Chapter: Kinematics Displacement – Time Graph

Distance, Time and Speed 7. There are many kinds of displacement time graphs.
a. A straight line denotes that the object is stationary.
1. Distance is the actual length moved by an object. The position from the x axis will determine its
a. It is a scalar quantity, does not depend or is not distance from the fixed point.
affected by direction of object. b. A line slanting upwards denote that the object is
b. SI unit: Metres (m). moving at a constant speed away from the fixed
point. If it slants downwards, the object is moving
2. Displacement is the distance measured along a straight towards the observer.
line in a stated direction with respect to the original point. c. A curve denotes that the object is moving with
a. It is also known as the shortest distance from the varying speed. If the curve gets steeper, it
original point. accelerates, else it decelerates.
b. It is a vector quantity. Note: A negative displacement
denotes the object is moving backwards. 8. In the displacement – time graph, the gradient of the
c. SI unit: Metres (m) tangent at a specific point will give the velocity of the
object.
3. Speed is defined as the distance travelled by the body
per unit time.
a. It is a scalar quantity, always positive. Velocity – Time Graph
Distance travelled
b. Equation: Speed  9. The velocity – time graph can tell us certain things:
Time Taken a. Instantaneous Velocity
c. The average speed is defined as the total distance b. Acceleration (gradient of tangent at a point)
travelled by a body divided by the total time. c. Distance travelled (area under the graph).
Total Distance
d. Equation: Average Speed  10. There are many kinds of velocity time graphs.
Total Time
e. Instantaneous Speed is the speed of the object at a. A straight line denotes that the object is moving at a
any instant. constant speed. There is noacceleration.
b. A line slanting upwards denotes that the object is
4. A ticker tape timer can be used to measure speed. moving at an increasing speed and is accelerating. If
a. An object moving with constant speed will have the it slants downwards, the object is decelerating or
distance between the dots being the same. retarding.
b. As the object increases speed, the distance between c. A curve denotes that the object is moving with
the dots increase. Vice versa for an object reducing increasing acceleration. If the curve gets steeper, it
speed. accelerateseven faster, else it decelerates.

