T2 Pdfpassivedevices&basicckt PDF

INDIAN RAILWAYS INSTITUTE OF
SIGNAL ENGINEERING & TELECOMMUNICATIONS
SECUNDERABAD - 500 017
T2
PASSIVE DEVICES AND BASIC

CIRCUITS
Issued in October 2008

T2
PASSIVE DEVICES AND BASIC CIRCUITS
CONTENTS
Chapter Description Page No

1 Passive components 1
2 Laws and theorems 28
3 Transformer and hybrid 52
4 Resonance 67
5 Transmission lines 86
6 Wave guides 140
7 Attenuators 148
8 Filters 161
9 Equalisers 189
10 Commonly used Cables and 200
Connectors in the Electronic industry
11 Microwave components 214
12 Special features of components used 231
in VHF and UHF circuits
PREPARED BY Ch. Vasudev

APPROVED BY S.K.Biswas, Sr.Professor Tele
DTP AND DRAWINGS K.Srinivas, JE II(D)
DATE OF ISSUE 22-03-2006
EDITION NO 02
NO. OF PAGES 241
NO.OF SHEETS 122
© IRISET
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www.iriset.ac.in
PASSIVE COMPONENTS
CHAPTER 1
PASSIVE COMPONENTS
1.0 Introduction
Components like Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor and Transformer are called passive
components. Each of these displays its own specific properties or characteristics when
used in electric or electronic circuits. Let us have a brief look at the properties of these
components. The Devices using passive components are generally known as passive
devices.
1.1 Resistance
Certain materials such as copper, silver etc., have many free electrons and are known
as good conductors of current. But materials such as glass, wood, rubber etc., have
practically no free electrons and they make very good insulators. Between these two
extremes of good conductors and good insulators there lie other materials with
reduced conducting ability. They "resist" the flow of electrons and hence this property is
termed as resistance. The component, which possesses this property, is called a
Resistor.
The property of resistance changes from material to material and it is called as the
resistivity of those materials. Resistivity is indicated by the symbol ρ (Rho). The
resistance of a piece of wire etc., is given in terms of its resistivity as
R = ρ L/A
Where ρ is the resistivity of the material used.
L is length of wire
A cross sectional area of the wire.
Resistivity Coefficients for Various Materials

All values at 20 °C
Material Resistivity (Ohm-meters)
Aluminum 2.82e-8
Carbon 3.5e5
Copper 1.70e-8
IRISET 1 PASSIVE DEVICES AND BASIC CIRCUITS

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
Germanium .46
Glass 10e10 to 10e14
Gold 2.44e-8
Hard Rubber about 10e13
Iron 10.0e-8
Lead 22e-8
Nichrome 150e-8
Platinum 11e-8
Quartz (Fused) 75e16
Silicon 640
Silver 1.59e-8
Sulfur 10e15
Tungsten 5.6e-8
Resistors: Resistors are the most commonly used components in electronics and their
purpose is to create specified values of current and voltage in a circuit. A resistor when
used in a circuit resists the flow of current, producing a voltage drop between its
terminals in accordance with Ohm's law. The electrical resistance, which is a constant,
of a resistor is equal to the voltage drop across the resistor divided by the current that is
flowing through the resistor.
The resistance value R is given by
Where R = Resistance
V = Voltage across R, and
I = Current through R

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
1.2 Types of Resistors

Depending on the composition of materials used the resistors are classified as
1. Carbon composition: It is a mixture of fine carbon granules, insulating filler and resin
binder. The ratio of carbon to insulating filler sets the resistance value.
2. Carbon film: It is made by depositing a resistive film of carbon onto a high grade
ceramic rod.
3. Metal film: A film of nickel chromium is used.
4. Metal oxide: A mixture of metal and insulating oxide
5. Metal glaze: Mixture of metal and glass
6. Wire wound: A resistance wire around an insulating rod
7. Conductive plastic:
8. Ceramic:
9. Cermets: Ceramic and metals
10. Non-linear (Varistor):
1.3 Unit for measurement of Resistance

The unit for measuring resistance is the OHM. (The Greek letter Ω). Higher resistance
values are represented by "k" (kilo-ohms) and M (meg ohms). For example, 120 000 Ω
is represented as 120k, while 1 200 000 Ω is represented as 1M2. The dot is generally
omitted as it can easily be lost in the printing process. In some circuit diagrams, a value
such as 8 or 120 represents a resistance in ohms. Another common practice is to use
the letter E for resistance. For example, 120E (120R) stands for 120 Ω, 1E2 stands for
1R2 etc.
1.4 Resistance value marking

Resistance value is marked by color bands on the resistor body. The first three bands
provide the value of the resistor in ohms and the fourth band indicates the tolerance.
Tolerance values of 5%, 2%, and 1% are most commonly available.
Resistors with different bands of color code look like as shown below
4 Band Resistor 5 Band Resistor 6 Band Resistor (for SMD)
V M T V MT V M T Tc
V - Value digits M - Multiplier T – Tolerance Tc – Temperature coefficient
Fig.1.1 Color codes on resistors

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
Common resistors have 4 bands. First two bands indicate the first two digits of the
resistance; third band is the multiplier (number of zeros that are to be added to the
number derived from first two bands) and fourth represents the tolerance.
Marking the resistance with 5 bands is used for resistors with tolerance of 2%, 1% and
other high-accuracy resistors. First three bands determine the first three digits, fourth is
the multiplier and fifth represent the tolerance.
For SMD (Surface Mounted Device) the available space on the resistor is very small.
5% resistors use a 3-digit code, while 1% resistors use a 4-digit code.
Some SMD resistors are made in the shape of small cylinder while the most common
type is flat. Cylindrical SMD resistors are marked with 6 bands - the first five are "read"
as with common five-band resistors, while the sixth band determines the Temperature
Coefficient (TC), which gives us a value of resistance change upon 1-degree
temperature change.
The resistance of flat SMD resistors is marked with digits printed on their upper side.
First two digits are the resistance value, while the third digit represents the number of
zeros. For example, the printed number 683 stands for 68000Ω, that is 68k.
Resistors come in a range of values but the two most common are the E12 and E24
series. In E12 series is twelve values series and E24 series is a twenty four values
series.
E12 series – Common values for the first two digits are: 10, 12, 15, 18, 22, 27, 33, 39,
47, 56, 68 and 82. example
1·0 Ω, 1·2 Ω, 1·5 Ω, 1·8 Ω, 2·2 Ω, 2·7 Ω, 3·3 Ω, 3·9 Ω, 4·7 Ω, 5·6 Ω, 6·8 Ω, 8·2 Ω,
10 Ω, 12 Ω, 15 Ω, 18 Ω, 22 Ω, 27 Ω, 33 Ω, 39 Ω etc.
E24 series - Common values for the first two digits are 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 18, 20,
22, 24, 27, 30, 33, 36, 39, 43, 47, 51, 56, 62, 68, 75, 82, and 91
For example resistors with values for digits "39" are: 0.39Ω, 3.9Ω, 39Ω, 390Ω, 3.9kΩ,
39kΩ, etc are manufactured. (0R39, 3R9, 39R, 390R, 3k9, 39k)
For some electrical circuits, the resistor tolerance is not important and it is not specified.
In that case, resistors with 5% tolerance can be used. However, devices which require
resistors to have a certain amount of accuracy need a specified tolerance.
Common resistors have values 10 ohms to 22M ohms

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
1.5 Resistors less than 10 ohms:

For resistors with values less than 10 ohms the third band is either gold or silver.
• When the third band is gold, it indicates the value of the "colors" must be divided by 10.
Gold = "divide by 10" to get values 1R0 to 8R2(1 to 8.2)
• When the third band is silver, it indicates the value of the "colors" must be divided by
100.
(Remember: more letters in the word "silver" thus the divisor is "larger.")
Silver = "divide by 100" to get values R1 to R82
the letters "R, k and M" take the place of a decimal point. This method is used when the
value is indicated directly
Example:
0R1 = 0.1 ohm 0R22 = 0.22 ohms
1R0 = 1 ohm 2R2 = 2 point 2 ohms 22R = 22 ohms
2k2 = 2,200 ohms 100k = 100,000 ohms
2M2 = 2,200,000 ohms
1.6 Resistor colour code

Total twelve colors are employed for marking the bands on resistors for specifying its
value. The values indicated by each color bands is as below,
The EIA Standard Color Code Table
Temp.
1st 2nd 3rd band 4th band
Colour Coefficient
band band (multiplier) (tolerance)
band
Black 0 0 ×100 --- ---
Brown 1 1 ×101 ±1% (F) ±100 ppm/°K
Red 2 2 ×102 ±2% (G) ±50 ppm/°K
Orange 3 3 ×103 ±3% ±15 ppm/°K
Yellow 4 4 ×104 ±4% ±25 ppm/°K
Green 5 5 ×105 ±0.5% (D)

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
Blue 6 6 ×106 ±0.25% (C) ±10 ppm/°K
Violet 7 7 ×107 ±0.1% (B) ±5 ppm/°K
Gray 8 8 ×108 ±0.05% (A)
White 9 9 ×109 ±1 ppm/°K
Gold ×0.1 ±5% (J)
Silver ×0.01 ±10% (K)
None ±20% (M)
Common resistors in use in electronics today come in power ratings of 0.25W, 0.5W,
1W and 5W.Size of the resistor increases when its wattage increases. This can be seen
in the figure below.
Fig.1.2 Sizes of resistors for different wattages
Although resistors come in various forms we can divide them up into just two basic
types.
PASSIVE COMPONENTS
• Fixed resistors
• Variable resistors (potentiometers or pots and trimmers)
By construction they are also available in different types like
• Resistor networks: made like strips of ceramic

• Thermistors: change in resistance with heat
• Varistors or VDR (voltage dependent resistor)
• Photo resistors or photoconductive cell: Change in resistance when exposed to light.
• Metal Oxide Resistor (MOV)
Nonlinear resistors
Resistance values detailed above are a constant and do not change if the voltage or
current-flow alters. But there are circuits that require resistors to change value with a
change in temperate or light. This function may not be linear, hence the name Non
linear resistors.
There are several types of nonlinear resistors, but the most commonly used include:
NTC (Negative Temperature Co-efficient) resistors (figure a) - their resistance lowers
with temperature rise. PTC (Positive Temperature Co-efficient) resistors (figure b)-
their resistance increases with the temperature rise. LDRs (figure c) (Light Dependent
Resistors) - their resistance lowers with the increase in light. VDRs (Voltage dependent
Resistors) - their resistance critically lowers as the voltage exceeds a certain value.
Symbols representing these resistors are shown below.
Fig. 1.3: Nonlinear resistors - a. NTC, b. PTC, c. LDR
A Varistor is an electronic component with a significant non-ohmic current-voltage

characteristic. Varistors are often used to protect circuits against excessive transient
voltages. A Varistor is also known as Voltage Dependent Resistor or VDR.

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
Fig. 1.4
A metal oxide Varistors for high voltage (385 V)
1.7 Resistor Symbols

For representing resistors in circuits the following two symbols are used. First symbol is
used in America whereas second symbol is used in Europe.
a) American symbol b) European symbol
Fig.1.5 Resistor Symbols
1.8 Inductance
When current flows through a wire or conductor a magnetic field is created around the
conductor. This field is constituted by circular flux lines formed around the conductor like
rings as shown below.
Magnetic Flux Lines
Current
carrying
Conductor
Fig. 1.6 Flux lines around a current carrying conductor
If current is steady the magnetic field produced by it, around the conductor, is steady. If
the current through the conductor changes the magnetic field around it also changes.
This changing magnetic field induces a voltage or emf in the conductor as explained by
Faraday’s Law.

