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Developmental Psychology
Contents Page
Page
27: Adolescence
29: Parenting
37: References
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Theories of Human Growth and Development
Developmental Psychology
The scientific study of human growth and development is important not only to
psychology, but also to biology, sociology, anthropology, education, history and
health care. Most important, however, are its practical applications. By better
understanding how and why people change and grow, the knowledge can be applied
to help people to reach their full potential.
There have been a number of important debates and issues throughout the history of
developmental psychology. Some of the major questions posed by psychologists
and researchers are centred on the relative contributions of genetics versus
environment and the ‘Nature V’s Nurture’ debate. Does genetic inheritance play a
larger role in influencing development and behaviour, or does the environment have
a stronger effect? Today, most psychologists recognize that both elements play an
essential role, but the debate continues.
2
A third and major issue is that of continuity. Does change occur smoothly over time,
or through a series of predetermined steps? Most theories of development fall under
three broad areas: Psychoanalytical theories: Learning theories: Cognitive theories.
These are called psychosexual stages because each stage represents the fixation of
libido on a different area of the body. As a person grows physically certain areas of
their body become important as sources of potential frustration (erogenous zones),
pleasure or both.
3
Freud believed that life was built round tension and pleasure. He also believed that
all tension was due to the build up of libido (sexual energy) and that all pleasure
came from its discharge.
In describing human personality development as psychosexual Freud meant to
convey that what develops is the way in which sexual energy accumulates and is
discharged as we mature biologically. Freud used the term 'sexual' in a very general
way to mean all pleasurable actions and thoughts.
Freud stressed that the first five years of life are crucial to the formation of adult
personality. The id must be controlled in order to satisfy social demands; this sets up
a conflict between frustrated wishes and social norms.
The ego and superego develop in order to exercise this control and direct the need
for gratification into socially acceptable channels. Gratification centres of different
areas of the body at different stages of growth, making the conflict at each stage
psychosexual.
4
5
Erik Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
Erik Erikson's (1902-1994) theory of psychosocial development is one of the best-
known theories of personality in psychology. Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson
believed that personality develops in a series of stages. Unlike Freud's theory of
psychosexual stages, Erikson's theory describes the impact of social experience
across the whole lifespan.
One of the main elements of Erikson's psychosocial stage theory is the development
of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through
social interaction. According to Erikson, our ego identity is constantly changing due
to new experiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others.
When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals,
and values that help shape and guide a person's behaviour. The formation of identity
is something that begins in childhood and becomes particularly important during
adolescence, but it is a process that continues throughout life. Our personal identity
gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self that endures and
continues to grow as we age.
In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning
point in development. In Erikson's view these conflicts are centred on either
developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During these
times, the potential for personal growth is high, but so is the potential for failure.
6
7
Learning Theories
During the first half of the twentieth century, a new school of thought known as
behaviourism rose to become a dominant force within psychology. Behaviourists
believed that psychology needed to focus only on observable and quantifiable
behaviours in order to become a more scientific discipline.
The social learning theory proposed by Albert Bandura has become perhaps the
most influential theory of learning and development. While rooted in many of the
basic concepts of traditional learning theory, Bandura believed that direct
reinforcement could not account for all types of learning.
8
His theory added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information
and behaviours by watching other people. Known as observational learning (or
modelling), this type of learning can be used to explain a wide variety of behaviours.
There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory. First is the idea
that people can learn through observation. Second is the idea that internal mental
states are an essential part of this process. Thirdly, this theory recognizes that just
because something has been learned, it does not mean that it will result in a change
in behaviour.
Observational Learning
In his famous Bobo doll experiment, Bandura demonstrated that children learn and
imitate behaviours they have observed in other people. Bandura et al (1963) carried
out a classic study on observational learning or modelling- where young children
were shown one of two films. One film showed a female adult behaving in an
aggressive way towards a Bobo doll. The other film showed a female adult behaving
non-aggressively. The children who had watched the adult behave aggressively
were much more likely to attack the bobo doll than those who had watched the non-
aggressive film.
Bandura (1965) carried out another study on aggressive behaviour. One group of
children were shown a film of an adult kicking and punching a Bobo doll. The 2nd
group saw the same aggressive behaviour performed by the adult but this time the
adult was rewarded by another adult for their behaviour. A 3rd group saw the same
aggressive behaviour, but this time the adult was punished by another adult, who
warned them not to be so aggressive in the future. Those children who had seen the
model rewarded or seen the model neither rewarded nor punished- behaved much
more aggressively to the doll than those who had seen the model punished.
Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning: A live model, which
involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behaviour: A verbal
instructional model which involves descriptions and explanations of behaviour: A
symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviours in
books, films, television programs, or online media.
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Intrinsic Reinforcement
Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to
influence learning and behaviour. He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of
internal reward, such as pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment. This
emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions helps connect learning theories to
cognitive developmental theories. While many textbooks place social learning theory
with behavioural theories, Bandura himself describes his approach as a 'social
cognitive theory.'
Not all observed behaviours are effectively learned. Factors involving both the model
and the learner can play a role in whether social learning is successful. Certain
requirements and steps must also be followed.
Attention:
In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that detracts your
attention is going to have a negative effect on observational learning. If the model is
interesting or there is a novel aspect to the situation, you are far more likely to
dedicate your full attention to learning.
Retention:
The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process.
Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up
information later and act on it is vital to observational learning.
Reproduction:
Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time to
actually perform the behaviour you observed. Further practice of the learned
behaviour leads to improvement and skill advancement.
10
Motivation:
Finally in order for observational learning to be successful, one has to be motivated
to imitate the behaviour that has been modelled. Reinforcement and punishment
play an important role in motivation. Experiencing these motivators can be highly
effective, but so can observing others experience some type of reinforcement or
punishment.
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) proposed a seminal learning theory that has gone on to
become very influential, especially in the field of education. Like Piaget, Vygotsky
believed that children learn actively and through hands-on experiences. His socio-
cultural theory also suggested that parents, caregivers, peers and the culture at large
were responsible for the development of higher order functions.
11
Cognitive Theories
Cognitive theories of development examine how thought processes and mental
operations influence growth and change. Although there is no general theory of
cognitive development, the most historically influential theory was developed by Jean
Piaget, a Swiss Psychologist (1896-1980).
His theory provided many central concepts in the field of developmental psychology
and concerned the growth of intelligence, which for Piaget, meant the ability to more
accurately represent the world, and perform logical operations on representations of
concepts grounded in the world.
The theory concerns the emergence and acquisition of schemata - schemes of how
one perceives the world - in "developmental stages", times when children are
acquiring new ways of mentally representing information.
Jean Piaget created one of the most famous theories of cognitive development,
suggesting that children are not just passive recipients of information. Instead, he
proposed that children are little scientists" who actively construct their knowledge
and understanding of the world. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development accounts
for the steps and sequence of children's intellectual development.
12
.
13
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
Moral development is a major topic of interest in both psychology and education.
One of the best known theories was developed by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg
(1927-1987) who modified and expanded upon Jean Piaget's work to form a theory
that explained the development of moral reasoning.
Kohlberg based his theory upon research and interviews with groups of young
children. A series of moral dilemmas were presented to these participants and they
were also interviewed to determine the reasoning behind their judgments of each
scenario.
A woman was near death from cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought
might save her. It was a form of radium that a chemist in the same town had recently
discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the chemist was charging ten
times what the drug cost him to make.
He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug.
The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money,
but he could only get together about $ 1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the
chemist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later.
But the chemist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from
it." So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug-for his
wife. Should the husband have done that?" (Kohlberg, 1963).
Kohlberg was not interested so much in the answer to the question of whether Heinz
was wrong or right, but in the reasoning for each participant's decision. The
responses were then classified into various stages of reasoning in his theory of
moral development.
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Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality
Stage one: Obedience and Punishment:
The earliest stage of moral development is especially common in young children, but
adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage, children
see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a means
to avoid punishment.
Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange
At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and
judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma,
children argued that the best course of action was the choice that best-served
Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral development, but only if it
serves one's own interests.
Kolhberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical principles
and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of
justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.
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Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development:
Is justice the only aspect of moral reasoning we should consider? Critics have
pointed out that Kohlberg's theory of moral development overemphasizes the
concept as justice when making moral choices. Factors such as compassion, caring
and other interpersonal feelings may play an important part in moral reasoning.
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Erickson’s Stages of Development
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Erickson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
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Physical Developmental Milestones
Physical developmental milestones are abilities that most children are able to
perform by a certain age. During the first year of a child’s life, physical milestones
are centred on the infant learning to master self-movement, hold objects and hand-
to-mouth coordination.
