SUSPENSION BRIDGE

A PROJECT SEMINAR REPORT

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the
requirement for the award of the degree
of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in

CIVIL ENGINEERING

By

GAURAV KUMAR SINGH

Roll No.: 17CE01011

SCHOOL OF INFRASTRUCTURE
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY BHUBANESWAR
ARGUL, JATNI -752050, ODISHA

31st OCTOBER 2018

LIST OF CONTENT

S. No. Title Page No.

1 Introduction 1

2 Types of bridges 1

3
3 Structural Elements

4 Types of suspension bridges 5

5 Components of suspension bridges 8

6 Manufacturing process and design 10

7 Loads on suspension bridge and its

working 16

8 Failures of suspension bridge 22

9 Pros and cons of suspension bridge 31

10 Conclusion 35

11 References 36
BRIDGE

Bridge is a structure that provides passage over obstacles such as valleys, rough
terrain or bodies of water by spanning those obstacles with natural or manmade
materials. They first begun be used in ancient times when first modern civilizations
started rising in the Mesopotamia. From that point on, knowledge, engineering, and
manufacture of new bridge building materials spread beyond their borders, enabling
slow but steady adoption of bridges all across the world.

Types of Bridges

Bridges by Structure

• Arch bridges – These bridges use arch as a main structural component (arch
is always located below the bridge, never above it). They are made with one
or more hinges, depending of what kind of load and stress forces they must
endure. Examples of arch bridge are “Old Bridge” in
Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina and The Hell Gate Bridge in New York.
• Beam bridges – Very basic type of bridges that are supported by several
beams of various shapes and sizes. They can be inclined or V shaped. Example
of beam bridge is Lake Pontchartrain Causeway in southern Louisiana.

 Truss bridges –Very popular bridge designs that uses diagonal mesh of posts
above the bridge. The two most common designs are the king posts (two post

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 in the centre) and queen posts (two diagonal posts, two vertical pots and
horizontal post that connect two vertical posts at the top).
 Cantilever bridges – Similar in appearance to arch bridges, but they support
their load not trough vertical bracing but trough diagonal bracing. They often
use truss formation both below and above the bridge. Example of cantilever
bridge is Queensboro Bridge in New York City.
 Tied arch bridges – Similar to arch bridges, but they transfer weight of the
bridge and traffic load to the top chord that is connected to the bottom cords
in bridge foundation. They are often called bowstring arches or bowstring
bridges.
 Suspension bridges – Bridges that use ropes or cables from the vertical
suspender to hold the weight of bridge deck and traffic. Example of
suspension bridge is Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco.
 Cable-stayed bridges – Bridge that uses deck cables that are directly
connected to one or more vertical columns. Cables are usually connected to
columns in two ways – harp design (each cable is attached to the different
point of the column, creating harp like design of “strings” and fan design (all
cables connect to one point at the top of the column).

Fixed or moveable types

• Fixed – Majority of bridges are fixed, with no moveable parts to provide

higher clearance for river/sea transport that is flowing below them. They are
designed to stay where they are made to the point they are deemed unusable
or demolished.
• Temporary bridges – Bridges made from modular basic components that can
be moved by medium or light machinery. They are usually used in military
engineering or in circumstances when fixed bridges are repaired.
• Moveable bridges – They have moveable decks, most often powered by
electricity.

Types by use

• Car Traffic – The most common type of bridge, with two or more lanes
designed to carry car and truck traffic of various intensities.
• Pedestrian bridges – Usually made in urban environments, or in terrain
where car transport is inaccessible (rough mountainous terrain, forests, etc.).
• Double-decked bridges – Built to provide best possible flow of traffic across
bodies of water or rough terrain. Most offen they have large amount of car
lanes, and sometimes have dedicated area for train tracks.

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 • Train bridges – Bridges made specifically to carry one or multiple lane of
train tracks.
• Pipelines – Bridges made to carry pipelines across water or inaccessible
terrains. Pipelines can carry water, air, gas and communication cables.
• Viaducts – Ancient structures created to carry water from water rich areas to
dry cities.
• Commercial bridges – Modern bridges that host commercial buildings such
as restaurants and shops.

Types by materials

• Natural materials
• Wood (Wooden bridges)
• Stone
• Concrete and Steel
• Advanced material

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SUSPENSION BRIDGES

A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck (the load-bearing portion)
is hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders. The first modern examples
of this type of bridge were built in the early 19th century. Simple suspension bridges,
which lack vertical suspenders, have a long history in many mountainous parts of
the world.

This type of bridge has cables suspended between towers, plus vertical suspender
cables that carry the weight of the deck below, upon which traffic crosses. This
arrangement allows the deck to be level or to arc upward for additional clearance.
Like other suspension bridge types, this type often is constructed without falsework.