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
Faraday’s Law: Any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire will cause
a voltage (emf) to be "induced" in the coil.
The polarity of this induced voltage is explained by Heinrich Lenz, a German physicist
by his famous Lenz’s law, which states as follows
Lenz’s Law: The direction of the induced current in a conductor is always such as to
oppose the magnetic field which produced it.
It can also be stated as
The emf induced in an electric circuit always acts in such a direction that the current it
drives around the circuit opposes the change in magnetic flux which induced the emf.
Fig. 1.7 Magnetic field lines in a current carrying Solenoid
Generally an inductor is a piece wire wound in the form of a coil. Current flowing through
the coil produces a magnetic field. The magnetic lines of force around each loop or turn
in the coil effectively add to the lines of force around the adjoining loops, forming a
strong magnetic field within and around the coil. If the current flowing through the coil
changes the flux lines of the magnetic field around the coil also change. And this
changing magnetic field induces a voltage across the coil, which causes an induced

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
current to flow. The direction of this induced current flow is in opposite to that of the
original current flow, which caused the changing magnetic field around the coil. This
property is also called as self-inductance. A component, which possesses this property,
is called an inductor.
1.9 Inductance and its unit of measurement

Inductance is expressed by the symbol L and its unit of measurement is Henry,
indicated by H. It is defined that, one Henry is the inductance when current through the
coil, changing at the rate of one ampere per second, induces one volt across the coil.
Henry is a very larger unit and hence, in practical mill henries (mH) and micro henries
(µH) are common units.
Induced voltage is directly proportional to di/dt, the rate of change of current through the
coil and L, the inductance of the coil, being the constant of proportionality.
Vinduced α di/dt or
Vinduced = L (di/dt).
Where, di/dt is the rate of change of current through the coil.
The above equation shows the greater the rate of change of current, di/dt, or the greater
the inductance, L, the higher the induced voltage.
When the current is constant the induced voltage is directly proportional to the value of
L. In the figure below three inductances of different values are connected in series.
When a current I is flowing through all of them the induced voltages in the inductors are
proportional to their inductance values L. The higher is the L the more the induced
voltage.
Fig.1.8
Physical Factors that affect the value of inductance:
Let us see the factors that affect the value of inductance.

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
The following factors affect the value of inductance.
• No. of turns in the coil: The value of L depends directly on the no. of turns in the coil.
More turns more inductance for a given current.
Fig. 1.9
• Diameter of the coil: The higher the diameter or radius of the coil the more the
inductance.
Fig. 1.10
• Length of the coil: the longer the length for the given no. of turns the less is the L.
That means if the turns are closely placed more inductance otherwise less.
Fig. 1.11
• Core: Generally coils are wound over a circular tube base of plastic or thick paper
called ‘Bobbin’. The center of this bobbin, which is the core of the coil, can be left empty
or a bar of some magnetic material or non-magnetic material is inserted inside.
Depending on this core material the value of inductance will change. If there is no core
material at the center of the coil then it is called air core coil. The inductance value will
increase if there is a magnetic core

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
Fig. 1.12
Core materials:
Non-magnetic materials are – air, wood, plastic, glass and copper. The permeabilities
of these materials are same as for a vacuum. Permeability is the ease with which a
µ’
magnetic field can be established in a given material and it is denoted by ‘µ
Magnetic materials are iron, nickel, steel, cobalt or alloys. The permeabilities of these
materials are hundreds or thousands of times greater than that of a vacuum and are
classified as ferromagnetic.
Value of inductance:
The value of inductance depends on the above mention factors. The relationship
between inductance and these factors is expressed by the equation
N2µA
L =
l
Where L inductance in henries
N no. of turns in the coil
µ Permeability of the core material
A cross sectional area in sq.mtrs and
l length of the coil
1.10 Types of inductors

Inductors are classified according to the type of core material. Three common types of
inductors are
• Air core
PASSIVE COMPONENTS
• Iron core
• Ferrite core
These are indicated by different symbols as
Fig. 1.13
Inductors are available as both fixed and variable types.
1.11 Behavior of an Inductor in DC circuits

To study the behavior of an inductor in a DC circuit let us consider the circuit shown
below. Inductor L is connected in series with a series resistor R. When the switch S
closes a 10V DC is applied to the circuit instantly. At the same instance an equal and
opposite voltage is induced in the L. This induced voltage prevents the current from
instantly rising to the full value. That means the current in the circuit rises to the full
value after some delay. This delay is due to the opposing induced voltage which
decreases slowly and becomes zero, thus permitting the current also to rise in the same
way as it decreases. Similarly, when switch opens the same amount delay occurs for
the current to drop to zero. This delay time depends on the values of both L and R and
is called the Time Constant (τ) of this LR circuit. It is given as
L
__
Time Constant, τ =
R
Where τ time constant in seconds.
L inductance in henries
R resistance in ohms

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
DC circuit with series LR
Fig.1.14
VR
Induced voltage in L Current through LR and Voltage through R

Fig.1.15
Time Constant
In a series LR circuit the current will increase to 63% of its full value in one time
constant interval after a circuit is closed. For reaching 100% of its value it takes 5 time
constant intervals.
No. of time constants % of full value
1 63
2 86
3 95
4 98
5 99 (considered as 100%)
Energy stored in inductor: The energy stored in an inductor depends on the value of
inductance, L, and the current, I, flowing through it.
E = ½ LI2
where:
E = Energy in watt-seconds or joules
L = Inductance in Henrys
I = Current in Amps
1.12 Inductive Reactance
It is the opposition to sinusoidal current and expressed in ohms. Inductive reactance is

given by the formula

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
XL = 2πf L
Where XL is inductive reactance in ohms
f is the frequency of the sine wave current in Hz
L is the inductance value in henries
Voltage and Current Relation: Current through inductor always lags behind the
voltage by 90 on the time scale.
Fig. 1.16
Color code for Inductors: The same Color code used with resistors is also used with
both inductors and capacitors for specifying their values. The below table shows color
coded inductors. The first wide silver band is to indicate that the component is not a
resistor but an inductor. Normally, inductors of milli-Henry values are indicated in color
code.
Value bands
Color coded (mH) Multiplier Tolerance
Value
Inductors st
band band
(1 wide band
to be ignored)
Brown & Black Red Red

1000uH
10
(1millihenry), 2%
100 2%
Blue, Gold
Gold(decimal Nil 6.8 uH, 5%
point)& Gray 5%

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
1.13 CAPACITANCE
What is capacitance?
Basically a capacitor is a device that stores electrical energy in the form of charge and
it’s this ability to store charge is called its capacity or capacitance. Two metallic plates
separated by a non-conducting substance (insulator) between them make a simple
capacitor.
Metallic
Insulator
Metallic plate2
Construction Symbol
The value of capacitance is given by the equation

C = εrA
D
Where,
C - Capacitance
εr - Dielectric constant or relative permittivity of the insulating material
A - Area of the plates
d - Distance between the plates
Charge is stored when an excess of electrons accumulate on one of the plates, creating
a net negative charge with respect to the other plate while a voltage source is
connected to these plates.
The charge stored by a capacitor is given by
Q = CV
Where:
Q = charge in coulombs
C = Capacitance in Farads
V = Volts
Unit of Capacitance
The unit of charge is coulomb. If a capacitor is able to store one coulomb of charge at
one volt it is said to have a capacitance of one Farad. This is a very large unit of

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
measurement. Generally capacitors come in values of micro-farads (uF) on higher side

and in Pico-farads (pF) on the lower side.
Example: 2,500 uF or 2,500 x 10-6 F

10 pF or 10 x 10-12 F
The value of a capacitor can vary from a fraction of a pico-Farad to more than a million
µFarad (µ means 'micro'). Voltage levels can range from a couple to a substantial
couple hundred thousand volts.
Marking of capacitance
Generally, a number printed on its body, representing its capacitance value, marks the
capacitors. Beside this value, the maximum working voltage of capacitor must be
printed on it. Sometimes tolerance, temperature coefficient and some other values are
printed. If, for example, a capacitor is marked as 5µF/40V, it means that capacitance
value is 5 micro Farads and its maximum working voltage is 40v. Any other 5µF
capacitor with higher working voltage can be used instead, but they would be larger in
size and more expensive.
Sometimes, especially with capacitors of low capacity values, capacity may be

represented with colors, as shown in figure below, similar to colour band system used
for resistors. The first two colors, A and B represent the first two digits, third color, C is
the multiplier, fourth color, D is the tolerance, and the fifth color, E is the working voltage.
With disk-ceramic capacitors (figure 2b) and tubular capacitors (figure 2.2c) working
voltage is not specified, because these are used in circuits with low or no DC voltage. If
tubular capacitor does have five color rings on it, then the first color represents the
temperature coefficient, while the other four specify its capacity value in the previously
described way.
Fig. 1.17: Marking the capacitors using color code

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
COLOR DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE

VOLTAGE
0 x 1 pF ±20%
Black
Brown 1 x 10 pF ±1%
Red 2 x 100 pF ±2% 250V
Orange 3 x 1 nF ±2.5%
Yellow 4 x 10 nF 400V
5 x 100 nF ±5%
Green
Blue 6 x 1 µF
Violet 7 x 10 µF
Grey 8 x 100 µF
White 9 x 1000 µF ±10%
Color code table used for marking ceramic capacitors
The figure 2 shows how capacity of miniature tantalum electrolytic capacitors is marked
by colors. The first two colors represent the first two digits and have the same values as
with resistors. The third color represents the multiplier, which the first two digits should
be multiplied by, to get the capacity value expressed in µF. The fourth color represents
the maximal working voltage value.
One important note on the working voltage: capacitor voltage mustn't exceed the
maximal working voltage as capacitor may get destroyed. In case when the voltage
between nodes where the capacitor is about to be connected is unknown, the "worst"
case should be considered. There is the possibility that, due to malfunction of some
other component, voltage on capacitor equals the power supply voltage. If, for example,
the power supply is 12V battery, then the maximal working voltage of used capacitors
should exceed 12V, for security's sake.
1.14 Capacitor in DC circuit

A basic circuit in which a capacitor is charged by a battery is shown below. When the
switch is at 1 position current flows through the capacitor. This current is maximum
initially and it decreases gradually to almost zero value after some time.

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
Fig. 1.19
And the voltage across the capacitor increases exactly in opposite phase to the current
which is shown in the figure below.
Vs
Amplitude Vc
Ic
Time
Fig.1.20 Voltage and current relation in a capacitor
As the current flow progresses more electrons flow into the capacitor and a greater
opposing emf is developed across the capacitor to oppose further current flow. The
difference between battery voltage and the voltage on the capacitor becomes less and
less, and current continues to decrease. The polarity of this opposing emf is just
opposite to that of the applied battery voltage. When the capacitor voltage equals the
battery voltage no further current will flow. This is evident from the Fig.3.
Charging & discharging of capacitor: In the RC circuit shown above the capacitor
charges gradually when the switch is at position 1. And similarly when the switch is at
position 2, it discharges in the same way. This is seen in the below figure. Just like for
an LR circuit an RC circuit also has a time constant effective during these charge and
discharges.

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
Fig. 1.21 Charging & discharging of capacitor
Time constant of an RC circuit is given by

τ = RC
1.15 Time constant with a Capacitor
The time required for a capacitor to acquire or get charged to 63% of the voltage value
of the source is called its Time Constant (τ) and is proportional to the capacitance value
and the resistance to the flow of current.
Thus the time constant of a resistance - capacitance circuit is:
τ=RxC
Where, τ = time in seconds
R = resistance in ohms
C = capacitance in farads
The time in this formula is the time to acquire 63% of the voltage value of the source. It
is also the discharge time if we were discharging the capacitance.
For example,
If C = 4.7 uF and R = 1M ohms
Then T = R x C = [1,000,000 X 0.000,0047] = 4.7 seconds..
1.16 The energy is stored in a capacitor
When a capacitor is charged, energy is stored in it in the form of electrostatic charge.

