "welds"
the cutting together on one side.
The result is a cutting which looks fissile on one side, the inside of the curl, and smooth on the outside. This has often led to
claystones being reported as shales. The bit metamorphism which occurs as a result of heat generated while drilling can lead to the
cutting being harder and more brittle than it should be. The only advantage of these cuttings is that they are easily distinguished
from caved material.

Example of PDC shale cuttings

 SECTION 7
CASE STUDY - THE BRENT FIELD

7.1 HYDROCARBON PLAYS

7.1.1 Definition
A hydrocarbon play is an assessment of the likelihood of discovering a commercial accumulation of hydrocarbons in a given
location.

It is a combination of four factors. These are

1. The likelihood of the existence of a sealed trap at some point in geological time.

2. The likelihood of the presence of a porous and permeable reservoir rock.

3. The likelihood of the migration of oil and/or gas through the reservoir at some point of geological time.

4. The likelihood that trap formation predated hydrocarbon formation, and consequently the likelihood that an accumulation of
hydrocarbons is preserved in the reservoir today.

Within the area defined as the play (the fairway), there will be prospects which may fulfil the categories listed above. Some of
the factors such as trap geometry will be unique to each prospect, while others are controlled on a more regional scale and so
are related to the play as a whole. This would include the likelihood of the presence of a reservoir unit, which can only be
assessed from study of palaeogeographic, diagenetic and depositional models.

7.1.2 Northern North Sea Plays

Many of the structures forming plays in this area are related to extensional faulting associated with rifting. This was
periodically active during the Triassic to Cretaceous, ending in the Tertiary. A period of basinal subsidence was then initiated
which continues to the present.

Generation and migration of hydrocarbons began in the Upper Jurassic source rocks towards the end of the Cretaceous,
favouring most Mesozoic structural traps.

The Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary traps formed after this migration had started, but the relative lack of structural activity in
the area meant that these accumulations were not disturbed, and so preservation here was also favourable.
 Figure 7-1: Northern North Sea Structure
The primary controlling factors on the development of North Sea play fairways is the maturity of the Upper Jurassic source
rocks, which only reach full potential in the deeply buried Mesozoic grabens, and the predominance of vertical hydrocarbon
migration.

The other main factor is the distribution of the reservoir rocks which range from Devonian to Eocene. It is on this criterion that
the major North sea plays have been classified.

7.2 THE BRENT FIELD

The Shell/Esso Brent field belongs to the most prolific of the Northern North Sea plays, with Brent itself discovered in 1971.
This Lower to Middle Jurassic sandstone play yields primarily oil from the Upper Jurassic Kimmeridge Clay source rock. The
trap is formed by rotation of fault blocks on the western margins of the North Viking Graben which occurred during the
Jurassic and early Cretaceous. Onlapping Cretaceous shales deposited during marine transgression form the top seal, resulting
in a part structural, part stratigraphic trap.
Figure 7-2: The Brent Field Structure
Oil is produced from two major formations in the Brent field. These are the Late Triassic to Lower Jurassic Statfjord formation,
and the Middle Jurassic Brent formation. The Dunlin Group separates these units.

7.2.1 The Source Rock

Figure 7-3: The Heather And Kimmeridge Formations

Although more than one source rock exists in this play, by far the most important is the Kimmeridge Clay (Early Oxfordian to
Portlandian of the Upper Jurassic). This is an extremely well distributed shale deposited when much of the present UK and
northwestern European land masses were submerged by a marine transgression.

Kimmeridge Clay

Description

In block 211, the Kimmeridge Clay is dark grey-brown to black, non calcareous, carbonaceous claystone, which may be fissile
in places. This has extremely high radioactivity, with levels of over 100 API on the ?-ray log defining the boundaries of the
formation. It is also characterised by high resistivity, low sonic velocity, and low density (both from logs and from shale
density measurements).
The upper boundary of the Kimmeridge in the Brent field is formed by the Cimmerian unconformity which separates the
Kimmeridge from overlying Cretaceous shales of the Cromer Knoll group.