5. Velocity is the distance travelled per unit time in a stated Constant Increasing Increasing
direction. Velocity Velocity Acceleration
a. It is a vector quantity. A negative velocity indicates 1sec 5m/s 5m/s 5m/s
that the object is moving backwards. 2sec 5m/s 6m/s 6m/s
Displaceme nt 3sec 5m/s 7m/s 8m/s
b. Equation: Velocity  . 4sec 5m/s 8m/s 11m/s
Time Taken Type of Straight line Line with Curve with
c. SI unit: m/s
graph with no positive positive
gradient gradient gradient
6. Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity.
In other words, the changes in speed every second.
a. Equation: Acceleration of Free Fall
Final - Initial Velocity 11. Objects fall freely towards the centre of the Earth at a
Accelerati on  . speed of about g  10m / s 2 and air resistance is
Time taken
b. Uniform acceleration occurs when the velocity neligible.
increases or decreases by the same amount every a. Speed of a free falling body increases at 10m/s.
second. b. Speed of a body thrown up decreases at 10m/s.
c. Deceleration occurs when the object slows down. It
is also known as retardation. 12. Air resistance: Air resistance is a frictional force that
have the following characteristics:
a. Opposes motion of moving objects.
b. Increases with the speed of object.**
c. Increases with surface area (size) of object (this will
cause terminal velocity to be lower).
d. Increases with density of air.
 7. Friction can have a positive and negative impact:
Chapter: Forces
Introduction Positive Negative
1. A force is a push or a pull. Needed for walking / holding Reduces the efficiency of
a. It is a vector quantity. chopsticks cars up to 20%
b. The SI unit is Newton (N). Used in braking pads to slow Causes wear and tear of
down cars moving parts in engines,
motors and machines.
Newton’s 3 Laws on Motion
8. There are ways to overcome friction.
2. st
Newton’s 1 law of motion: An object at rest will remain a. Moving surfaces are separated by a lubricant: Engine
at rest and an object in motion will remain in motion at a oil and grease used to lubricate engines.
constant speed and same direction in an absence of a net b. Ball and roller bearings are placed between moving
force acting on it. parts: E.g. in Bicycle wheels or roller blades.
a. Also known as law of inertia. c. Materials with little frictional resistance used:
b. Inertia: The tendency of a body to remain at rest, or Slippery graphite used for contact points in motors
if moving to continue its motion in a straight line and dynamos.
(object is reluctant to change)
c. This law applies if the forces acting on an object are Chapter: Mass, Weight and Density
balanced (equal). For instance a car moving at
constant speed has no acceleration due to no Mass and Weight
resultant force. The frictional force = pulling force of
the car to move forward. 1. Mass is the amount of matter of substance in a body.
a. Its SI unit is the kilogram (kg).
3. Newton’s 2nd law of motion: The net force acting on an b. It can be measured in tonnes, kilograms and grams.
object is equal to the product of the mass and the c. It is a property that cannot be changed by its
acceleration of the object. location, shape and speed.
a. If the resultant force acting on an object is not zero,
the forces are unbalanced (1 force is “stronger” than 2. Weight is the attractive force exerted on an object due
the other force) to gravity.
b. This will cause the object to accelerate or decelerate a. Its SI unit is the Newton (N).
in the direction of the resultant force. b. It is also known as gravitational force (gravity).
c. Formula: F = ma where m = mass (in kg) and a = c. Weight can vary depending on the location of an
acceleration (in m/s2) object (e.g. Earth and Moon)
d. Weight is also a force that is similar to this equation:
W = mg (where g is acceleration due to gravity). This 3. Gravitational Field Strengthg is the gravitational force
shows that gravity is actually the resultant force acting per unit mass on an object.
acting on the object, causing objects to fall to the a. On Earth, the gravitational field strength is about
ground. 10 N/kg (a 1kg mass experiences a force of 10N due
to Earth’s gravity)
4. Newton’s 3rd law of motion: Every object has an equal and b. Since the acceleration of an object due to gravity is
opposite reaction. 10m/s2, we can say:
a. If object A exerts a force F on object B, object B will W  mg
exert a force F in the opposite direction (-F) on body This equation links the variables mass and weight.
A.
b. Forces always occur in pairs. Intertia
c. Action and reaction forces act on different bodies. 4. Inertia of an object refers to the reluctance of the object
to change its state of rest or motion.
Friction a. It depends on its mass; the greater the mass the
5. Friction is a resultant force that slows down moving greater the intertia.
objects. It always acts in the opposite direction to the
motion of the object. Density
b. The density of a substance is defined as its mass per
6. There are 2 types of friction: m
unit volume. Formula:   .
a. Static Friction: Related to objects which are not V
moving where the amount of force applied will give c. SI unit: kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m3) OR grams
the frictional force of the object. per cubic centimeter (g/cm3)
b. Moving Friction: Applied force does not affect
friction, friction is only affected by a surface change 5. Substances that are less dense than water will float on
/ sudden change of mass. water, whereas those which are denser will sink.
c. When force is increased, the amount of friction a. However, a heavy ship built by tons of metal will
remains the same. still float is there is lots of air spaces in the cabins.
 10. There are 3 cases of stability:
Chapter: Turning Effect of Forces
Moments Stability Type Effect Explanation
Stable Object will Weight will generate an
1. The moment of a force is the product of the force and Equilibrium return into anticlockwise moment by
the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of original bringing the cone back to
action of the force. position its original position (done
after slight by the restoring
2. The moment of a force is the turning effect of a force, or disturbance moment).
the ability of the force to make something turn. These types of objects
usually have low CG and
3. SI unit: Newton metre (Nm) big/heavier bases.
Formula: Moment = Fd Unstable Object will The weight of the cone
Equilibrium topple/fall will generate a clockwise
4. The moment of a force is a vector, thus it has both after slight moment outside the base
magnitude and direction. disturbance area of the cone, thus
a. The direction can be either clockwise or there is a resultant
anticlockwise about the pivot. moment and the object
will fall.
Principle of Moments Neutral Object The centre of gravity
Equilibrium remains in neither rises nor falls, it
5. The principle of moments states that when a body is in new remains at the same
equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise moment about a position level. The lines of action
pivot is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moment after slight of the 2 forces always
about the same pivot. disturbance concide and there is no
moment provided by
6. For an object to be balanced, the resultant force must be weight to turn the cone.
0 and the resultant moment about the pivot is 0.
11. To increase the stability of an object,
7. If there is a resultant force/moment, the object will move a. The CG should be as low as possible,
in its direction. b. The area of its base should be as wide as possible.