This energy is directly proportional to capacitance value and the applied voltage, which
is given as below given by
2
E = ½ CV
Where:
En = Energy in watt-seconds or joules
C = Capacitance in Farads
V = Volts

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
If the charged capacitor were connected across a light bulb, for example, the excess
electrons would flow from the negative plate through the light filament to the positive
plate of the capacitor; the light bulb might glow for an instant.
1.17 Behavior of Capacitors with AC and DC voltages

Capacitors will pass AC currents but not DC. Throughout electronic circuits this very
important property is taken advantage of to pass ac or RF signals from one stage to
another while blocking any DC component from the previous stage.
12V DC 0 V DC
IN OUT
50 mV 50 mV
AC AC
Capacitor passing AC and blocking DC
Current and Voltage Relation: Current in capacitor leads voltage across it by 90 on

time scale.
Fig. 1.22
1.18 Types of Capacitors
They also come in a variety of materials, to name a few:
♦ Aluminum foil,
♦ Polypropylene,
♦ Polyester
♦ Metalised Polyester (Mylar),
♦ Polystyrene,
♦ Polycarbonate,
♦ Kraft Paper,
♦ Mica,
♦ Teflon,
♦ Epoxy,
♦ Oil-filled,

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
♦ Electrolyte,
◊ Aluminum
◊ Tantalum,
◊ Niobium. (The latest product in research)
Let us view some of them and their specific characteristics and advantages.
Electrolytic Capacitors: Electrolytic capacitors use a valve metal for, at least, one of its
electrodes. The commonly used metals are aluminum and tantalum. Recently niobium is
also being used. This metal when operated in an electrolytic cell as the anode forms a
layer of dielectric oxide.
The term electrolytic capacitor is applied to any capacitor in which the dielectric layer is
formed by an electrolytic method. The capacitor does not necessarily contain an
electrolyte.
The oxide layer is formed by placing the metal in a bath containing a suitable forming
electrolyte, and applying a voltage between the metal as anode and another electrode
as cathode. The oxide grows at a rate determined by the current flowing, but this rate of
growth decreases until the oxide has reached a limiting thickness determined by the
voltage. For most practical purposes it may be assumed that the thickness of the oxide
is proportional to the forming voltage.
Conducting Dielectric oxide

layer Sealing
Electrolyte
Anode
Cathode
Electrode
Electrode
Cathode Anode
Terminal Terminal
Fig. 1.23 Schematic Construction of an Electrolytic capacitor.
All electrolytic capacitors are polarized capacitors which cannot tolerate reverse
voltages. Reverse voltage causes excess current to flow which heats up the capacitors
and leads to explosion.
Aluminum capacitors: Aluminum electrodes are made by using a thin oxidation

membrane. This is the most common type of polarized capacitor.

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
Fig. 1.24
Applications: Ripple filters, timing circuits.
When one uses this type of capacitor in a circuit, the thumb-rule for the rated working
voltage is to choose twice the supply voltage. Example, if supply voltage is 12 volt ,
choose a 24volt (25V) type.
Tantalum capacitors: These are also electrolytic and polarized capacitors. The
electrodes are made of Tantalum Pentoxide. When tantalum powder is baked in order to
solidify it, a crack forms inside. An electric charge can be stored on this crack. These
are small in size compared to aluminum capacitors.
Fig. 1.25
Super Capacitors: This is a recent development with capacitance designated in

Farads! It gives very high capacitance values like 0.47 Farad (470,000 µF). Despite the
large capacitance value, its physical dimensions are relatively small. It is also polarized.
Polyester Film: This capacitor uses a thin polyester film as a dielectric.
Fig. 1.26
Polypropylene: Thin polypropylene film is dielectric. Mainly used when a higher

tolerance is needed than that polyester capacitors can offer.
Fig. 1.27
Polystyrene: It uses Polystyrene as dielectric. Copper leaf or aluminum foil is used for
plates or electrodes. These plates are formed or rolled into a coil. So these capacitors
are not suitable for high frequency applications.

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
Fig. 1.28
Mylar or Metalized Polyester Film: Dielectric made of Polyester or "Mylar"(DuPont

trade name). It is a good all-round capacitor.
Fig. 1.29
Epoxy: Manufactured using an epoxy dipped polymers as a protective coating.
Fig. 1.30
Ceramic: Constructed with materials such as titanium acid barium for dielectric. Comes
in very small size and value, very cheap, reliable. Ceramic capacitors are typically
chosen for lower capacitance applications,
Fig. 1.31
Multilayer Ceramic: Dielectric is made up of many layers. Small in size very good
temperature stability excellent frequency stable characteristics.
Fig. 1.32
Silver-Mica: Mica is used as a dielectric. Used in resonance circuits, frequency filters,

and military RF applications.

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
Fig. 1.33
Variable capacitors: Trimmers and tuning capacitors are variable capacitors.
Comparison of
Fig. 1.34
Comparison of R, L and C impedances
Fig. 1.35 Impedance chart of R, L, and C
ANNEXURE
Colour Codes for Capacitors
Below are the pictures of different types of color code techniques used with capacitors.
5 Band Ceramic Capacitors 5 Dot or Band Ceramic Capacitors

one wide band)

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
Radial or Axial Lead Ceramic Dipped Tantalum Capacitor Standard Button Mica
Capacitors Capacitors
(6 Dots or Band System)

Fig. 1.36
Ceramic Feed through Electrolytic Tantalum Capacitors
(4 colors code)
Capacitors
Electrolytic Tantalum Polist Irene Capacitors

Capacitors (3 colors code)
Film Type Capacitors Ceramic Disk Capacitors
Fig. 1.37

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
Postage Stamp Mica Ceramic Capacitors Pin-up

Capacitors
Ceramic Capacitors Class I
Ceramic Capacitors Class II
Fig. 1.38
• A: first significant figure

• B: second significant figure
• C: third significant figure
• D: multiplier (factor by which the significant figures are multiplied to yield the nominal
value)
• E: tolerance
• F: When used on composition resistors indicate the established reliability failure rate
level. On film resistors, this band is approximately 1.5 times the width of the other
bands, and indicates type of terminal.
On Capacitors indicate the working voltage.
• G-H: temperature coefficient

LAWS AND THEOREMS
CHAPTER 2
LAWS AND THEOREMS
2.0 Introduction
Electric circuits are made using the passive components like resistors, capacitors and
inductors and these are connected in different fashions depending on the requirement.
For calculating the currents and voltages in and across these components different laws
and theorems have been developed and are being used. Let us have a look at these
laws and theorems
2.1 Kirchhoff’s Laws: These are a pair of circuit laws that deal with the conservation of
charge and energy in electrical circuits, and were first described in 1845 by Gustav
Kirchhoff, a German physicist. These are widely used in electrical engineering for
analyzing simple electric circuits. They are also called Kirchhoff's rules or simply
Kirchhoff’s laws. These laws are
i) Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) and
ii) Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
2.2 Theorems There are number of theorems for analyzing circuits. Some of these are
i) Star-Detla Transformations
ii) Superposition Theorem
iii) Nortan’s Theorem
iv) Thevenin’s Theorem
v) Maximum power transfer Theorem
vi) Reciprocity Theorem
vii) Compensation Theorem
Kirchhoff’s Current Law: This law states that the algebraic sum of all the currents at a
junction is zero. That is the sum of the currents into a junction is equal to the sum of the
currents out of the junction. In other words it states, the total current into a junction is
equal to the total current out of the junction. This can be illustrated by the below figure.
Total incoming currents towards point or node) A is
IT in = I1 + I2 + I3

LAWS AND THEOREMS
Similarly, the total out going current from point A is
I2 I3
I1
A
I4
I5
IT out = I4 + I5
As per KCL IT in = IT out
Therefore, I1 + I2 + I3 = I4 + I5 or
I1 + I2 + I3 - (I4 + I5) = 0
In the circuit shown below as per Kirchhoff’s 1st law we get
I1 = I2 +I3
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law: This law states that the algebraic sum of all the voltages
around a closed path is zero. In other words, the sum of the voltage drops equals the
total source voltage.

LAWS AND THEOREMS
In the circuit shown above there are three voltage drops and one voltage source. As
per KVL we get,
Vs - V1 – V2 – V3 = 0
Here it is to be noticed that source voltage has a sign opposite to that of the voltage
drops. The above equation can be written as
Vs = V1 + V2 + V3
Polarities of voltage drops: The polarity of voltage drops around a closed circuit is
always opposite to that of the source voltage. In this loop the ends of the resistors
nearer to the positive terminal of the voltage source Vs are to be marked as (+) positive
and the ends nearer to the negative terminal of the battery are (–) negative.
Application of Kirchhoff’s Laws: These laws are extensively used in every method of
network analysis for writing voltage or current equations for loop or node or branch while
solving them.
For instance consider the figure shown below
I1 I3
VS1 VS2
I2
The 3 I1, I2, I3 currents through the 3 resistors R1, R2 and R3 are unknown. The three
unknowns can be found by solving 3 equations:
I1 = I2 + I3 (1)
VS1 – I1R1 – I2R2 = 0 (2)
VS2 + I3R3 – I2R2 = 0 (3)

LAWS AND THEOREMS
2.3 THEOREMS
2.3.1 STAR –DELTA (Y-∆) TRANSFORMATIONS
Star delta transformation is a simple technique in solving complex networks. Basically any three
circuit elements, ie. Resistive, inductive, and capacitive may be connected in two different
ways. One way is called star connection or Y connection. The other way of connecting these
elements is called delta connection. These networks are shown below.
The "Delta," or ∆ is also known as the "Pi," or π configuration, and the star or "Y" is also known
as the "T" configuration.
Fig. 2.1 Delta and Star networks
Fig. 2.2 Pi and T representation
It is possible to calculate the proper values of resistors necessary to form one kind of
network (∆ or Y) that behaves identically to the other kind, as analyzed from the terminal
connections alone. That is, if we had two separate resistor networks, one ∆ and one Y,
each with its resistors hidden from view, with nothing but the three terminals (A, B, and
C) exposed for testing, the resistors could be sized for the two networks so that there
would be no way to electrically determine one network apart from the other. In other
words, equivalent ∆ and Y networks behave identically.

LAWS AND THEOREMS
There are several equations used to convert one network to the other:
∆ and Y networks are seen frequently in 3-phase AC power systems but even then they
are usually balanced networks (all resistors equal in value) and conversion from one to
the other need not involve such complex calculations. When would we ever need to use
these equations?
A prime application for ∆-Y conversion is in the solution of unbalanced bridge circuits,
such as the one below:
Fig. 2.3
Solution of this circuit with Branch Current or Mesh Current analysis is fairly involved,
and neither the Millman nor Superposition Theorems are of any help, since there's only
one source of power. Even Thevenin's or Norton's Theorem, also it is not easy to solve
it.
If we were to treat resistors R1, R2, and R3 as being connected in a ∆ configuration (Rab,
Rac, and Rbc, respectively) and generate an equivalent Y network to replace them, we
could turn this bridge circuit into a (simpler) series/parallel combination circuit:

LAWS AND THEOREMS
Fig. 2.4
After the ∆-Y conversion
Fig. 2.5
If we perform our calculations correctly, the voltages between points A, B, and C will be
the same in the converted circuit as in the original circuit, and we can transfer those
values back to the original bridge configuration.