Depositional Environment

The depositional environment was one of high organic productivity, low bottom circulation and high depositional rates
resulting in the preservation of an immense quantity of organic material. Total Organic Carbon values for the Kimmeridge of
the North Sea range from 2 to 12%, averaging 5%, which classifies it as very good in terms of generation of hydrocarbons.

Heather Formation
Below the Kimmeridge Clay, the Heather Formation is found. This is characterised on logs by a much lower ?-ray. The rock
itself is dominantly silty grey claystone, with limestone streaks and carbonaceous areas in the upper portion, and hard,
calcareous, and micaceous in the lower. The Heather can be a minor source rock in some parts of this play.

7.2.2 Reservoir rocks

There are two producing formations in the Brent field. These are the Brent Unit and Statfjord Formation.

Statfjord Formation
This formation is of lower Jurassic age, dating from Rhaetian to Hettangian. It is subdivided into three members; the Raude, the
Eiriksson, and the Nansen.

Figure 7-4: Statfjord Formation

Description

The Raude is mainly comprised of claystone at the base, which is red-brown, firm, locally silty, calcareous, and micaceous.
Also present, but decreasing towards the base, is grey, medium grained sandstone. Traces of limestone and dolomite also occur.
Above this are found interbedded sandstones and shales. The sandstones are fine to medium grained, micaceous with a kaolinite
matrix. The shales are silty, dark green to grey in colour. Traces of white to pink crystalline limestone and dolomite also occur.
The Eiriksson member is mostly sandstone with some shale interbeds. The sandstones are white to light grey, massive,
medium to very coarse grained and sometimes pebbly, there is some kaolinite matrix, and the top of the member is glauconitic.
The shales are hard, grey and carbonaceous. These sediments have less matrix, and appear to be more mature than the
underlying Raude member sandstones.

The base of the uppermost member, the Nansen, is formed of white, glauconitic, medium to coarse grained sandstone, with
calcite cement. Thin shales with marine fossils are present. The top of the Nansen member is known (informally) as the
Calcareous sandstone bed. This is white, glauconitic and medium to coarse grained. In the Brent field this takes the form of a
sandy limestone.

Depositional Environment

The Raude member appears to represent a transition from continental deposits to the lower alluvial plain and braided stream
environments of the main Eiriksson member. Towards the top of this member the presence of coarse sandstones with pebble
beds, together with cross bedding (core analysis) suggest a coastal environment. The structureless uppermost sandstones, with
their glauconitic content, suggest a shallow marine, high energy environment.

Oil Type

Oil of 38.5? API gravity, with Gas Oil Ratio (GOR) 1400 to 4700 scf/bbl is produced from the Statfjord formations. In the
Brent field the hydrocarbon column is 900 feet thick, of which 465 feet is gas cap. The reservoir is encountered at 9400 feet
depth.

Reservoir porosity is in the range 10 to 26%, with permeability to 5500 md.

Brent Unit

This is in fact composed of five sub-units; Broom, Rannoch, Etive, Ness, and Tarbert. The initials of these form the acronym
BRENT. Broom is the oldest, Tarbert the youngest in the sequence. All the units are of Bajocian age in the Brent field. Some of
the uppermost units may be Bathonian in age, however this is often eroded depending on the tilting of the fault blocks.

The best developed reservoir units occur within the Rannoch and Etive formations.

Description

Broom is pale grey to brown, coarse grained, poorly sorted, conglomeratic sandstones, containing shale clasts. It may be
kaolinitic in places, and contain unstable accessory minerals. it has been described as a degraded arkose.

Rannoch is comprised of light brown, fine grained, well sorted, friable, extremely micaceous sandstone. The lower part is more
argillaceous, and contains micaceous siltstones and thin shales. Thin tightly cemented calcareous horizons may occur. Towards
the top the formation becomes more homogeneous.