The suspension cables must be anchored at each end of the bridge, since any load
applied to the bridge is transformed into a tension in these main cables. The main
cables continue beyond the pillars to deck-level supports, and further continue to
connections with anchors in the ground. The roadway is supported by vertical
suspender cables or rods, called hangers. In some circumstances, the towers may sit
on a bluff or canyon edge where the road may proceed directly to the main span,
otherwise the bridge will usually have two smaller spans, running between either
pair of pillars and the highway, which may be supported by suspender cables or may
use a truss bridge to make this connection. In the latter case there will be very little
arc in the outboard main cables.

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Types of Suspension Bridges

Suspension bridges are bridges whose deck is held in place by suspender cable which
hang vertically from suspension cables. But they are not all the same. They use
different techniques and materials to achieve the same thing – span distances that
could not be crossed differently.

• “Simple suspension bridge” is a bridge that has no towers nor piers and is
suspended on the cables that are anchored at their ends and nothing else. It is
also known as a rope bridge, swing bridge, suspended bridge, hanging bridge
and catenary bridge and is the oldest variant of the suspended bridge. The deck
of this bridge follows is arched downwards and upwards and has additional
ropes at a higher level which form the handrail. It is a pedestrian bridge and
cannot carry modern roads and railroads. "Simple-suspension bridge" can also
be name for a suspended deck bridge that has a deck which is not stiffened,
hence - "simple".
• “Suspension bridge” is a name for a modernly designed suspension bridge –
a suspended-deck suspension bridge. It has towers and, from them, cables that
hold up the road deck. These cables transfer the weight of the deck, by tension,
to the towers and then to the ground by cables whose ends are anchored. This
type can carry heavy vehicles and light rail. The first designs of this type of
bridge appeared in 16th century but they were not built until 18th century
when more materials appeared which allowed for this type of bridge to be
made. Longest suspension bridges of today are of this design.
 “Underspanned suspension bridge” is a type of bridge that was developed
in the early 19th century and which has deck that is raised on posts above the
main cables which are, at their ends, anchored. It is a very rare design in
practice because its deck is not too stable.
.

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 • “Stressed ribbon bridge” is a modern, improved variant of a classical simple
suspension bridge. It has a rigid deck which lays on suspension cables which
are in turn embedded in the deck. Deck follows a catenary arc between
supports and is stressed in traction, which adds to its stiffness and prevents
swaying and bouncing like at simple suspende bridge. This bridge is usually
made of concrete reinforced by steel tensioned cables and can carry vehicle
traffic. Concrete plates are premade and placed to form the initial structure.
Sandbags are place upon the tiles to prestress cables that hold the tiles and
gaps between the tiles are filled with concrete. When the concrete dries,
sandbags are removed and cables compress, stiffening the bridge and making
it more durable.
• "Self-anchored suspension bridge" has its main cables attached to the ends
of the deck rather than ground like standard suspended bridge which allows
for construction on elevated piers, or in areas of unstable soils where anchors
would be loosen over time. This method of building appeared in mi-19th
century and was designed by Austrian engineer Josef Langer in 1859.
American engineer Charles Bender patented this method in United States in
1867. Earliest bridges built with this method in United States Were Three
Sisters Bridges of Pittsburgh, built between 1924 and 1928. Suspension cables
cannot be anchored until the deck is finished with this design so a false-work
is used to hold them until then.

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 • Differences Between Cable Stayed Bridges and
Suspension Bridges
•
The main difference between cable stayed bridges and suspension bridges is
in the way that they transfer loads from deck to pylon. As depicted in Figure
1, in cable stayed bridges straight cables transfer deck loads directly to the
pylon (Walther et al., 2003, P19-39). But as shown in Figure 2, in suspension
bridges, there are main cables (suspension cables) that carry vertical cables.
These vertical cables behave as restraints for the deck and transfer deck loads
to the main cables.

Figure 1: Cable Stay Bridge (Credit by: Wikipedia)

Figure 2: Suspension Bridge (Credit by: Wikipedia)

Usually main spans of suspension bridges are longer than cable stay bridges;
therefore, decks of the suspension bridges have less stiffness in comparison with
cable stay bridges. As a result, suspension bridges have more vibration concerns. In
addition, design and construction of suspension bridges are more complicated rather
than cable stay bridges; and that's the reason why most of the failures of the cable
bridges happened in suspension bridges.

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 Components of a Suspension Bridge

Construction of various parts-

A suspension bridge should consist of the components shown on the diagram, other
elements are added for aesthetic purposes and design.

Deck: The deck on a suspension bridge is also referred to as a roadway, where

vehicles are allowed to pass to and from points A and B. They can carry motorists,
pedestrians, rail traffic etc. They are made out of steel reinforced concrete and each
deck is of a large span.

Steel Cables: The decking or the roadway is suspended by steel cables. They can be
as thick as a tall male human, and are made up of many smaller steel cables; steel is
used instead of iron because it is an alloy, which makes it superior in tension and
compression and it is stronger. The smaller cables are fastened to one another
forming one huge cable enough to hold up to 150,000 tonnes.