LAWS AND THEOREMS
Fig.2.6
Resistors R4 and R5, of course, remain the same at 18 Ω and 12 Ω, respectively.
Analyzing the circuit now as a series/parallel combination, we arrive at the following
figures:
We must use the voltage drops figures from the table above to determine the voltages
between points A, B, and C, seeing how the add up (or subtract, as is the case with
voltage between points B and C):
Fig.2.7

LAWS AND THEOREMS
Now that we know these voltages, we can transfer them to the same points A, B, and C
in the original bridge circuit:
Fig. 2.8
Voltage drops across R4 and R5, of course, are exactly the same as they were in the
converted circuit. Now we determine resistor currents through the use of Ohm's Law
(I = E/R):
Fig. 2.8
The voltage figures, as read from left to right, represent voltage drops across the five
respective resistors, R1 through R5.
REVIEW:

LAWS AND THEOREMS
• "Delta" (∆) networks are also known as "Pi" (π) networks.

• "Y" networks are also known as "T" networks.
• ∆ and Y networks can be converted to their equivalent counterparts with the proper
resistance equations. By "equivalent," I mean that the two networks will be
electrically identical as measured from the three terminals (A, B, and C).
• A bridge circuit can be simplified to a series/parallel circuit by converting half of it
from a ∆ to a Y network. After voltage drops between the original three connection
points (A, B, and C) have been solved for, those voltages can be transferred back to
the original bridge circuit, across those same equivalent points.
2.3.2 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

The Superposition Theorem is an important concept in circuit analysis. In a multi-source
circuit it allows you to determine voltage across a component or branch current by
calculating the effect of each source individually, and then algebraically adding each
contribution.
Superposition may be considered for circuit analysis when:
1. There are two or more energy sources.

2. The sources are either voltage or current sources.
3. The circuit is not too complex.
There are five steps used in applying the Superposition theorem to a circuit.
1. Select one energy source.

2. Remove all other sources by
• Replacing voltage sources with a short while retaining any internal source
resistance.
• Replacing current sources with an open while retaining any internal
resistances.
3. Calculate the desired voltage drops or branch currents paying attention to the voltage
polarities and current directions.
VS1 VS2
Fig. 2.9
4. Repeat steps 1 through 3 for each other source individually.
5. Algebraically add the contributions of each voltage or current.

LAWS AND THEOREMS
Look at the circuit above. In this there are two voltage sources VS1 and VS2. Now apply
superposition theorem in the above steps
1. Select one energy source. VS1 first

2. Remove all other sources. Other voltage source is VS2. Remove it by replacing with its
internal resistance if any.
Our circuit now looks like the one below.
VS1
Fig. 2.10
3. Calculate the desired voltage drops or branch currents paying attention to the voltage
polarities and current directions.
4. Repeat steps 1 through 3 similarly, for other source, VS2, individually.
5. Algebraically add the contributions of each voltage or current.
Example Problem:
For the circuit below, let us use the following values and find out the voltage at point C
VS1 VS2
Fig. 2.11
VS1 = 6V; VS2 = 12V; R1 = 120; R2 = 240; R3 = 200

With two independent sources in separate branches, we cannot easily solve for any of
the node voltages or branch currents. Suppose that, we want to calculate the current
through R2. Let us use the Superposition Theorem to solve this.
Only VS1 connected:
C1
VS1

LAWS AND THEOREMS
Fig.2.12
• Removing VS2, and replacing it with a short, we get the circuit as above. We will
now solve for RC1 and VC1, voltage at point C
RC1 = R2 x R3 / R2 + R3 we get
RC1 = 200 x 240 / 200 + 240 = 109
C1
RC1
Fig. 2.13
We now have the below shown circuit. We will now solve for VC1. The easiest method
is to use the voltage divider theorem.
VC1 = VS1 x RC1 / RC1 + R1

= 6 x 109 / 109 + 120
= 2.85 V
Only Vs2 connected: C2
VS2
Fig. 2.14
• Now we will remove VS1, and replace it with a short. We are left with the circuit as
shown above. We will now solve for VC2'
• Starting on the left, we see two resistors in parallel between node C'' and ground, R1
and R2. We would calculate the value of RC2, the equivalent resistance for these
two parallel resistors.
RC2 = R1 x R2 / R1 + R2
RC2 = 120 x 240 / 120 + 240 = 80
• We now get below circuit. We will now solve for VC2. The easiest method is to use
the voltage divider theorem.
VC2 = VS2 x RC2 / RC2 + R3
Fig. 2.15

LAWS AND THEOREMS
VC2 = 12V x80 / 80 + 200 = 3.42
Now, we determine the value of VC by adding the contribution of each source acting
independently, VC1 and VC2. If we do, we have:
VC = VC1 + VC2
VC = 2.85V + 3.42V
VC = 6.27V
2.3.3 THEVENIN'S THEOREM

The Thevenin's Theorem is a process by which a complex circuit is reduced to an
equivalent series circuit consisting of a single voltage source, VTH, a series resistance,
RTH, and a load resistance, RL. After creating the Thevenin Equivalent Circuit, you may
then easily determine the load voltage VL or the load current IL. It is the dual of Norton's
Theorem. Consider the following circuit.
In the circuit above, we see a single voltage source driving a series-parallel circuit
where RL is the load resistance. Now let us find out the voltage across the load resistor,
RL with the help of thevenin’s theorem.
The steps involved for applying thevenin’s theorem to solve this are:
Fig.2.16
1. Open the load resistor RL connected between A and B terminals

2. Now determine the voltage VTH across the open terminals
3. Determine the resistance RTH between the open terminals with all voltage sources
shorted and current sources opened
4. Now connect the VTH and RTH in series to produce the complete thevenin equivalent
circuit and calculate VL, load voltage

LAWS AND THEOREMS
Let us apply thevenin’s theorem for solving the load current and voltage in the above
circuit.
Remove the load resistor RL at terminals A and B. If we look in through the load
terminals, we would see VTH, the Open Circuit Voltage. This can be seen in the
schematic below
• Since the circuit is open at terminals A and B, no current flows through R3.
• With no current through R3, there is no voltage drop across R3.
• Therefore, VTH = VR2.
Fig.2.17
The equation for VTH is:
VTH = Vs *R2 / R1+R2 (1)
We now have the Thevenin Equivalent Voltage, VTH, and must determine the Open
Circuit Resistance, RTH (Thevenin Equivalent Resistance). To accomplish this we have
to:
• Remove all source voltages and replace them with a short while retaining any
internal source resistance.
• Remove any current sources and replace them with an open while retaining any
• Look in through terminals A and B and calculate RTH.
Fig. 2.18

LAWS AND THEOREMS
If we look in through terminals A and B of the circuit above, we see the Thevenin
Equivalent Resistance, RTH
Fig. 2.19
The equation for RTH is:
RTH = R3+R1*R2 / R1+R2 (2)
Now we redraw the thevenin equivalent circuit with VTH and RTH in series with RL. This is
shown in figure.
Now, it is easy to calculate the load voltage, VL across RL with the equation
VL = VTH*RL / RTH + RL (3)
Problem: In the circuit above if the values are as given below what is the voltage
across the load.
R1 = 3.9k; R2 = 8.2k; R3 = 4.7k; RL = 3.3k and
VS = 10V
Example Problem:
Consider the circuit below, which was our previous example. Calculate VRL load
voltage, using Thevenin's Theorem for the following circuit parameters:
R1 = 3.9k R3 = 4.7k VS = 10V
R2 = 8.2k RL = 3.3k

LAWS AND THEOREMS
Fig. 2.20
Remove the load at terminals A and B. If we look in through the load terminals, we
would see VTH, the Open Circuit Voltage. This can be seen in the circuit below.
• Since the circuit is open at terminals A and B, no current flows through R3.
• With no current through R3, there is no voltage drop across R3.
• Therefore, VTH = VR2.
Fig. 2.21
The equation for VTH is: VTH = Vs *R2/R1+R2
Therefore VTH = 10*8200 / 3900+8200 = 6.78V
We now have the Thevenin Equivalent Voltage, VTH, and must determine the Open
Circuit Resistance, RTH (Thevenin Equivalent Resistance). To accomplish this we:
• Remove all source voltages and replace them with a short while retaining any
• Remove any current sources and replace them with an open while retaining any
Fig. 2.22
• Look in through terminals A and B and calculate RTH.
If we look in terminals A and B of the circuit above, we see the Thevenin
Equivalent Resistance.
• R1 and R2 are connected in parallel, and these two parallel resistances are
connected in series with resistor R3. We have, therefore, a series-parallel circuit.

LAWS AND THEOREMS
The equation for RTH is: RTH = R3+R1*R2/R1+R2
RTH = 4700 + (8200 x 3900)/(8200 + 3900) = 7343
• Now that we have determined the Thevenin Equivalent Resistance and the
Thevenin Equivalent Voltage, we redraw the open circuit as a series circuit
consisting of VTH and RTH. Make sure that the polarity of VTH in the series circuit is
the same as the polarity of the open circuit voltage.
• Reconnect the load, RL to terminals A and B.
• Now, calculate the load voltage by potential divider theorem
The equation for VL is: VL = VTH x (RL / RTH + RL)
We get VL = 2.10V
Fig. 2.23
2.3.4 NORTON'S THEOREM
Norton's Theorem is the dual of Thevenin's Theorem. Like Thevenin’s theorem, it

simplifies a complex network into a simple form with an equivalent current source called
the Norton Short Circuit Current (IN), in parallel with a Norton Equivalent Resistance
(RN), and a parallel load resistance. After creating the Norton Equivalent Circuit, you
may then easily determine the load current IL.
This theorem states that “any load resistance connected between the terminals of a
Norton equivalent circuit will have the same current through it and the same voltage
across it as if it were connected to the terminals of the original circuit.”
IS1 RL
Fig. 2.24
Procedure for Deriving a Norton’s Equivalent Circuit

1. Short the two terminals between which the load resistance is connected
2. Find out the current IN through the shorted terminals

LAWS AND THEOREMS
3. Determine the resistance RN between the two terminals by opening the short and
replacing all voltage sources with a short and current sources with a open
4. Connect IN and RN in parallel to produce the complete Norton equivalent for the
original circuit
• The Norton current, IN, is the short circuit current (the current that flows through a short
that is placed on the load terminals of the network)
• The Norton resistance (RN) is the equivalent resistance obtained by looking into the
network at the open load terminals with sources removed.
Let us use Norton’s Theorem to find out the load current (or voltage) through RL, in the
above circuit.
Supposing that the values for the above circuit are
R1 = 150k; R3 = 220k; IS1 = 10mA; R2 = 100k;
RL = 180k
• First step is to remove the load resistance RL at terminals A and B and replace it with
short
• Since the load terminals are shorted, no current flows through R3.
• IN is IR2, the current flowing through R2. This current may be calculated using the
current divider equation
IN = IS1*R1/R1+R2
This is the Norton Current, IN, also called the short circuit current. It is the current that
would be measured if an Ammeter was connected to the open load terminals.
IS1 IN
Fig. 2.25
We now have the Norton Equivalent Current, and we must determine the Norton
Equivalent resistance. To accomplish this we:
• Remove the short on terminals A and B
• Open all current sources retaining any source resistance

LAWS AND THEOREMS
• Short all voltage sources while retaining any source resistance.

Then we get a circuit like below
RN
Fig. 2.26
Now calculate RN, the Norton’s equivalent resistance, across the terminals A and B. The
equation for RN is:
RN = R3*(R1 + R2) / R1 + R2 + R3
IN RN RL
Fig. 2.27
Now as we have determined the Norton Equivalent Resistance and the Norton
Equivalent Current, we redraw the circuit as a parallel circuit consisting of IN and GN
(RN). Make sure that the direction of IN in the circuit is the same as the direction of the
short circuit current.
• Reconnect the load RL to terminals A and B.