Centre of Gravity
8. The centre of gravity of an object is defined as an
imaginary point where its whole weight appears to act
for any orientation of the object.
a. The CG for a regular object is at the centre.
b. The CG for an irregular object can be determined
using a plumbline.

Stability
9. Stability refers to the ability of an object ot return to its
original position after it has been tilted slightly.
Chapter: Energy, Work, Power Chapter: Pressure
Energy Introduction to Pressure
1. Energy is the capacity to do work. 1. Pressure is defined as the force acting per unit area.
a. SI unit: Joule (J) Force
b. Types of energy Kinetic, Potential, etc. a. Equation: Pressure 
Area
b. SI unit: Pascal (Pa) or N/m2
2. The principle of conversation of energy states that c. The smaller the area, the larger the pressure.
energy can neither be created nor destroyed in any
process. It can be converted or transformed from one 2. Pressure in Liquids: A liquid exerts pressure because of
form to another, but the total amount remains constant. its weight.
a. Equation: Pressure  hg
3. Important Formulas:
b. In words, Pressure due to liquid column = (Height of
1 2
a. Kinetic Energy: K.E.  mv column) (Density of Liquid) (Gravitational Field
2 Strength)
b. Gravitational Potential Energy: P.E.  mgh c. Note: From the formula, pressure does not depend
on surface area, shape or volume of the container.
4. Energy to calculate efficiency: d. Unique about liquids: Pressure acts equally in all
Useful Energy output directions. This is because molecules of the water
Efficiency   100% can flow and wrap around the object.
Energy input
3. Application: Hydraulics
Work Systems
a. Liquids are used to
5. Work done by a constant force on an object is given by transmit pressure.
the product of the force and the distance moved by the b. An enclosed body of
object in the direction of the force. liquid is able to transmit
a. Formula: W  FS where F = Constant Force; S = pressure as liquids are
Distance moved by object in direction of force. incompressible, thus if
b. SI unit: Joules (J) pressure is applied to a
trapped liquid, the
6. Relation between work, force and distance: pressure will be
One Joule = one newton x one metre. transmitted to all parts of the liquid.
a. 1 J is defined as the work done by a force of 1 c. As the force F1 is greater than the force F2, it works
newton which moves through an object through a like a lever by multiplying the force.
distance of 1 metre in the direction of the force. d. However, due to Principle of Conservation of Energy,
piston 2 moved will move a shorter distance.
7. No work is done when: e. Boyle’s Law: P1V1  P2V2
a. The direction of the applied force and the direction
where the in which the object moves are
perpendicular, and
b. The force applied on the object (e.g. a wall) does
not move.

Power
8. Power is defined as the rate of work done or rate of
energy conversion.
a. SI unit: Watt (W)
E
b. Equation: P 
t
c. One watt is defined as the rate of work done or
energy conversion of 1 joule per second.
1J
d. In equation form, 1W  .
1sec