Suspenders: The suspenders connect the decking to the steel cables and help shape
the bridge. Without the suspenders, the roadway would sway out of control; they
help reinforce the decking even more as well as having steel cables.

Towers: The heavy weight of the steel cables are transferred onto the towers that
help the bridge stay standing; the weight that is now supported by the towers is
focused onto the ground, reinforcing the tower feet into the ground and keeping the
bridge upright.

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Anchorage Block: These weigh more than the amount of cables that is holding up
the deck; this is because it has to withstand a huge proportion of the roadway. Not
only this, but it must be strong enough to endure the amount of road traffic and
vehicles crossing the bridge at any time. They are often made out of concrete as it is
extremely heavy and strong. They appear at both ends of the bridge and preserve the
tension from the steel cables.

Foundation of Tower: because of the weight pushing down on the towers, they
must have a secure foundation. The foundations are pushed far below the soil to keep
the towers from tilting and to make sure that they are vertical and strong enough to
withstand the weight from the cables. Depending on the softness of the soil, depends
on how far down the foundations go; if the soil is soft, then the foundation would be
pushed further down.

Truss: The truss if found to be underneath the roadway/ decking to support it. Not
only this, but it helps stiffen the decking which reduces the probability of it swaying
vertically just like it did in the Tacoma Narrows Bridge example.

Raw Materials

Many of the components of a suspension bridge are made of steel. The girders used
to make the deck rigid are one example. Steel is also used for the saddles, or open
channels, on which the cables rest atop a suspension bridge's towers.

When steel is drawn (stretched) into wires, its strength increases; consequently, a
relatively flexible bundle of steel wires is stronger than a solid steel bar of the same
diameter. This is the reason steel cable is used to support suspension bridges. For the
Akashi Kaikyo Bridge, a new low-alloy steel strengthened with silicon was
developed; its tensile strength (resistance against pulling forces) is 12% greater than
any previous steel wire formulation. On some suspension bridges, the steel wires
forming the cables have been galvanized (coated with zinc).

The towers of most suspension bridges are made of steel, although a few have been
built of steel-reinforced concrete.

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The Manufacturing Process

Construction of a suspension bridge involves sequential construction of the three

Tower constructions that will stand in water begin with caissons (a steel and concrete
cylinder that acts as a circular dam) that are lowered to the ground beneath the water,
emptied of water, and filled with concrete in preparation for the actual towers.

major components: the towers and cable anchorages, the support cable itself, and
the deck structure.

Tower construction

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 • 1 Tower foundations are prepared by digging down to a sufficiently firm rock
formation. Some bridges are designed so that their towers are built on dry
land, which makes construction easier. If a tower will stand in water, its
construction begins with lowering a caisson (a steel and concrete cylinder that
acts as a circular damn) to the ground beneath the water; removing the water
from the caisson's interior allows workers to excavate a foundation without
actually working in water. When the excavation is complete, a concrete tower
foundation is formed and poured.
• 2 Construction details vary with each unique bridge. As an example, consider
the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge. Each of its two steel towers consists of two
columns. Each column is composed of 30 vertical blocks (or layers), each of
which is 33 ft (10 m)

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 Anchorages—structures that support the bridge's cables—are massive
concrete blocks securely attached to strong rock formations. When the towers
and anchorages have been completed, a pilot line must be strung along the
cable's eventual path, from one anchorage across the towers to the other
anchorage.

tall; each of these blocks, in turn, consists of three horizontal sections. A crane
positioned between the columns lifted three sections into place on each
column, completing a layer. After completing a block on each column,
the"bootstrapping" crane was jacked up to the next level, where it lifted the
sections of the next layer into place. At appropriate intervals, diagonal bracing
was added between the columns.

Anchorage construction

• 3 Anchorages are the structures to which the ends of the bridge's cables are
secured. They are massive concrete blocks securely attached to strong rock
formations. During construction of the anchorages, strong eyebars (steel bars
with a circular hole at one end) are embedded in the concrete. Mounted in
front of the anchorage is a spray saddle, which will support the cable at the
point where its individual wire bundles (see Step 5) fan out—each wire bundle
will be secured to one of the anchorage's eyebars.