• Now, calculate the load current.
The equation for IL is: IL = IN x RN/ RN + RL
2.3.5 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM:
Many circuits basically consist of sources, supplying voltage, current or power to the
load; for example, a radio speaker system, or a microphone supplying the input signals
to voltage pre-amplifiers. Sometimes it is necessary to transfer maximum voltage,

LAWS AND THEOREMS
current or power from the source to the load. In simple resistive circuit shown below Rs
is the source resistance. For many applications, an important consideration is that
maximum power has to be transferred from source to the load. Now let us find out the
necessary conditions required to transfer the maximum power from source to load. For
example, maximum power transfer is desirable from an output amplifier to a speaker.
It is a fact that more voltage is delivered to the load when the load resistance is high as
compared to the resistance of the source. On the other hand, maximum current is
transferred to the load when the load resistance is small compared to the source
resistance.
But the maximum power transfer theorem states that ‘maximum power is delivered from
source to a load when the load resistance is equal to the source resistance.’
Let use the below circuit for verifying this statement.
Fig. 2.28
Current in the circuit is I = VS / (RS + RL)
Power delivered to the load RL is
2 2 2
P = I RL = VS RL / (RS + RL)
To determine the value of RL for maximum power to be transferred to the load, we have
to set the first derivative of the above equation with respect to RL,
i.e. when dP/d RL equals to zero.
2 2
dP/d RL = d/dRL [ VS RL /( RS + RL) ]
= [VS 2 - (2 RL)( RS + RL)}] /( RS + RL)4
( RS + RL)2 - 2 RL( RS + RL ) = 0

LAWS AND THEOREMS
RS 2+ RL2 + 2 RS RL - 2 RL2 - 2 RS RL = 0
RS 2 - RL2 = 0
RS = RL
So, maximum power will be transferred to the load when load resistance is equal to the
source resistance.
Example: In the circuit shown in figure below determine the value of load resistance
when the load resistance drawn maximum power. Also find the value of the maximum
power.
Fig. 2.29
Solution:
• Let us first assume a load resistance less than source ie less than 25Ω
Say RL = 15Ω
Then the current I = 50/ (25 + 15) = 50/40 = 1.25A
Then the power transferred to the load is P = I2 RL
= 1.25 x 1.25 x 15 = 18.75 W
• Now let us take a load resistance higher than source

Say RL = 30Ω
Current I = 50/ (25+30) = 0.9A
The power consumed by the load is P = I2 RL
= 0.9 x 0.9 x 30 = 24.3W

LAWS AND THEOREMS
• Now let us take equal load resistance RL = 25Ω
The current I = 50/ (25 + RL) = 50/50 = 1 A
The power delivered to the load is
P = I2 RL = 1 x 25 = 25w
Now it is proved that only when the load resistance is equal to source resistance the
maximum power is transferred from the source to load.
2.3.6 RECIPROCITY THEOREM:

According to this theorem if we apply some input (from either a current source, or a
voltage source) to a circuit, which consists of resistors, inductors, capacitors and
transformers, including coupled circuits, the ratio of response (output) in any element to
the input is constant even when the position of the input and output are interchanged.
This is called the reciprocity theorem.
Consider the network below. AA’ are input terminals and BB’ are output terminals. The
application of voltage across AA” produces current I at BB”.
Fig. 2.30
Now if the positions of the source and responses are interchanged, by connecting the
voltage source across BB’, the resultant current ‘I’ will be at terminals AA’. According to
the Reciprocity Theorem, the ratio of input to response is the same in both cases. This
theorem is also valid for the networks containing a single current source.
Example: Verify the reciprocity theorem for the network shown below.

LAWS AND THEOREMS
Solution:
Total resistance in the circuit = 2+[3|| (2+6||3)] = 3.71Ω.
the current drawn by the circuit is
IT = 20/3.71 = 5.39A
Now by applying current divider formula to the below circuit
This I2 gets divided into IA and IB between 6 and 3 ohms resistances.

LAWS AND THEOREMS
The current in 3Ω as shown in the above figure is IB. Therefore the current through
branch BB’ is I = 1.54A.
Applying the reciprocity theorem, by interchanging the source and response, we get
Total resistance in the circuit = 5.09Ω
Total current drawn by the circuit = 20/5.09 = 3.93A
By solving similarly as in the above case, we get the current in the 2 Ω branch AA’ is I =
1.54A
If we compare the results in both cases, the ratio of input to response is the same, i.e.
20/1.54 = 12.99
2.3.7 COMPENSATION THEOREM:

The compensation theorem states that any element in the network linear or non-linear
may be replaced by a voltage source of magnitude equal to the current passing through
the element multiplied by the value of the element, provided the currents and voltages in
other parts of the circuit remain unaltered. Consider a circuit shown below in fig.2.31a.
The element R can be replaced by voltage source V, which is equal to the current I
passing through R multiplied by R as shown in fig.2.31b.
Fig. 2.31

LAWS AND THEOREMS
This theorem is useful to find the changes in current or voltage when the value of
resistance is changed in the circuit. Consider a network containing a resistance R
shown in fig.2.32a. A small change in resistance R that is R+∆R causes a change in
current in all other branches. This current increment in other branches is equal to the
current produced by the voltage source of voltage I.∆R, which is placed in series with
altered resistance as shown in fig.2.32 b.
Fig. 2.32
Example: determine the current flowing in the ammeter having 1Ω internal resistance
connected in series with a 3Ω resistor as shown below.
Solution: The current flowing through 3Ω branch is I3 = 1.11A. If we connect the

ammeter having 1Ω resistance to the 3Ω branch, there is a change in resistance. The
changes in currents in other branches then result as if a voltage source of voltage I3.∆R
= 1.11x1 = 1.11v is inserted in the 3Ω branch as shown in fig. shown below
Current due to this 1.11V source is calculated.
Current I’3 = 0.17A
This current is opposite to the current I3 in the 3Ω branch. Hence the ammeter reading
= 1.11- 0.17 = 0.94A.

LAWS AND THEOREMS
CHAPTER 3
TRANSFORMER & HYBRID
3.1 Mutual inductance:

We studied about the property called self-inductance, which is associated with individual
coils or inductors. Now let us study about mutual inductance, which is a property
associated with two or more coils or inductors that are in close proximity.
(a) (b)
Fig.3.1
Let us consider two coils, L1 and L2 as shown in fig.1 (a) which are sufficiently close
together so that the flux produced by i1, current, flowing in coil L1 also links coil L2. We
assume that the coils do not move with respect to one another and the medium in which
the flux is established has a constant permeability. Sometimes the two coils may be
arranged on a common magnetic core as shown in fig.1 (b). The two coils are
magnetically coupled but act as separate circuits. It is possible to relate the voltage
induced in one coil to the rate of change of current in the other coil. When a voltage v1
is applied across L1 a current i1 starts flowing in this coil and produces a flux, φ. This flux
also link coil L2. If i1 were to change with respect to time the flux φ would also change
with respect to time. The time-varying flux surrounding the second coil L2 induces an
emf, or voltage, across coil L2 and this voltage is proportional to the time rate of change
of the current flowing through the first coil, L1. Now these two coils, or circuits, are said
to be inductively coupled and they are called coupled elements or coupled circuits and
the induced voltage or emf is called the voltage or emf of mutual induction and is
given by v2 (t) = M di1(t)/dt volts, where v2 is the voltage induced in coil L2 and M is
the coefficient of proportionality and is called the coefficient of mutual inductance, or
simply mutual inductance.

LAWS AND THEOREMS
v2 (t) = M di1 (t)/dt
Fig.3.2
Similarly, if a varying current i2 is made to flow through coil L2 with L1 open, a voltage v1
is induced across coil L1. The voltage v1, due to mutual inductance, is given by v1 (t) =
M di2(t)/dt
V1 (t) = M di2 (t)/dt
Fig.3.3
The mutual inductance M in both the cases above is also measured in Henrys and is
positive. But the mutually induced voltage, M di/dt, may be either positive or negative
depending on the physical construction of the coil and reference directions of currents.
To determine the polarity of the mutually induced voltage the dot convention is used.
Let us consider the figure given below. It shows two inductances L1 and L2, and a
mutual inductance M. If these inductors form a portion of a network, currents i1 and i2
Assumed entering into the dotted terminals and voltages v1 and v2 are developed across
L1 and L2. These are given as
V1 (t) = L1 di1 (t)/dt ± M di2 (t)/dt
V2 (t) = L2 di2 (t)/dt ± M di1 (t)/dt

In both the above equations the first term on the RHS is self induced voltage and
second term is mutually induced voltage. The self induced voltage is designated with
positive and the mutually induced voltage is either positive or negative depending on the
direction of winding of the coil and can be decided by the presence of dots placed at
one end of each of the two coils. The convention is as follows.

LAWS AND THEOREMS
Fig.3.4
If two terminals belonging to different coils in a coupled circuit are marked identically
with dots then for the same direction of current relative to like terminals, the magnetic
flux of self and mutual induction in each coil add together. The physical basis of the dot
convention can be verified by examining figure given below. Two coils ab and cd are
shown wound on a common iron core.
Fig.3.5
It is seen from the above figure that the direction of the winding of the coil ab is clock-
wise around the core as viewed at X and that of cd is anti-clockwise as viewed at Y. Let
the direction of current i1 in the first coil be from a to b, and increasing with time.
The flux produced by i1 in the core has a direction which may be found by right
hand rule, and which is downwards in the left limb of the core. The flux also
increases with time in the direction shown at X. Now suppose that the current i2
in the second coil is from c to d, and increasing with time. The application of the
right hand rule indicates that the flux produced by i2 in the core has an upward
direction in the right limb of the core. The flux also increases with time in the
direction shown at Y. the assumed currents i1 and i2 produce fluxes in the core

LAWS AND THEOREMS
that are additive. The terminals a and c of the two coils attain similar polarities
simultaneously. The two simultaneously positive terminals are identified by two
dots by the side of the terminals as shown in fig. given below.
The other possible location of the dots is the ends of the coils to get additive
fluxes in the core, i.e. at b and d. It can be concluded that the mutually induced
voltage is positive when currents i1 and i2 both enter (or leave) the windings by
the dotted terminals. If the current in one winding enters at the dot-marked
terminal and the current
Fig.3.6
in the other winding leaves at the dot-marked terminal, the voltages due to self and
mutual induction in any coil have opposite signs.
Example 1 Using dot convention write voltage equations for the coils shown in fig.
below.
Fig.3.7
Solution: Since the currents are entering at the dot marked terminals the mutually
induced voltages or the sign of the mutual inductance is positive; using the sign
convention for the self inductance, the equation for the voltages are
V1 (t) = L1 di1 (t)/dt + M di2 (t)/dt

LAWS AND THEOREMS
V2 (t) = L2 di2 (t)/dt + M di1 (t)/dt
Example 2 Using dot convention write voltage equations for the transformer shown in
fig below.
Fig. 3.8
Solution: Current i1 is entering the first coil at the dot-marked terminal and current i2 is
leaving the second coil from the dot end terminal. If right hand rule is applied the flux
due to i1 is in downward direction through the core. The flux due to i2 is also downward
but at the opposite side of the core. Both the fluxes oppose each other and the voltages
induced due to mutual inductance should be taken as negative. These equations are
given below.
V1 (t) = L1 di1 (t)/dt - M di2 (t)/dt
V2 (t) = L2 di2 (t)/dt - M di1 (t)/dt

3.1.1 Transformer
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers energy from one electrical circuit to
another by magnetic coupling without using any physical connection between them. It is
often used to convert between high and low voltages and for impedance transformation.
The transformer is an important element in the development of high-voltage power
transmission and central generating stations
A transformer works on the principle of mutual inductance between two (or more) coils.
It is constructed with two or more windings or coils wound over a common magnetic
core. To one winding supply source is connected and this is called as the PRIMARY
winding. To the other winding (or windings) load is connected and this winding is called
the SECONDARY winding. These coils are linked by a common magnetic field passing
through the core. All or part of the flux caused by the current in primary coil passes
through the common magnetic core and links with the secondary coil. This flux linkage
induces a voltage in the secondary coil. The magnitude of this voltage depends on the
turns ratio between the primary and secondary windings.

