Chapter 1:

Introduction to Instrumentation and Measurements

PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT (BEKG 1233))

PART 2

Lecturer: Noor Azwan Bin Shairi

Faculty: Fakulti Kej. Elektronik dan Kej. Komputer
Topics covered in this slides:
1. Performance characteristics
– Accuracy, precision, sensitivity, errors etc

2. Error in measurement
– Absolute error, relative accuracy, precision

3. Types of errors
– Gross error/human error, Systematic Error, Random Error

4. Statistical analysis
– Arithmetic mean, deviation, average deviation, standard
deviation

5. Limiting error
 1. Performance Characteristics
• Performance Characteristics - characteristics that show the
performance of an instrument.
– Eg: accuracy, precision, resolution, sensitivity.

• Allows users to select the

most suitable instrument for a specific
measuring jobs.

• Two basic characteristics :

– Static – measuring a constant process condition.
– Dynamic - measuring a varying process condition.
Static Characteristics
• Accuracy – the degree of exactness (closeness)
of measurement compared to the expected
(desired) value.
Yn − X n
Relative accuracy, A = 1−
Yn
% Accuracy, a = 100% - % error
= A × 100
Static Characteristics
• Precision – a measure of consistency or
repeatability of measurement, i.e successive
reading do not differ.
Static Characteristics

Precision, P = 1 − X n − X n
Xn

Where X n - value of the nth measurement

X - average set of measurement
n
Static Characteristics
• Resolution – the smallest change in a
measurement variable to which an instrument
will respond.
• Sensitivity – ratio of change in the output
(response) of instrument to a change of input or
measured variable.
• Expected value – the design value or the most
probable value that expect to obtain.
• Error – the deviation of the true value from the
desired value. (covered in the next topic)
Dynamic Characteristics
• Dynamic – measuring a varying process condition.
• Instruments rarely respond instantaneously to changes
in the measured variables due to such things as mass,
thermal capacitance, fluid capacitance or electrical
capacitance.
• Pure delay in time is often encountered where the
instrument waits for some reaction to take place.
• Such industrial instruments are nearly always used for
measuring quantities that fluctuate with time.
• Therefore, the dynamic and transient behavior of the
instrument is important.
Dynamic Characteristics
• The dynamic behavior of an instrument is determined
by subjecting its primary element (sensing element) to
some unknown and predetermined variations in the
measured quantity.
• The three most common variations in the measured
quantity:
– Step change
– Linear change
– Sinusoidal change
Dynamic Characteristics

• Step change-in which the primary element is

subjected to an instantaneous and finite change
in measured variable.
• Linear change-in which the primary element is
following the measured variable, changing
linearly with time.
• Sinusoidal change-in which the primary element
follows a measured variable, the magnitude of
which changes in accordance with a sinusoidal
function of constant amplitude.
Dynamic Characteristics

• The dynamic performance characteristics of

an instrument are:
– Speed of response- The rapidity with which an instrument
responds changes in measured quantity.
– Dynamic error-The difference between the true and
measured value with no static error.
– Lag – delay in the response of an instrument to changes in
the measured variable.
– Fidelity – the degree to which an instrument indicates the
changes in the measured variable without dynamic error
(faithful reproduction).
 2. Error in Measurement
• Measurement always introduce error

• It is very difficult to define the true value. There is always

some different, either small or large, between the measured
value and the true value of the unknown quantity.

• Error may be expressed either as absolute or percentage of

error

Absolute error, e = Y n − X n , where Yn – expected value

X n – measured value
% error = Yn − X n ×100
Yn
 2. Error in Measurement
Example

Given the expected voltage value across a resistor is 80V.

The measurement is 79V. Calculate,
i. The absolute error
ii. The % of error
iii. The relative accuracy
iv. The % of accuracy
 2. Error in Measurement
Answer

i. Absolute error, e = 1V
ii. % error = 1.25%
iii. Relative accuracy, A = 0.9875
iv. % accuracy, a =98.75%
 2. Error in Measurement
Example Table 1.1
No Xn
From the value given in table 1.1, calculate 1 98
the precision of the 6th measurement 2 101
3 102
4 97
5 101
6 100
7 103
8 98
9 106
10 99
 2. Error in Measurement
Solution
the average of measurement value

98 + 101 + .... + 99 1005

Xn = = = 100.5
10 10
the 6th reading
Precision = 1 − 100 − 100.5 = 1 − 0 .5
= 0 .995
100.5 100.5
 3. Types of Error
• Types of errors

1) Systematic Error
2) Random Error
 3. Types of Error
1) Systematic Error
- due to shortcomings of the instrument (such as
defective or worn parts, ageing or effects of the
environment on the instrument)
• In general, systematic errors can be subdivided into static and
dynamic errors.
– Static – caused by limitations of the measuring device or the
physical laws governing its behavior.
– Dynamic – caused by the instrument not responding very fast
enough to follow the changes in a measured variable.