Cable construction

 4 When the towers and anchorages have been completed, a pilot line must be
strung along the cable's eventual path, from one anchorage across the towers
to the other anchorage. Various methods can have been used to position the
pilot line. For the Niagra River bridge, for example, Roebling offered a reward
of $10 to the first youngster who could fly a kite with a pilot line attached
across the gorge to make the connection. Today, a helicopter might be used.
Or the line might be taken across the expanse by boat and then lifted into
position. When the pilot line is in place, a catwalk is constructed for the
bridge's entire length, about 3 ft below the pilot line, so workers can attend to
the cable formation.
• 5 To begin spinning the cable, a large spool of wire is positioned at the
anchorage. The free end of the wire is looped around a strand shoe (a steel
channel anchored to an eyebar). Between the

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 spool and the strand shoe, the wire is looped around a spinning wheel that is
mounted on the pilot line. This wheel carries the wire across the bridge's path,
and the wire is looped around a strand shoe at the other anchorage; the wheel
then returns to the first anchorage, laying another strand in place. The process
is repeated until a bundle of the desired number of wire strands is formed (this
varies from about 125 strands to more than 400). During the spinning, workers
standing on the catwalk make sure the wire unwinds smoothly, freeing any
kinks. As spools are exhausted, the end of the wire is spliced to the wire from
a new spool, forming a continuous strand. When the bundle is thick enough,
tape or wire straps are applied at intervals

Once the vertical cables are attached to the main support cable, the deck
structure must be built in both directions from the support towers at the correct
rate in order to keep the forces on the towers balanced at all times. A moving
crane lifts deck sections into place, where workers attach them to previously
placed sections and to the vertical cables that hang from the main suspension
cables.

to keep the wires together. The wire coming off the spool is cut and secured
to the
anchorage. Then the process begins again for the next bundle.

The number of bundles needed for a complete cable varies; on the Golden
Gate Bridge it is 61, and on the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge it is 290. When the
proper number have been spun, a special arrangement of radially positioned
jacks is used to compress the bundles into a compact cable, and steel wire is
wrapped around it. Steel clamps are mounted around the cable at

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 predetermined intervals to serve as anchoring points for the vertical cables
that will connect the decking to the support cable.

Deck construction

• 6 After vertical cables are attached to the main support cable, the deck
structure can be started. The structure must be built in both directions from
the support towers at the correct rate in order to keep the forces on the towers
balanced at all times. In one technique, a moving crane that rolls atop the main
suspension cable lifts deck sections into place, where workers attach them to
previously placed sections and to the vertical cables that hang from the main
suspension cables,extending the completed length. Alternatively, the crane
may rest directly on the deck and move forward as each section is placed.

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Finishing

• 7 When the deck structure is complete, it is covered with a base layer (e.g.,
steel plates) and paved over. Painting the steel surfaces and installing electric
lines for lighting are examples of other finishing steps. In addition, ongoing
maintenance procedures begin. For example, a permanent staff of 17
ironworkers and 38 painters continue to work daily on the Golden Gate
Bridge, replacing corroding rivets and other steel components and touching
up the paint that protects the bridge.

Design of suspension bridges-

The Road Deck

The road deck of a suspension bridge is very
important. Most deck designs are made from
open trusses that allow wind to pass through.

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The Building Steps

1. First huge concrete caissons are sunk into the bedrock

to provide a solid base for the towers.

2. Next the towers are constructed on top of the caissons.

3. Giant anchor points are created on both ends of

the bridge to keep tension in the cables.

4. Then the main cables are strung across the

span of the bridge.
5. A temporary walkway is constructed beneath the
main cables so that construction can begin on the road
deck.

6. Suspender cables are put into place as the road deck

is built to provide strength.

7. When the road deck is finished, a layer of concrete is

poured over the steel, followed by a layer of asphalt.

LOADS ON SUSPENSION BRIDGES-

The diagram below shows the tension in the cables of a suspension bridge. These
cables are capable of withstanding tension but offer no resistance to compression.
These types of bridges work in a completely different way to the arch bridge.

Compression
The force of compression pushes down on the suspension bridge's deck, but because
it is a suspended roadway, the cables transfer the compression to the towers, which
dissipate the compression directly into the earth where they are firmly entrenched.

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Tension
The supporting cables, running between the two anchorages, are the lucky recipients
of the tension forces. The cables are literally stretched from the weight of the bridge
and its traffic as they run from anchorage to anchorage. The anchorages are also
under tension, but since they, like the towers, are held firmly to the earth, the tension
they experience is dissipated.

Almost all suspension bridges have, in addition to the cables, a supporting truss
system beneath the bridge deck (a deck truss). This helps to stiffen the deck and
reduce the tendency of the roadway to sway and ripple.

They come in two different designs: the suspension bridge, recognized by the
elongated 'M' shape, and the less-common cable-stayed design, which has
more of an 'A' shape.

The cable-stayed bridge does not require two towers and four anchorages as does
the suspension bridge. Instead, the cables are run from the roadway up to a single
tower where they are secured.

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HOW DO SUSPENSION BRIDGES WORK?

On the Severn Bridge, the two main cables act a bit like a washing line. The
tension in a washing line supports the weight of the clothes that are pegged to
it. In the same way, the tension in the main cables supports the weight of the
deck and traffic. The bridge deck is hung from the main cables using wire
hangers (rather than clothes pegs). And because the main cables are held up by
the towers, the weight of the whole bridge is carried down through the towers,
on to the underlying foundations.