LAWS AND THEOREMS
The figures below show the construction of a transformer. The windings Np and Ns are
the primary and secondary windings. Voltage source Vp is applied across the primary
winding and a load R is connected across the secondary winding. Vp and Vs, and Ip
and Is are the primary and secondary voltages and currents respectively.
A transformer allows us to ‘step up’ or ‘step down’ the magnitude of an a.c. voltage by
an amount, which depends upon the transformer’s turns ratio between the coils.
The turns ratio of the transformer is given by
Turns ratio = Ns / Np
Where NP is the no. of turns in primary winding and
NS is the no. of turns in secondary winding
Fig. 3.9 Transformer Construction
Fig. 3.10 Transformer symbol
And also

LAWS AND THEOREMS
Where VP is the voltage at the primary and
VS is the voltage of secondary winding
Relation between the primary and the secondary currents is described by the following
formula:
Transfer of electrical energy from the primary to the secondary coil is carried out via
magnetic field. To prevent energy losses, it is necessary to assure that the whole
magnetic field created by the primary coil encompasses the secondary. This is achieved
by using the iron core, which has much lower magnetic resistance value than the air,
thus containing almost entire magnetic field within the core.
3.2 Basic characteristics of transformers:
Transformer basic characteristics are primary and secondary voltage, primary and
secondary current (or power) and the efficiency.
Primary voltage equals the network voltage. This value can be 220V or 110V,
depending on the standards of the country. Secondary voltage is usually much lower,
say 6V, 9V, 15V, 24V, etc, but can also be higher than 220V, depending on the
transformer's purpose. Relation of the primary and the secondary voltage is given with
the following formula:
Where Np and Ns represent the number of turns of primary and secondary windings,
respectively. For instance, if Ns equals 80 and Np equals 743, as shown in figure below,
then secondary voltage will be:

LAWS AND THEOREMS
Fig.3.11
Relation between the primary and the secondary current is described by the following
formula:
For instance, if RL equals 30Ω, than the secondary current equals Ip = Vp/RL = 24V/30Ω
= 0.8A. If Ns equals 80 and Np equals 743, primary current will be:
Transformer power can be calculated by one of the following formulae:
In our example, the power equals:
Everything said up to this point relates to the ideal transformer. Clearly, there is no such
thing as losses are inevitable. They are present due to the fact that the coil wire exhibits
a certain resistance value, which makes the transformer warm up during the work, and
the fact that the magnetic field created by the primary does not entirely encompass the
secondary coil. This is why the electrical power of the secondary current has to be lower
than the power of the primary current. Their ratio is called efficiency:

LAWS AND THEOREMS
For transformers with power measuring hundreds of Watts, efficiency is about η=0.85,
meaning that 85% of the electrical energy taken from the network goes to the load,
while the 15% is lost due to previously mentioned factors in the form of heat. For
example, if electrical power of the load equals Vs*Is = 30W, then the power which the
transformer draws from the network equals:
3.3 Impedance Matching with Transformer

The principle use of transformers is in the power supply circuits for voltage
transformation and in the power transmission and distribution of commercially generated
electricity. However, a second very important use of transformers is as impedance
matching devices. It is known that for maximum power delivery from a source to a load,
the load must have the same resistance as the internal resistance of the source. This
can be accomplished by using a transformer to match the two resistances.
The relationship between the ratios of different transformer parameters is given as
Where N1,N2 are primary and secondary turns respectively

V1, V2 are primary and secondary voltages respectively
And I1, I2 is primary and secondary currents respectively
If the resistance of the load is RL,
Then RL = V2/I2.
However, if a transformer is inserted between the power source and the load, then from
the transformer equation, we have
V1 = (N1/N2)V2
And I1 = (N2/N1)I2
Now the effective resistance RL’ of the load in the primary circuit is given by
RL’ = V1/I1 = (N1/N2) V2 / (N2/N1) I2

LAWS AND THEOREMS
RL’ = V1/I1 = (N1/N2)2 V2/I2
But V2/I2 = RL
Then RL’= (N1/N2)2 RL
RL’ is nothing but the source resistance. This means that,

2
Effective Primary resistance = Load resistance in secondary X Turns ratio
Thus, by choosing the appropriate turns ratio, the effective load resistance RL’ can be
made equal to the internal resistance of the source, no matter what value the actual
load resistance RL takes. This process is called impedance matching.
Example 1: What turns ratio is required for a transformer to match a 600Ω audio power
amplifier with an 8Ω speaker?
Solution: Given
The source resistance, R’ = 600Ω
Load resistance, R = 8Ω
We know R’ = (N1/N2)2 R
600 = (N1/N2)2 x 8
(N1/N2)2 = 600/8 = 8.66
Example 2: The output voltage of an amplifier is 50V. This output voltage is to drive a
loud speaker of 4Ω and 25W power, through a matching transformer. What should be
the turns ratio for the transformer?
Solution: the parameters given are

V1 =50V; R = 4 and P2 = 25W
Power in the secondary of transformer is 25W

P = V2/R
Therefore, (V2)2/4 = 25
V2 = 25/4 = 2.5V
Assuming no losses in the transformer,
The turns ratio N1/N2 = V1/V2
= 50/2.5 = 20
The turns ratio of needed transformer is N1/N2 = 20

LAWS AND THEOREMS
Types of Transformers
There are different types of transformers based on the field of usage. They are Power
transformers, RF transformers, IF transformers, AF transformers, auto transformers and
Pulse transformers etc.
H Y B R I D.
3.4 What is a Hybrid?

Any device, which provides impedance matching between certain circuits and isolation
between other circuits, may be referred as a 'Hybrid'. It may be a transformer, a
resistance bridge, or a wave-guide device for Microwave Frequencies.
A hybrid can be considered as simply a network having four arms or parts as shown in
the figure below. The function of the Hybrid is to permit signals to pass freely between
adjacent arms of the network, but to block signal passage between opposite arms.
Fig 3.12 Hybrid Network
• Ideally, a hybrid would have infinite loss between opposite sides and at the same time,
there would be no loss between adjacent arms.
• The isolation between transmit and receive branches of the four wire line is called 'Trans
Hybrid Loss’.
• The undesired loss between the two-wire line and the four-wire line is usually called
'Insertion Loss'. If the balance is not maintained, echoes may occur.
There are mainly two types of hybrids namely
• Transformer Hybrid and

• Resistance Hybrid.
3.5 Transformer hybrid:

It consists of basically two transformers and a balancing network. These transformers
can be either 4-winding type or 3-winding type as shown below. The turns ratio ratio is
1:1:1:1: and impedance of each winding is 300 Ω for 4-winding type. For the 3-winding
type turns ratio is 2:1:1 and impedance of primary is 600 Ω and the two secondary

LAWS AND THEOREMS
windings impedance is 300 Ω each. The impedances are also in the same ratio and are
shown in figures below.
(a) Four winding type (b) Three winding type
Fig. 3.13 Hybrid transformers
3.5.1 Construction of Transformer Hybrid: Take two hybrid transformers of 4-winding type.
Connect two coils together in each transformer (series-aiding in each case) (in case of
3-winding type this not required). Call them primaries. One primary will serve as the 4-
wire Trans connection. The other primary will serve as the 4-wire receives
connection.
• Four coils, two on each transformer, remain now. Connect the start terminal of a
secondary coil on one transformer to the finish terminal of a like coil on the other
transformer. The other two terminals of this pair of secondary coils will be connected
to a balancing network.
Fig.3.14 Transformer Hybrid (4 winding type)
• Now two more coils, one coil each on both the transformers, are remaining. Connect
the start terminal of the coil on one transformer to the start terminal of the coil on
the other transformer. The other two terminals of this pair of secondary coils will be
connected to the 2-wire line. The figures 2a and 2b show hybrids constructed with 4-
windings and 3-windings transformers, respectively.

LAWS AND THEOREMS
Because there is a polarity reversal in the interconnection in one of the two paths
between the two transformers, no coupling will exist between the transmit and receive
circuits of the 4-wire paths (provided perfect balance exists between balance network
and the 2-wire line). The 2-wire line will, however, be coupled with both transmit and
receive pairs of the 4-wire line, which is what the hybrid is supposed to do.
Fig.3.15 Transformer Hybrid (3 winding type)
The advantages of the traditional circuit are, high isolation. No dc path exists between
any lines. The circuit is completely passive and precision balance can produce almost
any desired trans-hybrid loss.
The above circuit can be redrawn as below for analyzing it’s working. Now let us explore
how the trans and receive signals pass between 2w and 4w sides with reference to this
circuit.
2 wire Trans to 4 wire Trans direction.
• A signal transmitted from 2W line causes current to flow in windings Y1 and Y2, in
the directions shown by arrows.
• Current in Y1 induces emf in X1 and Z1.
• Current in Y2 induces emf in X2 and Z2
• Voltage across the X1 is applied to the input of 4W Trans Amplifier.
• Voltage across X2 appears across the output of 4W Receive Amplifier.
• The voltages across Z1 and Z2 are equal and opposite. Therefore, no current flows
through the Balancing Network.
• Since Y1 and Y2 windings are equal, the signal power transmitted from line divides
equally, half being delivered to 4W Trans Amplifier; half is wasted in the output of
4W Receive Amplifier. Thus the loss in the useful direction is 3dB. But due to
transformer loss, the loss is 3.5 dB.

LAWS AND THEOREMS
Fig. 3.16 2w-4w Trans Direction
4W Receive to 2W Receive direction.
Fig.3.17 4 W Receive – 2 W Directions
o A signal transmitted from 4W Rec Amplifier causes current to flow, in the

direction of arrow, in winding X2.
o Current in X2 induces EMFs in Y2 and Z2 windings and currents flows shown by
dotted arrows.
o Induced voltage across Y2 produces current through 2W line and Y1 winding,
and induced voltage across Z2 produces current through Balancing Network and
Z1 winding. These two currents are in opposite directions, as shown in above
figure, and are equal in magnitude, since under ideal conditions Line and
Balancing Network impedances are equal. Hence these two currents are flowing
in opposite directions the net induced voltage in winding X1 is zero.
o Since no emf is induced in winding X1, the isolation between 4W Trans and 4W
Receive Circuits is achieved effectively. But half of the received power is
dissipated in balancing network.

LAWS AND THEOREMS
Summary:
2w trans to 4w trans direction
• 2w Trans current induces equal currents in both trans winding and receive
winding.
• Hence half of the power is wasted in receive winding and net 4w Trans
output is 3dB (min.) less to 2w trans power.
• No current flows through balancing network.
4w receive to 2w receive direction
• 4w receive signal induces equal currents in both 2w line and balancing
network.
• No induced current in 4w trans winding due to equal and opposing currents
in 2w line and balancing network.
• As a result, total isolation between 4w receive and 4w trans is achieved in
this direction.
3.6 Resistance Hybrid:
Fig.3.18 Resistance Hybrid
It consists of 4 equal center tapped resistors. It does not give as precise a balance as
the Hybrid transformers can give. For voice frequency (300 - 3400 HZ) applications, the
transmission loss of a resistance hybrid is 6db to 9.5 dB. In this frequency range the
transformer hybrid is widely used because it introduces less loss (3.5 dB) as compared
to resistance hybrid (6 dB minimum). But for frequencies above 1 MHz, the transformer
losses increase and resistance hybrid is preferable. For this reason, in Microwave Radio
equipments the resistance hybrids are widely used. The balancing network used for
balancing against the line impedance is generally a series capacitor of 2µf and a resistor
of 600 ohms. But for long lines, where a higher degree of balance is required, basic
networks of either precision or adjustable type are used.