From 3 to 6 Months
At this age, babies begin to develop greater agility and strength. They:
Roll over
Pull their bodies forward
Pull themselves up by grasping the edge of the crib
Reach for and grasp object
Bring object they are holding to their mouths
Shake and play with objects
From 6 to 9 Months
During this time, children become increasingly mobile. They usually begin to:
Crawl
Grasp and pull object toward their own body
Transfer toys and objects from one hand to the other
From 9 to 12 Months
In addition to the major milestones such as standing up and walking, children also
begin to develop more advanced fine-motor skills. In this window of development,
most babies are able to:
Sit up unaided
Stand without assistance
Walk without help
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Pick up and throw objects
Roll a ball
Pick up objects between their thumb and one finger
From 1 to 2 Years
Children become increasingly independent and this age and tasks requiring balance
and hand-eye coordination begin to emerge. During this stage of development, most
children are able to:
From 2 to 3 Years
Building on earlier skills, children become increasingly adept at activities that require
coordination and speed. From one to three years of age, most children:
From 3 to 4 Years
Physical abilities become more advanced as children develop better movement and
balance skills. From age three to four, most children begin to:
Ride a tricycle
Go down a slide without help
Throw and catch a ball
Pull and steer toys
Walk in a straight line
Build a tall towers with toy blocks
Manipulate clay into shapes
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From 4 to 5 Years
Major developmental milestones at this age are centred on exploring the basic
senses and learning more about the body and the environment. During this period,
most infants begin to:
From 3 to 6 Months
In early infancy, perceptual abilities are still developing. From the age of three to six
months, infants begin to develop a stronger sense of perception. At this age, most
babies begin to:
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From 6 to 9 Months
To learn more about the mental processes of infants, researchers have come up with
a number of creative tasks that reveal the inner workings of the baby brain. From the
age of six to nine months, researchers have found that most infants begin to:
From 9 to 12 Months
As infants become more physically adept, they are able to explore the world around
them in greater depth. Sitting up, crawling, and walking are just a few of the physical
milestones that allow babies to gain a greater mental understanding of the world
around them. As they approach one year of age, most infants are able to:
After reaching a year of age, children's physical, social, and cognitive development
seems to grow by leaps and bounds. Children at this age spend a tremendous
amount of time observing the actions of adults, so it is important for parents and
caregivers to set good examples for behaviour. Most one-year-olds begin to:
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From 2 to 3 Years
At two years of age, children are becoming increasingly independent. Since they are
now able to better explore the world, a great deal of learning during this stage is the
result of their own experiences.
From 3 to 4 Years
Children become increasingly capable of analyzing the world around them in more
complex ways. As they observe things, they begin to sort and categorize them into
different categories, often referred to as schemas. Since children are becoming
much more active in the learning process, they also begin to pose questions about
the world around them. " At the age of three, most children are able to:
From 4 to 5 Years
As they near school age, children become better at using words, imitating adult
actions, counting and other basic activities that are important for school
preparedness. Most four-year-olds are able to:
Rhyme
Name and identify many colours
Draw the shape of a person
Count to five
Tell where they live
Draw pictures that they often name and describe
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Social Emotional Milestones
While physical developmental milestones are often some of the easiest to observe,
the early years of a child’s life are also marked by other developmental milestones,
including social and emotional ones. In many cases, these achievements can be
difficult or even impossible to identify directly since they often involve such things as
increased self-awareness. Such skills can be difficult to see, but they are just as
important as the physical milestones, especially since social and emotional skills
become so important once a child enters school.
During the first three months, babies are actively learning about themselves and the
people around them. Part of this skill-building involves:
From 3 to 6 Months
Social interaction becomes increasingly important. During this period of
development, most babies begin to:
From 6 to 9 Months
As babies get older, they may begin to show a preference for familiar people.
Between the ages of six to nine months, most children can:
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From 9 to 12 Months
As children become more social, they often begin to mimic the actions of others.
Self-regulation also becomes increasingly important at the child approaches one
year of age. Most children can:
From 1 to 2 Years
From the age of one to two years, kids often spend more time interacting with a
wider range of people. They also start to gain a greater sense of self-awareness. At
this stage, most can:
From 2 to 3 Years
During the toddler years, children become more and more creative and confident. At
two years old, most children begin to:
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From 3 to 4 Years
Because three-year-olds are becoming increasingly able to perform physical actions,
their sense of confidence and independence becomes more pronounced at this age.
During the third year, most children begin to:
Follow directions
Perform some tasks with little or no assistance
Share toys with other children
Make up games and ask other children to join in
Begin engaging in pretend play
From 4 to 5 Years
During the fourth year, children gain a greater awareness of their own individuality.
As their physical skills increase, they are more capable of exploring their own
abilities which can help lead to great confidence and personal pride. At this age,
most children begin to:
Early Childhood
Early childhood is often referred to as "pre-school age," "exploratory age" or "toy
age." When children attend preschool, they broaden their social horizons and
become more engaged with those around them. Impulses are channelled into
fantasies, which leaves the task of the caretaker to balance eagerness for pursuing
adventure, creativity and self-expression with the development of responsibility. If
caretakers are properly encouraging and consistently disciplinary, children are more
likely to develop positive self-esteem while becoming more responsible, and will
follow through on assigned activities.