If you put something heavy on a washing line, it will sag at that point. With a
suspension bridge, the road is supported by a stiffening girder, which spreads out the
weight of the traffic, so avoiding excessive sag under an exceptional load. If you
hang something on a washing line away from the centre, the point will not only sag
but it will also move towards the nearest end (try it!). Similarly, as a heavy load
travels over a suspension bridge, it will not only dip downwards at the point of the
load, it will also move longitudinally towards the nearest tower.

If you stand on the walkway of the Severn Bridge, you can feel it moving as the
traffic travels over it. If you stand by one of the towers and watch the expansion
joint, you can sometimes see the whole bridge moving as the weight of the traffic
travels across. We should not worry that the bridge moves. It is meant to do this.
This is how it absorbs the weight of the traffic and transfers it into the main cables.

Diagram showing the main loads in a suspension bridge

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The tension in the main cables carries the whole weight of the bridge deck and the
traffic. This tension is resisted by the anchorages at each end, just as the tension in a
washing line is resisted by whatever it is tied to at each end. And because the main
cables are held up by the towers, the weight of the whole bridge is transferred
through the towers to the ground.

Why do bridges collapse?

Bridges don't fail very often, but when they do, the results are spectacular and
unforgettable. Once you've seen the footage of the Tacoma Narrows bridge
resonating in a gale bucking back and forth before the deck breaks up and crashes to
the river below, you'll never forget it. Imagine how terrifying it would have been if
you'd been on the bridge at the time!

Bridges always collapse for exactly the same reason: something happens that makes
them unable to balance the forces acting on them. A force becomes too great for one
of the components in the bridge (maybe something as simple as a single rivet or tie-
bar), which immediately fails. That means the load on the bridge suddenly has to be
shared by fewer components, so any one of them might also be pushed beyond its
limit. Sooner or later, another component fails, then another—and so the bridge
collapses in a kind of domino effect of failing materials.

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Photo: This is the remains of the I-35W Mississippi River bridge a steel-trussed arch
bridge that used to carry a very busy highway over the river. It collapsed
unexpectedly in 2007, killing 13 people and injuring 145 more. A report into the
disaster found that a metal plate had ripped along a line of rivets, causing a
catastrophic failure. Ironically, the bridge was carrying a massive extra load of
construction equipment for repairs and reinforcement at the time. Riddled with
fatigue cracks and corrosion, it had been deemed "structurally deficient" as far back
as 1990. Photo by Joshua Adam courtesy of US Navy.

There are two different ways in which a bridge component can fail catastrophically:
weakness and fatigue. First, and simplest, it might be too weak to cope with a sudden
transient load. If a bridge is designed to carry no more than 100 cars, but 200 heavy
trucks drive onto it instead, that creates a dangerous, transient load. Or if hurricane-
force winds buffet the bridge, twisting the deck much more than it's designed to cope
with, that can be catastrophic too. So a bridge can fail through weakness because a
force exceeds what's called the ultimate tensile strength (the most you can pull) or
compressive strength (the most you can push) of the materials from which it's
constructed.

But a bridge can also fail even if the forces on it are relatively modest and well within
these limits. Everyday materials usually have to undergo repeated stresses and
strains—for example, a bridge deck is loaded (when a truck drives across) and then
unloaded again immediately afterward, and that can happen hundreds or thousands
of times a day, hundreds of days a year. Just as a paperclip snaps when you
repeatedly bend it back and forth, the endless cycles of stress and strain, flexing
and relaxing, can cause materials to weaken over time through a process known as
fatigue. Eventually, something like a metal cable or tie in a bridge will snap even
though it's not experiencing a particularly high stress at that moment. Fatigue is often
compounded by gradual corrosion (rusting) of metal components or what's

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informally known as concrete cancer (such as when reinforced concrete cracks after
the metal reinforcing bars inside it start to rust).

Engineers try to protect against bridge failures in two main ways. If we learn to see
bridges as "living structures," constantly aging and being degraded by weather and
the environment. it's easy to understand that they need regular maintenance, just like
our homes and bodies. Periodic inspections and preventative maintenance helps us
spot problems and correct them before it's too late. Engineers can also protect against
bridge failure by building in a factor of safety—designing them so they can cope
with forces several times larger than they're ever likely to encounter. That might
include extra "redundant" components or reinforcements so that even if one part of
the structure fails, others can safely share the load until the bridge can be reinforced
or repaired.