The micaceous content of the Rannoch distinguishes it from the sandstones above and below. This is reflected in ?-ray logs
also. The profile of the log suggests a coarsening upward sequence.

Etive is brown to grey, massive, fine to medium grained, clean, non-micaceous, cross bedded sandstone.

The lack of mica easily distinguishes Etive from the underlying Rannoch formation. There is a correspondingly lower ?-ray
response. The upper boundary is taken as being the first significant argillaceous bed in the overlying unit.
The Ness formation is an interbedded sequence of sandstone and shales, with subordinate siltstones and coals. All rock types
are carbonaceous throughout, with a number of rootlet horizons (core data). The sandstones are grey-brown, clean, medium to
fine grained, and fairly well sorted. The shales are dark grey, silty, fissile, and usually pyritic and micaceous.

The lower boundary with the Etive Formation is taken as the first significant argillaceous bed, and this coincides with the
appearance of coals. The upper boundary is seen as a change to the cleaner, more massive sandstones of the Tarbert Formation.
this may be a minor disconformity. There are distinct breaks in both ?-ray and sonic logs.

The uppermost formation within the Brent unit is the Tarbert formation. This consists of grey to brown, relatively massive,
fine to medium grained sandstone with subordinate thin siltstone, shale and coal beds. Some calcareous bands may also occur.

The base of the Tarbert is the top of the last prominent argillaceous bed in the underlying Ness formation. The upper boundary
is marked by a clear change to the argillaceous sediments of the Heather formation.

Depositional Environment

It is generally agreed that the Brent Unit represents a major regressive phase, with fluviodeltaic and shallow marine deposits
recognisable within it.

Broom, Rannoch and Etive were deposited in coastal and shallow marine environments and represent the northward
progradation of a delta complex.

Broom has been interpreted in a variety of ways, but most likely as a sub-littoral sand sheet.

The micaceous Rannoch formations are thought to be delta front deposits, with mica concentrated along the low angle cross
beds. This can inhibit vertical fluid flow through reservoir sections.

Massive, well sorted sands comprising the Etive Formation are assigned to sub-environments within a barrier bar complex.
Localised high permeability horizons correspond to channel lag deposits. Both Rannoch and Etive occur as extensive sand
sheets.

The overlying, coaly Ness formation represents delta top or delta plain deposition in back barrier lagoons or alluvial plains,
with more detailed environments such as distributary channels, levees and coal swamps recognised within it. Where stacked
channel sands occur, the Ness can be an important contributor to the reservoir. An important marker horizon, the Mid-Ness
shale, occurs extensively throughout the east shetland basin, and was probably deposited during a period of widespread
lagoonal conditions.

Figure 7-5: Environment of Brent Formation

Tarbert was probably marginal marine, and represents the reworking of the delta plain deposits occurring at the onset of the
southward migrating marine transgression which deposited the overlying Upper Jurassic shales. It consists of a stacked
sequence of upwardly coarsening coastal to shallow marine sandstones which pass laterally into the Heather shales.

Oil Type

The Brent Unit yields oil at 36? API gravity, and GOR 1400 to 2000 scf/bbl. The hydrocarbon column is 740 feet of which 260
feet is gas cap. The top of the reservoir occurs at 8700 feet.

Reservoir porosity in the Brent Unit ranges from 7 to 37%.

Dunlin Unit
Brent and Statfjord are separated by the Dunlin Unit, which is almost exclusively composed of marine siltstones and shales. It
is subdivided into four formations; the oldest is Amundsen, Burton, Cook, and the youngest is Drake. Although elsewhere in
block 211 it contains producing horizons (Dunlin field), in the Brent field it yields no hydrocarbons.

Description

The Amundsen consists of light to dark grey, firm, non-calcareous shales and siltstones, both of which are pyritic and
carbonaceous in part. Thin fine to coarse grained, grey, glauconitic sandstones are present.

The Cook is dominantly marine siltstone with minor grey, silty claystones. Some sandy streaks may occur.

Burton is a uniform development of dark grey to reddish grey, soft, calcareous claystone and shale.