Static Error Dynamic Error

 3. Types of Error
- 3 types of systematic error :-
(i) Instrumental error
(ii) Environmental error
(iii) Observational error
 3. Types of Error
(i) Instrumental error

– inherent while measuring instrument because of their mechanical

structure (eg: friction in the bearings of various moving component,
irregular spring tension, stretching of spring, etc)

– error can be avoided by:

(a) selecting a suitable instrument for the particular
measurement application

(b) apply correction factor by determining instrumental

error

(c) calibrate the instrument against standard

 3. Types of Error
(ii) Environmental error
• due to external condition effecting the measurement
including surrounding area condition such as change in
temperature, humidity, barometer pressure, etc

• to avoid the error :-

(a) use air conditioner
(b) sealing certain component in the
instruments
(c) use magnetic shields
 3. Types of Error
(iii) Observational error
• introduce by the observer
- most common : parallax error and
estimation error (while reading the scale)
- Eg: an observer who tend to hold his head too far to
the left while reading the position of the needle on the scale.
 3. Types of Error
3) Random error
- due to unknown causes, occur when all
systematic error has accounted

- accumulation of small effect, require at

high degree of accuracy

- can be avoid by
(a) increasing number of reading
(b) use statistical means to obtain best
approximation of true value
 4. Statistical Analysis
• Statistical analysis is to separate as far as possible
the truth from error by narrowing and define the
region of doubt. To make statistical methods and
interpretations meaningful, a large number of
measurements is usually required.

• There are several type of variation that occurs in

statistical work for different purposes and
“normal law of error” is one of them and is the
basis for the major part of the study of random
error
 4. Statistical Analysis
Arithmetic mean, X n
• the sum of a set of n numbers x1, x2, .. xn
divided by the total number of pieces of data.

x1 + x2 + x3 + ... + xn
Xn =
n
 4. Statistical Analysis
Deviation, d
• the difference between each piece of test data
and the arithmetic mean.

d1 = x1 − x
 4. Statistical Analysis
Average Deviation, D
• may be used as an expression of the precision
of a measuring instrument. A low value for
average deviation indicates a precise
instrument.
d1 + d 2 + ... + d n
D=
n
 4. Statistical Analysis
Standard Deviation, S
• the degree to which the value vary about the
average value.

2 2 2
d + d + ... + d
1 2 n
S=
n −1
 4. Statistical Analysis

Example Table 2

Table 2 shows the data from the

capacitor’s measurement.
Calculate :
a) Min/Average
b) Deviation
c) Average Deviation
d) Standard Deviation
 4. Statistical Analysis
• A normal curve for error distribution is also
known as Gaussian Curve. (Bell Shaped curve).
 4. Statistical Analysis
• The assumption made for the normal law of error are:
– All observations include a large number of small random error
distributing effect
– These random error can be either +ve and –ve.
– There is and equal possibility of +ve and –ve random errors.

• The area under the normal curve within certain limits

represents the number of cases among observations with
in those deviation limits expresses as a fraction of the total
cases. The area between the limits -∞ to +∞ represents the
entire number of observations and taken as unity.
 4. Statistical Analysis
• The area under the curve between -σ and +σ
limits, represents the number of observations
that differ from mean by no more then the
standard deviation. This are determined by
integration in series and for normally
distributed data, following the Gaussian
distribution, the value is found to be 0.68 or
68% lie between the limits of ±σ.
 4. Statistical Analysis
• Corresponding values of other deviations,
expressed in terms of σ, are given in Table 1.1.

• If larger data are required, then the deviation

may be extended to a limit of ±2σ or ±3σ
 4.Statistical Analysis
• If ordinates are created at deviations of ±
r=0.6745σ, half the area under the curve is
enclosed between these limits. The quantity r
is called the probable error.

• Case 1: Probable error of one reading:

r = 0.6745σ
• Case 2: Probable error of mean :
 5. Limiting Error
• The accuracy of measuring instrument is
guaranteed within a certain percentage (%) of
full scale reading
• E.g manufacturer may specify the instrument
to be accurate at ±2 % with full scale
deflection
• For reading less than full scale, the limiting
error increases
 5. Limiting Error
Example

Given a 600 V voltmeter with accuracy ±2% full scale.

Calculate limiting error when the instrument is used to
measure a voltage of 250V?

Solution

The magnitude of limiting error, 0.02 x 600 = 12V

Therefore, the limiting error for 250V = 12/250 x 100 =
4.8%
 5. Limiting Error
Summation of Error
• When 2 or more quantity where each of them
have limiting error combined through an
equation.
• This combination normally involve addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division
operations.
• The result is describe in a or
form.
• Can be assume as an error cause by two or more
reading value which have their own error,
combined in a worst case.
 5. Limiting Error
Summation of Error
When,
• A and B = the value of instrument Any mathematic operation that used A
A and B and B will produce a summation error
• ΔA and ΔB = the limited or as:
absolute error for A and B
• %A and %B = average error for A
and B

So, the unit and error for A and B can

be written as :
• A = A + ΔA = A + %A
• B = B + ΔB = B + %B
 5. Limiting Error
Summation of Error
Example

Given for certain measurement, a limiting error for

voltmeter at 70V is 2.143% and a limiting error for
ammeter at 80mA is 2.813%. Determine the limiting error
of the power.

Solution

The limiting error for the power = 2.143% + 2.813%

= 4.956%
 5. Limiting Error
• Example

A 150 V voltmeter and 100 mA ammeter are used

to measure voltage and current in a circuit. The
dc source is in series with a resistor. Both of these
instruments has the accuracy of ±1% full scale. If
the reading on the voltmeter is 80 V and the
reading on the ammeter is 70 mA, calculate the
limiting error of the power.
(Ans: 3.29%)
 5. Limiting Error
• Example

A Current of 2.0 ± 0.01 A flows through a

resistor of 100 ± 0.2 Ω. Calculate the power
dissipated and the limiting error.
 5. Limiting Error
Solution :
• Power dissipated :

• Since the value use multiplication, so the

combined error is the addition of the percentage
error.