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FAILURES OF SUSPENSION BRIDGE-

Deck Vibration

Due to the low stiffness, light weight, and long spans of cable bridges, the lateral
and torsional stiffness of these bridges are low in comparison with regular non-cable
bridges. Usually, cable bridges are built in vast areas such as rivers, coasts, and
valleys. Therefore, they are exposed to wind loads. The speed of the wind through a
bridges varies frequently; in some moments it decreases and in some moments it
increases. If the wind speed variations follow a regular pattern, then the time distance
between tow adjacent peeks of wind speed graph can be called as period of the wind
loads. Usually wind loads have long periods. Because of high stiffness and short
natural vibration period of the regular bridges (non-cable bridges), wind resonance
usually cannot happen on them. But, cable bridges have long periods in both lateral
and torsional vibration; therefore, resonance is a design concern in this type of bridge
(Miyata, 2003, P1407 and Plaut, 2008, P613-5). Due to the above mentioned
difference between cable bridges and regular bridges (non-cable bridges), a lot of
collapses and performance failures have happened since the cable bridge invention.
Tacoma Narrows Bridge (Wiki Failures) and Silver Bridge over Ohio River are two
examples of cable bridge failures which led to complete collapse of structures. In
Figure 3 and 4 the Tacoma Narrows bridge is shown during the fluttering and at the
moment of collapse, respectively.

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Figure 3: Tacoma Narrows Bridge with severe viberation (Credit by: YouTube)

Figure: Tacoma Narrows Bridge after collapse due to wind fluttering (Credit by:
Wikipedia)
At the earlier time of use of cable bridge systems, due to the lack of information
about the behavior of this type of bridge, designers didn't pay enough attention to
the deck stiffness of the bridges. As a result, a lot of bridges were faced with wind-
fluttering problems. In bridges with this problem, when the period of wind impact
loads becomes close to the period of deck vibration, they begin to oscillate. This
oscillation can continue to the point of damage or collapse of the bridge

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There are two major solutions for fluttering problems of cable bridges (Miyata,
2003, P1403-5).
a)Modification of the Deck: In this solution the shape and configuration of the
bridge deck become modified to create a stiffer deck (with respect to the length
of the span). In addition, the shape of the deck can be modified to a more
aerodynamic shape resulting in less wind load on the deck.
b)Use of Dampers: By use of damper the induced energy to the deck and
cables can be damped. In addition, dampers limit deformation of the deck and
by this means keep the deck away from large deformation.

Low lateral, torsional, and vertical stiffness of the cable bridges can cause
performance failure of the bridges in some cases. A good example of this type of
failure is Millennium Pedestrian Bridge in London which became closed a few
days after opening for fixing its problem. The problem was side vibration of the
bridge deck due to pedestrian walking synchronous lateral excitation. Two main
reasons of this vibration was low lateral stiffness of the deck and low damping
potential of the bridge for lateral movements and deformations. The problem of
the Millennium bridge was solved by installation of lateral dampers (Newland,
Cambridge University website). In Figure 5 a view of this bridge is shown. In the
following YouTube link a movie of vibration of this bridge is shown:
Figure : Millennium Bridge in London

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Ship Collision with Pylon

Generally, cable bridges have long-spanned deck and high-rise pylons which
results in a high distance of the free-board. With these characteristics, passing of
huge vessels is possible through the spans. Unfortunately, the redundancy of this
type of bridge is low; as a result, if one of the pylons fails, all parts of the bridge
will fail. Therefore, soundness of the pylons is an essential factor in stability of the
cable bridges. As we can see in the history of bridges, collision of vessels with
piers is one of the most common reasons of failures. Fortunately, pier collocation
evidences before and after the invention of cable bridges made designers aware to
prevent collision with pylons (Svensson, 2009, P21-31). There are two main
solutions to prevent collisions with pylons which are listed in the following:

a)Pier barriers: In this solution, some barriers, which are in fact short columns,
become installed around the pylon. By this means, if a ship mislead through the
pylon, it will collide with the barrier instead of pylon. In Figure 6, the Sunshine
Skyway Bridge is shown which is protected by barriers. The old Sunshine Skyway
Bridge collapsed in 1980 due to collision of a vessel with one of the piers of the
bridge (Sayers, 2007, P1) and it cost $244 million to reconstruct a new bridge.
b)Decreasing the number of collision-exposed pylons: Characteristic of cable
bridges makes it possible to have longe spans. Therefore, designers prefer to place
pylons out of water, have longer spans, and by this means prevent collision of
vessels with pylons

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Tendon System Problems

Like each relatively new material, a tendon has its unknown problems. In addition,
long tendons have different behavior in comparison with short tendons.
Fortunately, due to use of multiple-tendon cables, and high redundancy cable
systems, failure of tendons often only results in temporary performance issues
with the bridge. Therefore, by regular control and maintenance of the cables, we
can prevent failures, when without a frequent maintenance procedure, we can
expect the collapse of the bridge.

One of these failures is rain/wind-induced vibration of cables. If some of the cables

become loose or if the pretension loads in the cables be non-compatible with the
dead load distribution, then under the combination of light wind and rain loads,
they began to vibrate like strings (FHWA, 2007, P13-14).