As children grow their past experiences will shape who they are, allow them to
perceive the world in their own way. If not allowed to decide which activities to
perform, children may begin to feel guilt upon contemplating taking initiative. This
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negative association with independence will lead them to let others make decisions
in place of them.
Adolescence
Adolescence is the period of life between the onset of puberty and the full
commitment to an adult social role. It is the period known for the formation of
personal and social identity (Erik Erikson) and the discovery of moral purpose
(William Damon). Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbol is
related to abstract concepts and formal reasoning.
A return to egocentric thought often occurs early in the period. Only 35% develop the
capacity to reason formally during adolescence. (Huitt et al 1998)
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Early Adulthood
Early adulthood, according to theorists such as Erik Erikson, is a stage where
development is mainly focused on maintaining relationships. Examples include
creating bond of intimacy, sustaining friendships, and ultimately making a family.
Some theorists state that development of intimacy skills rely on the resolution of
previous developmental stages. A sense of identity gained in the previous stages is
also necessary for intimacy to develop. If this skill is not learned the alternative is
alienation, isolation, a fear of commitment, and the inability to depend on others.
Emerging Adulthood
A related framework for this part of the life span is that of emerging adulthood. This
concept suggests that people transition after their teenage years into a period not
characterized as relationship building and an overall sense of constancy with life, but
with years of living with parents, phases of self-discovery, and experimentation.
Middle Adulthood
Middle adulthood generally refers to the period between ages 25 to 69. During this
period, middle-aged adults experience a conflict between generativity and
stagnation. They may either feel a sense of contributing to society, the next
generation or their immediate community or a sense of purposelessness. Physically,
the middle-aged experience a decline in muscular strength, reaction time, sensory
keenness, and cardiac output. Women experience the menopause and a sharp drop
in the hormone oestrogen. Men experience an equivalent endocrine system event to
menopause. Andropause in males is a hormone fluctuation with physical and
psychological effects that can be similar to those seen in menopausal females. As
men age, lowered testosterone levels can contribute to mood swings and a decline
in sperm count and sexual function and responsiveness can be affected.
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Old Age
This stage generally refers to those aged over 70. According to Erikson's Theory of
Psychosocial Development, old age is the stage in which individuals assess the
quality of their lives. In reflecting on their lives, people in this age group develop a
feeling of integrity if deciding that their lives were successful or a feeling of despair if
evaluation of one's life indicates a failure to achieve goals.
Sexual expression depends in large part upon the emotional and physical health of
the individual. Many older adults continue to be sexually active and satisfied with
their sexual activity,
Parenting
Parenting variables alone have typically accounted for 20 to 50 percent of the
variance in child outcomes.
Parenting styles
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Authoritarian parenting is characterized by low levels of warmth and
responsiveness with high levels of demanding and firm control. These parents focus
on obedience and they monitor their children regularly. In general, this style of
parenting is associated with maladaptive outcomes. The outcomes are more harmful
for middle class boys than girls, preschool white girls than preschool black girls, and
for white boys than Hispanic boys. Furthermore, the negative effects of authoritarian
parenting among Asian Americans can be offset by positive peer support. Finally,
among African Americans, some elements of authoritarian parenting such as firm
control and physical discipline do not serve as predictive factors for negative
outcomes.
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Another argument is that neither a mother nor a father is actually essential in
successful parenting, and that single parents as well as homosexual couples can
support positive child outcomes. According to this set of research, children need at
least one consistently responsible adult with whom the child can have a positive
emotional connection. Having more than one of these figures contributes to a higher
likelihood of positive child outcomes.
Another parental factor often debated in terms of its effects on child development is
divorce. Divorce in itself is not a determining factor of negative child outcomes. In
fact, the majority of children from divorced families fall into the normal range on
measures of psychological and cognitive functioning. A number of mediating factors
play a role in determining the effects divorce has on a child; for example, divorcing
families with young children often face harsher consequences in terms of
demographic, social, and economic changes than do families with older children.
Positive co-parenting after divorce is part of a pattern associated with positive child
coping, while hostile parenting behaviours lead to a destructive pattern leaving
children at risk. Additionally, direct parental relationship with the child also affects the
development of a child after a divorce. Overall, protective factors facilitating positive
child development after a divorce are maternal warmth, positive father-child
relationship, and cooperation between parents.