RESONANCE
CHAPTER 4
RESONANCE
4.0 Introduction
In many of the electronic circuits, resonance is a very important phenomenon.
Resonance is very useful in communication circuits. For example, the ability of a radio
receiver to select the carrier frequency of a single radio station frequency from a number
of available radio station frequencies is based on the principle of resonance. Resonance
occurs only when L and C are present in a circuit.
The property of cancellation of reactance when inductive and capacitive reactances are
in series, or cancellation of susceptance when in parallel, has become known as
resonance. Such cancellation leads to operation of reactive circuits under unity power-
factor conditions, or with current and voltage in phase. Two types of resonance are
recognized: series-circuit resonance and parallel-circuit resonance. The parallel
resonance sometimes is also referred as antiresonance.
The valuable properties of resonant circuits have long been appreciated and are
probably more frequently utilized than any other circuit property.
4.1 The factor of merit, Q:
Since inductive or capacitive reactances are essentially energy storing devices, it is
convenient to discover the efficiency with which energy is stored and to compare
various inductor or capacitor designs in terms of that efficiency. As a measure of such
efficiency, a figure of merit, or Q, has been defined as
Maximum energy stored per cycle

Q = 2π x
Energy dissipated per cycle
The maximum value of stored energy is present in an inductor at maximum current, and
is given by ½ LI m2. The average power dissipated in the inductor, in terms of maximum
current is Im2 Rs/2, where Rs is the series resistance of the inductor, as shown in figure
(a) below. The energy dissipated per cycle is then Im2 Rs / 2f. The definition for the Q of
an inductor then is
LIm2 2π f L ωL
Q = 2π x = =
Im2 Rs/f Rs Rs
Where Im is the maximum value of current through the inductor and resistor.

RESONANCE
A capacitor is usually assumed as represented by a parallel circuit, with its leakage

resistance in shunt, as shown in figure (b). In a capacitor maximum energy is stored
when the applied voltage is maximum and it is given by ½ CVm2. The average power
lost in the resistor is Vm2 /2 RP. The value of Q for a capacitor is given
C Vm2 = ω CRP
= 2π f RS C
Q = 2π x
Vm2 /RPf
The voltage across C and RP is same and it is Vm.
Fig. 4.1
Generally the RP, the leakage resistance of C, is very high because of the very low
losses of C, when compared with the small RS, the series resistance, which is the wire
resistance of the inductor coil. Because of this reason the Q values of capacitors are
very large. The small Q value of inductors is the controlling factor in resonant circuits.
The resistance of a coil and the value of Q are affected by the size of wire, diameter and
length of the coil or its shape. And Q is frequency dependent. At low frequencies ω is
low and Q is also low. As the frequency is increased, Q rises as a result of rising ω, but
at higher frequencies R increases more rapidly because of skin effect and dielectric
loss, so eventually Q drops.
4.2 Series Resonance:
In a series RLC circuit, the current lags behind, or leads the applied voltage depending
on the values of XL and XC. The cause of XL is to lag the total current behind the applied
voltage. Where as XC causes the total current to lead the applied voltage. When XL >
XC, the circuit is predominantly inductive, and when XC > XL, the circuit is predominantly
capacitive. However, if one of the parameters of the series RLC circuit is varied in such
a way that the current in the circuit is in phase with the applied voltage, then the circuit
is said to be at resonance.
Consider the below shown series RLC circuit.

RESONANCE
Fig. 4.2
The total impedance in this circuit is
Z = R +j (XL - XC)
= R + j (ωL – 1/ ω C)
The current in the circuit,
I = VS /Z
The circuit is said to be at resonance if the current is in phase with the applied voltage.
In a series RLC circuit, series resonance occurs when XL = XC. the frequency at which
the resonance occurs is called the resonant frequency, fr. At resonant frequency fr, the
impedance in the circuit is purely resistive because XL = XC, that is
Z = R + j (XL - XC)
= R + j (0)
∴ Z = R.
Hence, the circuit sees minimum impedance, which results in maximum current.
Now, at resonance the voltages across the capacitor and inductor are equal in
magnitude and since these are 180° out of phase with each other they cancel each
other. Hence zero voltage appears across the LC combination.
The resonance frequency can be calculated as follows
At resonance ωL = 1/ ω C
Because ω = 2πf

RESONANCE
Where fr is the frequency at resonance.
This same equation can be derived by approaching in another way. That is by taking
XL = XC at resonance, also we reach at the same equation. That is
since, XL = XC
Let us call the frequency at which resonance occurs fr
In a series RLC circuit, the resonance may be produced
• by varying the frequency when and are kept constant or

• by varying either L or C for a fixed frequency.
Problem: For the RLC circuit shown below calculate the fr, the resonant frequency.
The equation for resonant frequency is
fr = 1/ 2 π√ LC
= 1/ 2 π√ 10x 10-6 x 0.5 x 10-3
= 2.25 KHz
Impedance of a series resonant circuit.
The below figure shows the variation of XL and XC with frequency. At zero
frequency XC and, as result, Z is infinitely large. The XL is zero and the inductor acts as a

RESONANCE
short circuit whereas the capacitor acts as open circuit at zero frequency. Hence, at
frequencies below fr the impedance of the circuit is predominantly capacitive and it
decreases as the frequency increases and approaches fr, The impedance is minimum
at fr . When frequency increases beyond fr the impedance of the circuit starts increasing
due to increase in XL value and the circuit impedance is predominantly inductive.
Fig. 4.3 The Reactance and Impedance curves in a series LCR circuit
Fig. 4.4 Current and Impedance relation in a series LCR circuit
The Phase Angle: The effect of frequency on the phase angle between voltage and
current in the circuit is shown by the below figure. At frequencies below the resonant
frequency, the current leads the source voltage because the capacitive reactance is
greater than the inductive reactance.
Fig. 4.5 Current and Voltage phase-relationship in a series LCR circuit

RESONANCE
The phase angle decreases as the frequency approaches the resonant value and is 0°
at resonance. At frequencies above resonance, the current lags behind the source
voltage, because the inductive reactance is greater than the capacitive reactance. As
the frequency go higher the phase angle approaches 90°.
Frequency Response and Bandwidth of an RLC circuit: The bandwidth of any

system is the range of frequencies for which the current or output voltage is equal to
70.7% of its value at resonant frequency.
The bandwidth is generally denoted by BW. The figure below shows the frequency
response curve for an RLC circuit and its bandwidth.
In the figure the frequency f1 is the frequency below fr at which the current is 0.707 times
the current at resonant value and it is called the lower cut off frequency. Similarly, f2 is
the frequency above fr at which the current is 0.707 times the current at resonant value
and is called the upper cut off frequency. The bandwidth, in hertz, is given by the
difference between these two cut off frequencies. That is
BW = f2 – f1
Fig.4.6
4.3 Quality Factor and its effect on Bandwidth:

The Quality Factor, Q, or figure of merit, is the ratio of the reactive power in the inductor
or capacitor to the true power in the resistance in series with the inductor or the
capacitor.
Reactive power
Quality factor, Q = 2π x Real power
The Q factor of an inductor:

RESONANCE
The maximum energy stored in inductor = ½LI 2
Energy dissipated per cycle = ½ I 2RT
Where T = time per cycle and = 1/f
∴ Q = 2π x ½LI 2 / ½ I 2RT
= 2π x ½ LI 2 / ½ I 2R/f
πf L/R = ωL/R or XL / R
= 2π
Similarly the Q factor of a Capacitor is
Q = 1/ ωCR
From the above equations for Q it is understood that if the value of R is more, the figure
of merit, Q of the circuit becomes less. The relation between the Q factor and the
Bandwidth is given as
fr
Q = BW
The Q factor is inversely related to the bandwidth of the circuit. The circuit below shows
the effect of Q on frequency selectivity and BW.
Fig. 4.7 Frequency selectivity of an RLC circuit

The higher the Q the better is selectivity. But the more the Q the lesser is the bandwidth.

RESONANCE
4.4 PARALLEL RESONANCE
A parallel LC circuit is shown below in figure 4.8 (a). In this an inductor L and a
capacitor C are connected in parallel across a voltage source V. This is an ideal circuit.
Fig. 4.8(a)
The figure (b) below shows the practical equivalent of the above parallel LC circuit in fig.
(a). As it has already been discussed in series resonance section, we know that with L
there is always some series resistance which is the coil wire resistance of inductor
and there is a very high value of parallel resistance across C which is due to the
leakage between the two plates of capacitor C. Because of this reason the Q values of
capacitors are very large. And the voltage source V also may have some internal
resistance.
In the figure 4.8 (b) the RC is the leakage resistance of C and RL is the series resistance
due to the inductor coil wire. RS is the internal resistance of the voltage source V.
Fig. 4.8 (b) - Equivalent circuit of a Parallel LC
Generally, the value of RL is very small. But the value of RC is very high and is in the
order of tens of mega ohms.
The effect due to such a high value of parallel resistance across C is simply negligible
and hence it can be omitted.
Now we get a more practical form of a parallel LC circuit as shown below in fig. (c). A
small resistance R shown in series with L is the coil wire resistance and RS is the
internal resistance of source VS.

RESONANCE
Fig. 4.8 (c)
It is a known fact that both the components, L and C, offer opposing reactances at any
frequency. In a series LC circuit at a particular frequency the magnitudes of both these
reactances become equal and because of their opposing natures they cancel each
other at resonance irrespective of the magnitude of the R of the coil and the circuit
offers minimum impedance (Z0 = R) at resonance. This condition is called series
resonance or, simply, resonance. The frequency at which this cancellation occurs is
called the resonance frequency of the given LC circuit.
But in a parallel LC circuit, L and C are in two different arms or branches. At resonance
their reactive impedances become equal but do not cancel each other and simply
appear like two equal impedances connected in parallel. In this condition the impedance
of the parallel LC circuit becomes maximum. The frequency at which this happens is
called the parallel resonance or antiresonance frequency. Here the coil wire
resistance R of the inductance is also effective and gets added up to the impedance of
the L because it comes in series with the L as shown in above figure (c).
4.4.1 Impedance of parallel LC circuit

Consider the figure 3. The impedance seen by the voltage source V is to be calculated.
Let this be Z and it can be given by the equation
Z = RS + ZLC
Where RS is the source resistance and

ZLC is the impedance of the parallel LC circuit to the right of terminals a, b and it is
calculated as
1/ ZLC = 1/XC + 1/(R + XL)
But as we know,
1/ZLC = Total Admittance (Y) of the parallel LC

RESONANCE
1/XC = Admittance (YC) of capacitive branch and

1/(R + XL) = Admittance (YL) of inductive branch of the above circuit.
Now writing the above equation in terms of admittances

YLC = YC + YL
YC = i/ XC
But XC = 1/-jωC
Then YC = 1/ (1/-jωC)
YC = -jωC
Similarly YL = 1/ (R + XL)
= 1/ (R + jωL )
This can be written as
YL = (R - jωL )/ ( R + jωL ) ( R – jωL )
= (R – jωL) / ( R2 - (jωL)2 )
YL = (R – jωL) /( R2 + ω2L2 ) ; ( j2 = -1)
We have YLC = YC + YL
= -jωC + (R – jωL)/ ( R2 + ω2L2 )
The inverse of admittance Y gives the impedance Z of parallel resonance circuit. That is
But
At antiresonance, with the condition of unity power factor imposed, the eq. 1 for
admittance of the circuit at terminals a, b becomes
2 2 2
Y0 = R /( R + ω0 L ) (3)