There are three solutions for this type of failure (FHWA, 2007, P14-36):
a)Special surface shape: Specially roughed surface of the cables ducts efficiently
increases aerodynamic stability of the cables. In Figure 7 different common shapes
of the ducts are depicted.
b)Use of Dampers: By use of dampers, the movement of the cables become
limited and the vibration energy of the cables become damped. Usually, these
dampers are install between deck and cables (perpendicular to the cables
direction). In figure 8, use of dampers in Ravenel Bridge is shown.
c) Tie of the cables together: By installing the cross-tie on the cables, internal
restraints for the cables become established, and as a result, transverse stiffness
of the cables increases. In Figure 9, a sample cross-tie is shown.

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 Figure: Common types of cable duct surface in cable stayed bridges

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Figure: Dampers on Ravenel Bridge cables (Credit by: Wikipedia)

Figure: Cross-tie on cables

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Another type of failure in the cable systems is cable anchorage failure. Transfer and
distribution of concentrated load in the cables are two main duties of cable
anchorages. Due to the changes in the magnitude of the cable load, fatigue can easily
happen in anchorages. Therefore, a regular inspection is necessary to avoid fracture
in in the anchorages. In Figure 10, tearing out of one of the of Sabo Bridge
anchorages is shown (Wiss, 2012, P35).

Figure: Fracture in anchorage of Sabo Bridge

Failure During Construction

Due to the different job site conditions, varying construction procedures, and heavy
construction loads, the construction of cable bridges is very complicated. Many
failures occur during the construction phase and the design group must maintain
constant communication with contractors during in this period. The reasons of the
failures during construction can be categorize in the following three major
groups:

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a) Mistake in evaluation of load of construction: Due to very complex load path
and presence of very concentrated loads in different part of the structure,
construction methods of this type of bridges are very complicated and should be
studied by the design group. Sometimes, design group makes mistake on evaluation
of the construction loads or select a risky method for construction, and these can lead
to collapse of the whole structure.

b)Mistake in selection of suitable construction machinery and mistake of

workers: Generally, due to special construction situations such as high elevation job
site, heavy weight of bridge parts, and using gigantic machinery like cranes, workers
feel high pressure on themselves and are stressful during construction of cable
bridges, in these situations, workmen mistakes are more likely to happen. This type
of mistake can cause small failures or total collapse of structures.
c) Natural disasters during construction: Construction period of the cable bridges
are long in comparison with regular bridges. Before installation of all parts of the
bridge, the bridge has not too much redundancy and most of the times decks are
hanged like cantilever beams; therefore, if a sever load such as high wind pressure
or earthquake load, which is not considered in the design of the stages of
construction, is induced on the bridge, the structure may have not enough reserved
resistance for the additional load and in this situation the bridge is very
susceptible to collapse.
Collapse of Kukar Bridge in Indonesia is one of the most recent cable bridge
collapses during construction. As depicted in Figure 11, the deck of this bridge
totally collapsed. The main reason of this failure was detachment of hanger cables
from main cable which was due to mistake in design phase and overloading of deck
during construction (Matsuno, 2007, P3-5).

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List of Pros of Suspension Bridges

1.Low Construction Costs

What makes suspension bridges practical is the inexpensiveness of these bridges due
to required materials needed for construction. With three basic necessities such as
cables, anchorages and roadways, suspension bridges are possible to construct.
Having said, this, suspension bridges are great solutions to provide communities
with functioning and useful bridges without much need for funding. These are
beneficial in areas that lack infrastructure funds. And in the case of allotting budget
for projects, the inexpensive costs in building these types of bridges can allow for
other projects to be financed.

2. Long Span

Another advantage of suspension bridges is the possibility to construct them at

different lengths, from 2,000 to 13,000 feet and is lengthier than other types of
bridges. This makes it possible to build suspension bridges to connect very long
distance locations. Depending on the demand and possibility given, these bridges
can be underspanned like the Pont des Bergues and the Micklewood Bridge. On the
other hand, three long suspension bridges are in Denmark, Japan and China.

3. Ease of Maintenance

Apart from inexpensive construction costs, suspension bridges are known for their
minimal maintenance requirements. Once construction is completed, there are no
immediate needs for additional materials like cables. What is called for is simply
regular maintenance. Moreover, it is known for durability and longevity, making
major repairs not needed as often. Consequently, maintenance costs are also not that
high.

4. Versatility

Suspension bridges do not only cost less to build, they can also be built practically
anywhere so long as there are places for building support towers and anchorages.
This is also because of the

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design which is suspended in the air, no inflow restrictors are needed to be placed
underneath.
They can also bear the beatings of earthquakes.

5. Attractive

Tourists, local and foreign in America love to cross the Brooklyn Bridge and visit
the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco. Compared to truss and beam bridges,
suspension bridges are more aesthetically pleasing because of the different shapes
of these bridges. The curved and linear features of these bridges make them
structurally beautiful. This is on top of the cables giving support to these bridges,
making them versatile bridges.

6. Has Flexibility

One common reason that the choice to build a suspension bridge is reached is if it is
being built in a high earthquake zone, like California. This is because suspension
bridges are flexible due to the cable system they are held up by. The bridge can
“move” with the wind and during natural disasters such as an earthquake.