The Drake formation can be divided into two lithological types. The base is medium grey, slightly sandy, calcareous claystone,
while the upper part is dark grey to black, fissile, micaceous shale with calcareous nodules. The uppermost ten feet may contain
sandstone and shale clasts.

Depositional Environment

Water depth varied considerably during deposition of Dunlin, but was exclusively marine. It is suggested that the sediments
represent prodeltaic and delta front environments.

7.2.3 Seal Formation

To some extent the seal in the Brent field is provided by the Heather and kimmeridge clay formations, which have a combined
thickness of 84 feet in the 211/29-3 well.

The top of the Kimmeridge clay is defined clearly by the Late Cimmerian unconformity. Above this lie mudstones of Upper
Cretaceous Shetland Group (Santonian to Maastrichtian) age. This was a widespread break in sedimentation associated with
late Jurassic and early Cretaceous structural activity.

These formations provide a thick seal.

Description

These mudstones are silty, calcareous, medium grey to grey, glauconitic; occasionally pyritic, micaceous, and sub-fissile.
Traces of reddish and green mudstones also occur.

7.2.4 Migration From Source to Reservoir

Hydrocarbon migration is controlled by several factors. These are

1. Hydrocarbons will diffuse from high to low concentrations.

2. They will move from high to low pressure potentials.
3. They will rise through formation waters under buoyant forces, unless the hydrocarbons are denser than the formation fluids.
4. Hydrocarbons will move hydrodynamically if dissolved or entrained in formation waters.

There are three main steps in the migration of hydrocarbons from source rock to the eventual trap.

1. Expulsion of hydrocarbons from kerogen through the argillaceous source rock matrix.
2. Drainage of hydrocarbons through silty stringers, fractures, etc. to allow them to reach the source rock/pathway rock
interface.
3. Longer distance migration through regionally extensive permeable conduits, such as sand beds or large faults.

1 and 2 above are termed primary migration, while 3 is termed secondary migration. Leakage from the trap can be termed
tertiary migration. This may be more true of gas reservoirs.

Primary Migration
A source rock must generate at least enough hydrocarbon to saturate the source rock before any can be expelled. Recent work
in Germany, on the Hils syncline, suggests that there are three sequential routes for primary migration.

1. Lithological pathways (ie more porous interbeds within the source shale).
2. Diagenetic pathways (effects of dissolution).
3. Fracture pathways (through volumetric changes caused during hydrocarbon generation).

The exact expulsion mechanism is not yet fully understood, but microscopic studies and the relationship between maturation of
source rocks and overpressure development imply that the generation process leads to localised development of high formation
pressures, which in turn lead to the development of transient fractures (both new and reactivated). Drainage will be further
enhanced by the presence of arenaceous interbeds.

Generally, the Kimmeridge Clay of the Northern North Sea is poorly drained, except where the reservoir horizons are adjacent
to and interfingering with the source rock. This is true of Piper and Magnus fields, but is not true of Brent.

Secondary Migration
This involves the movement of hydrocarbons through regionally extensive conduits, such as permeable beds or faults.

The primary operating force here is buoyancy. Efficiency can be particularly high where the secondary migration pathways are
relatively simple.

This efficiency is controlled by the distance of travel from source to trap, and the quantity of oil left along the pathway as a
residue. Note that the pathway rocks do not have to be saturated.

Low permeability, barrier highs, or tortuous pathways can lead to zero efficiency, ie no oil reaches the trap.

Brent Field
Brent enjoys simple upflank migration along the Brent sands and Statfjord sands, with the raps at the crests of the rotated fault
blocks. Migration from the Kimmeridge clay has been downwards through the Heather formation into the Brent Group.

Migration from Brent to Statfjord is controlled by the presence of permeable fault planes which allow flow down through the
intervening Dunlin Group claystones. In many North sea areas these are absent resulting in productive brent reservoirs, but no
hydrocarbons in the underlying Statfjord horizons.