Attachment Theory
Attachment theory, originally developed by John Bowlby (1907-1990), focuses on
the importance of open, intimate, emotionally meaningful relationships. Attachment is
described as a biological system or powerful survival impulse that evolved to ensure
the survival of the infant. A child who is threatened or stressed will move toward
caregivers who create a sense of physical, emotional and psychological safety for
the individual. Attachment feeds on body contact and familiarity. Later Mary
Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation protocol and the concept of the secure
base. There are four types of attachment styles: Secure: Anxious-avoidant: Anxious-
resistant: Disorganized.
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Secure attachment is a healthy attachment between the infant and the caregiver. It
is characterized by trust.
A child can be hindered in its natural tendency to form attachments. Some babies
are raised without the stimulation and attention of a regular caregiver, or under
conditions of abuse or extreme neglect. The possible short-term effects of this
deprivation are anger, despair, detachment, and temporary delay in intellectual
development. Long-term effects include increased aggression, clinging behaviour,
detachment, psychosomatic disorders, and an increased risk of depression as an
adult.
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Nature V Nurture
Nature V Nurture
33
Nature V Nurture
It has long been known that certain physical characteristics are biologically
determined by genetic inheritance. Colour of eyes, straight or curly hair,
pigmentation of the skin and certain diseases (such as Huntingdon’s chorea) are all
a function of the genes we inherit. Other physical characteristics, if not determined,
appear to be at least strongly influenced by the genetic make-up of our biological
parents.
Height, weight, hair loss (in men), life expectancy and vulnerability to specific
illnesses (e.g. breast cancer in women) are positively correlated between genetically
related individuals. These facts have led many to speculate as to whether
psychological characteristics such as behavioural tendencies, personality attributes
and mental abilities are also “wired in” before we are even born.
Those who adopt an extreme heredity position are known as nativists. Their basic
assumption is that the characteristics of the human species as a whole are a product
of evolution and those individual differences are due to each person’s unique genetic
code. Characteristics and differences that are not observable at birth, but which
emerge later in life, are regarded as the product of maturation. The classic example
of the way this affects our physical development are the bodily changes that occur in
early adolescence at puberty. Nativists also argue that maturation governs the
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emergence of attachment in infancy, language acquisition and even cognitive
development as a whole.
At the other end of the spectrum are the environmentalists – also known as
empiricists (not to be confused with the other empirical / scientific approach). Their
basic assumption is that at birth the human mind is a tabula rasa (a blank slate)
and that this is gradually “filled” as a result of experience (e.g. behaviourism). From
this point of view psychological characteristics and behavioural differences that
emerge through infancy and childhood are the result of learning.
It is how you are brought up (nurture) that governs the psychologically significant
aspects of child development and the concept of maturation applies only to the
biological. So, when an infant forms an attachment it is responding to the love and
attention it has received, language comes from imitating the speech of others and
cognitive development depends on the degree of stimulation in the environment and,
more broadly, on the civilization within which the child is reared.
In contrast Bandura's (1977) social learning theory states that aggression is a learnt
from the environment through observation and imitation. This is seen in his
famous bobo doll experiment (Bandura, 1961). Also Skinner (1957) believed that
language is learnt from other people via behaviour shaping techniques.
In practice hardly anyone today accepts either of the extreme positions. There are
simply too many “facts” on both sides of the argument which are inconsistent with an
“all or nothing” view. So instead of asking whether child development is down to
nature or nurture the question has been reformulated as “How much?”
This question was first framed by Francis Galton (1822-1911) in the late 19th
century. Galton (himself a relative of Charles Darwin) was convinced that intellectual
ability was largely inherited and that the tendency for “genius” to run in families was
the outcome of a natural superiority. This view has cropped up time and again in the
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history of psychology and has stimulated much of the research into intelligence
testing (particularly on separated twins and adopted children). A modern proponent
is the American psychologist Arthur Jenson. Finding that the average I.Q. scores of
black Americans were significantly lower than whites he went on to argue that
genetic factors were mainly responsible – even going so far as to suggest that
intelligence is 80% inherited.
The storm of controversy that developed around Jenson’s claims was not mainly due
to logical and empirical weaknesses in his argument. It was more to do with the
social and political implications that are often drawn from research that claims
to demonstrate natural inequalities between social groups.
Today, the majority of experts believe that behaviour and development are
influenced by both nature and nurture. However, the issue still rages on in many
areas such as in the debate on the origins of homosexuality and influences
on intelligence. While few people take the extreme nativist or empiricist approaches,
researchers and experts still debate the degree to which biology and environment
influence behaviour.
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