7. Simple Construction

No access is needed from below the bridge while it is being constructed, making it
a great choice for areas that ships and waterways need to stay clear.

8. Can Be Built High Up

Suspension bridges can be built very high up over waterways. This is essential for
any area that needs to be able to allow passing ships to come through.

List of Cons of Suspension Bridges

1. Loss of Income

Despite the low costs of constructing suspension bridges and the job opportunities
they offer, the length of time needed to finish building these bridges are long. What
happens is that the businesses that are within the vicinity will be affected since
business operations will be hampered. Consequently, there will be loss of sales and
profit. This can have a negative impact on the economy of the city or town. Also,
bridges built to connect locations between bodies of water can affect the course of

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ships carrying supplies since they need to divert their routes. This can also result to
loss of money since deliveries of goods can take longer.

2. Weak in Winds

Despite flexibility and strength to withstand earthquakes, these bridges are not too
strong when it comes to powerful winds caused by hurricanes. Too much strong
winds can result to damages to suspension bridges. A classic example is the Tacoma
Narrows Bridge which collapsed on November 7, 1940 in winds of at only 40 miles
per hour. Although the disaster was blamed on design and construction, what
happened that time presented risks associated with suspension bridges.

3. Load Limitations

Another disadvantage of suspension bridges is the material used which are the
cables. These cables have limitations when it comes to bearing the weight of loads.
Although it can allow a minimal weight with regard to vehicles passing through, too
much weight can lead to the breaking of cables

4. Limited Applications

Suspension bridges, despite their cost-effectiveness in construction and flexibility

when it comes to site location, have limitations when it comes to its use. This is
because they can be destroyed by strong winds and not durable enough to hold
limitless weight, careful consideration should be taken before construction. That
said, they can only be used by general traffic.

4. Soft Ground Issues

If the suspension bridge needs to be built in an area that has soft ground, like over
water, very extensive foundation work in order to make it safe for heavy loads.

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5. Too Flexible

Flexibility of the suspension bridge design is a major advantage, until conditions

become severe. Underneath extreme winds or very heavy the load the bridge can
move so much that the bridge would need to be closed.

6. Cannot Support High Traffic

Since very little support is needed underneath the deck of the bridge, and the cables
are light, the bridges are very light weight. This restricts the amount of traffic and
the weight of heavy loads that can use it.

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CONCLUSION

A suspension bridge can be made out of simple materials such as wood and
common wire rope.

• Longer main spans are achievable than with any other type of bridge
• Less material may be required than other bridge types, even at spans they
can achieve, leading to a reduced construction cost
• Except for installation of the initial temporary cables, little or no access from
below is required during construction, for example allowing a waterway to
remain open while the bridge is built above
• May be better to withstand earthquake movements than heavier and more
rigid bridges
• Bridge decks can have deck sections replaced in order to widen traffic lanes
for larger vehicles or add additions width for separated cycling/pedestrian
paths.
• Considerable stiffness or aerodynamic profiling may be required to prevent
the bridge deck vibrating under high winds
• The relatively low deck stiffness compared to other (non-suspension) types
of bridges makes it more difficult to carry heavy rail traffic where high
concentrated live loads occur
• Some access below may be required during construction, to lift the initial
cables or to lift deck units. This access can often be avoided in cable-stayed
bridge construction.

Due to relatively short age of the cable bridges and the use of high tech materials
and machinery in the construction phase, we should do more study to have thorough
understanding of the cable bridges behaviours. Construction of cable stayed bridges
are very expensive, and due to dimensions of the structure, failure of them can
endanger too many people's lives; therefore, existing bridges are very valuable
investments in our hand for more study. In addition, as discussed in different parts
of this article, a lot of failures of the bridges are due to a lack of regular inspection
and maintenance; therefore, by doing of more study on existing bridges, we can learn
more about the characteristics of the cable bridges and prevent failures of the under-
study bridges.

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References

1. Jakkula, A. A., “A History of Suspension Bridges in Biographical Form”, Bulletin

of the-Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, College Station, TX, Jul 1941,
p 48.
2. Kemp, E. L., "Links in a Suspension Bridges 1801-70," 1979, pp 255-263.
3. Tyrrell, H. G., “History of Bridge Engineering”, Williams Pub.Co., Chicago, IL,
1911, pp-202-256.
4. Sayenga, D., Ellet and Roebling, “The American Canal and Transportation
Center”, Yor~, PA, 1983.
5. Stevens, H. R., “The Ohio Bridge”, The Ruter Press, publication date unknown,
pp 65-158.
6. McCullough, P., “The Great Bridge”, Avon Press, New York, NY,
1976.
7. Steinman, D. B., "Ohio River Suspension Bridge at Portsmouth," Engineering
News Record, Oct 20, 1927, pp 620-627.

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