RESONANCE
From this the impedance at antiresonance, is obtained as
Z0 = 1 / Y0
= ( R2 + ω02L2 ) /R (4)
Z0 = R + Q ω0L (5)
Since Q = ωL /R
Z0 = R (1 + Q2) (6)
4.4.2 Frequency of Parallel Resonance or Antiresonance
We have seen from eq. 1 that the admittance is given by
Now for achieving resonance the circuit must have unity power factor or the ‘j’ term must
be zero. Suppose resonance occurs at ω0 and the reactive term becomes zero. That is

RESONANCE
(7)
From this we can find out the frequency f0 at which resonance occurs as
(8)
The above equation is the expression for the resonant frequency of the series resonant
circuit, modified by the usually small term R2/L2 under the root. Here it should be noted
that resonance is impossible for values of R that make R2/L2 > 1/LC. This contrasts with
the series resonant circuit, which can be resonant or have unity power factor for all
values of R present.
The above equation can be written in a useful form as below
(9)
If expressed as ω0 then it becomes

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The quality factor, Q of the circuit to the right of terminals a, b, at resonance, depends
only on the Q of the L because it is known that the Q of C is always very high. Then Q is
given by
If the value of ω for a series LCR circuit is substituted in this equation for Q, that is
then Q in terms of both L and C can be obtained as
(10)
Substituting this value of Q in eq. 3
(11)
Similarly
(12)
The above equation 5 shows that the antiresonance resonance frequency of a parallel
circuit differs from that of a series resonant circuit with the same circuit elements only by
the factor √1 – 1/Q2. If Q is greater than 10, the error in neglecting this factor in the Eq.
4 is less than 1 per cent. At the same time the factor √1 – 1/Q2 shows that resonance is
not possible for circuits with values of Q less than unity.
From Eq. (12) it may be found that

ω02 LC = 1 - 1/ Q2 (13)
and the reactances of inductive and capacitive branches are not quite equal at unity
power factor resonance as they were for the series-resonant case.
That is at antiresonance the reactances XL and XC are related as
XL = XC (1 – 1/Q2) (14)

RESONANCE
4.4.3 Voltages in the Parallel LC circuit

Refer to the circuit given on the next page. The output voltage VO is given by
VO = I. ZLC
Fig.4.9
ZLC is already known from eq. 3 but the current, I is to be found out to compute the
output voltage VO.
The current I in the circuit is given by
or
That is
(15)
Because

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(16)
Then the ratio of V0 / V is given by
At resonance the ‘j’ terms in the above equation disappear that they become zero. Then
ratio of output voltage VO to the supply voltage V is simply
(17)
The value of RS the source resistance is, generally, negligible. Then the output voltage
V0 that appears across the LC combination at resonance is independent of the value of
R and it equals the applied voltage. This feature of the parallel resonant circuit is
extensively used in tuned circuits. The property is illustrated with the specific
component values given on the parallel-circuit diagram of Fig. (a) below. The output
voltage VO rises to equal the input voltage V at the resonant frequency, as shown in Fig.
(b).
Fig. 4.10 (a)

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Fig.4.10 (b)
The output voltage VO equals the input voltage V at resonance
4.4.4 Currents in Parallel Resonant Circuit

It is interesting to compare the currents in both L and C of a parallel resonant circuit at
resonance. According to Eq. (6) the full input voltage is applied across both the
capacitor and inductance at resonance, so that the currents are, respectively.
Fig.4.11
IC = V = = V ω0 C
1/ ω0 C
and similarly
V
IL =
R + ω0L
Because R is very small and is negligible compared to high value of XL this equation
becomes
V
IL =
ω0L

RESONANCE
Ic
V ω0 C
Then IL = = ω02 LC
V/ ω0L
2 2
But eq. 13 states ω0 LC = 1 - 1/ Q
Therefore IC
= √ 1 - 1/ Q2
IL
4.4.5 The voltage and current relationship in a parallel LC circuit

In the next figure, resonance occurs at fr. At resonance the voltage drop across
terminals a b is maximum because the parallel L C offer highest impedance across a,b
terminals. This results in minimum current flow through the circuit.
Fig. 4.12 Voltage and current variation with frequency

in a parallel resonance circuit.
When parallel LC is used as load for tuned amplifiers etc, maximum power is transferred
from the source at resonance. And the bandwidth for such circuits is calculated as
BW = f2 - f1
Where f1 and f2 are the –3dB or (0.707 x Vmax) points on curve shown in the above
figure.
Uses of parallel resonance:

• The main use of parallel resonance is as tank circuits of oscillators.
• In tuned RF amplifiers of radio equipment etc.

RESONANCE
4.4.6 Q Factor
Now let us study the effect of Q, the quality factor (or figure of merit) on the response of
the parallel LC and in turn on its bandwidth. We know Q is given by
Q = ωL /R or Q = 1/ ωCR
From the above equations it is clear that if the value of R, the non-reactive ohmic
resistance increases the Q value decreases. The bandwidth of an LC circuit depends on
its Q value, that is
fr
Q=
BW
The resistance in a resonant circuit is significant in determining the current at

frequencies other than the resonant frequency, as well as at resonance. This is an
important consideration since, for example, the resistance of the turns of wire is present
in all inductors. The effect is similar in both series and parallel resonance cases, but the
former is simpler mathematically and can be used to illustrate all the important features.
Consider the magnitude of the current in a series circuit. We know that impedance; Z
of series LC circuit is given by
Z = R + j (XL + XC)
Therefore the current in a series circuit is given by
I = V/Z = V/ [R + j (XL + XC)]
I = V
√ [R2 + (ωL – 1/ωC) 2]
This can be rearranged as

V
I =
R √ 1 + (ωL/R) 2 (1 – 1/ω2 LC) 2
It is known that maximum current flows in a series RLC circuit at resonance because the
impedance becomes minimum and equals to R. Let this current be IM. Now we get
I 1
=
IM {1 + Q02 (ω / ω0)2 [1 – (ω0 / ω) 2] 2}1/2

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where IM is the maximum current= at resonance. Finally, an alternative form to the above
equation. After multiplying the two quantities in ω / ω0 is
I [1 + Q02 (ω/ω0 - ω0/ω)2 ]-1/2

=
IM
This expression plotted in the below figure for representative values of Q0, shows that a
large Q0 (that is, a small value of R) leads to a very sharply resonant circuit. Under this
condition the bandwidth of the resonant circuit, that is the frequency interval between
half-power points, is quite small.
Values of Q0 in the range from 10 to 100 are common in electronic circuits and are
useful in very selective tuned circuits, as illustrated by the two lower curves in the figure.
Special resonant components can have Q’s as high as several thousand, and these
result in very high frequency selectivity indeed. On the other hand, it is sometimes
desirable to broaden the frequency response of a resonant circuit so that it is useful
over a wide band of frequencies on either side of the resonant frequency. In this case a
resistor is purposely included to yield a lower Q than that of the inductor alone.
Fig. 4.13 Sharpness of the Resonance Curve is greatest for high - Q circuits.

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CHAPTER 5
TRANSMISSION LINES
5.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:
• State what a transmission line is and how transmission lines are used.
• Explain the operating principles of transmission lines.
• Describe the five types of transmission lines.
• State the length of a transmission line.
• Explain the theory of the transmission line.
• Define the term LUMPED CONSTANTS in relation to a transmission line.
• Define the term DISTRIBUTED CONSTANTS in relation to a transmission line.
• Define LEAKAGE CURRENT.
• Describe how the electromagnetic lines of force around a transmission line are affected
by the distributed constants.
• Define the term CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE and explain how it affects the transfer
of energy along a transmission line.
• State how the energy transfer along a transmission line is affected by characteristic
impedance and the infinite line.
• Identify the cause of and describe the characteristics of reflections on a transmission
line.
• Define the term STANDING WAVES as applied to a transmission line.
• Describe how standing waves are produced on a transmission line and identify the
types of terminations.
• Describe the types of standing-wave ratios.
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO TRANSMISSION LINES
A TRANSMISSION LINE is a device designed to guide electrical energy from one point
to another. It is used, for example, to transfer the output RF energy of a transmitter
to an antenna. This energy will not travel through normal electrical wire without great
losses. Although the antenna can be connected directly to the transmitter, the antenna
is usually located some distance away from the transmitter. In a microwave station the
transmitter is located inside a radio room and its associated antenna is mounted on a
tower outside. A transmission line is used to connect the transmitter and the antenna.
The transmission line has a single purpose for both the transmitter and the antenna.
This purpose is to transfer the energy output of the transmitter to the antenna with the
least possible power loss. How well this is done depends on the special physical and
electrical characteristics (impedance and resistance) of the transmission line.

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All transmission lines have two ends (see figure 5-1). The end of a two-wire
transmission line connected to a source is ordinarily called the SENDING or Input END
The other end of the line is called the RECEIVING or Output END.
Fig. 5.1. - Basic transmission line.
5.2 Categories of Transmission lines

There are three categories of transmission lines. The parallel- wire (balanced) line
(Fig. 5-2(a)), the coaxial (unbalanced) line (Fig. 5-5) and the wave-guides (Fig.5-8).
Any system of conductors is likely to radiate if the conductor separation approaches a

half - wavelength at the operating frequency.
This is far more likely to occur in a parallel-wire line than in a coaxial line, whose outer
conductor surrounds the inner one and is invariably grounded. Accordingly, parallel-wire
lines are never used for microwaves, whereas coaxial lines may be employed for
frequencies up to at least 18 GHz.
Wave-guides are employed at microwave frequencies. Wave-guides also have

frequency limitations based on the cut-off frequency, which depends on its physical
dimensions. Besides this, below about 1GHz wave-guide cross-sectional dimensions
become inconveniently large. Thus, between 1 and 18 GHz, either wave-guides or
coaxial lines are used, depending on the requirements and application, whereas wave-
guides are not normally used below 1 GHz, and coaxial lines are not normally used
above 18 GHz.
5.3 TYPES OF TRANSMISSION MEDIUMS

5.3.1 Two-Wire Open Line
One type of parallel-wire is the TWO-WIRE OPEN LINE. This line consists of two wires
that are spaced apart by insulating spacer or simply air. This type of line is most often
used for over-head telephone lines, and telegraph lines. The advantages of this type of
line are its simple construction and are employed where balanced properties are
required: for instance, in connecting a folded-dipole antenna to a TV receiver or a
rhombic antenna to an HF transmitter. The principal disadvantages of this type of line
are the high radiation losses and electrical noise pickup because of the lack of shielding.

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Fig 5.2(a) Parallel wire line (balanced)
Another type of parallel-wire is the TWO-WIRE RIBBON (TWIN LEAD) illustrated in

figure 5-2(b). This type of transmission line is commonly used to connect a television
receiving antenna to a home television set. This line is essentially the same as the two-
wire open line except that uniform spacing is assured by embedding the two wires in a
low-loss dielectric, usually polyethylene. Since the wires are embedded in the thin
ribbon of polyethylene, the dielectric space is partly air and partly polyethylene.
Fig. 5.2 (b) - Two-wire ribbon type line

5.3.2 Twisted Pair
The TWISTED PAIR transmission line is illustrated in figure 5-3. As the name implies,
the line consists of two insulated wires twisted together to form a flexible line without the
use of spacers. It is not used for transmitting high frequency because of the high
dielectric losses that occur in the rubber insulation. When the line is wet, the losses
increase greatly.
Figure 5.3. - Twisted pair.
5.3.3 Shielded Pair
The SHIELDED PAIR, shown in figure 5-4, consists of parallel conductors separated
from each other and surrounded by a solid dielectric. The conductors are contained
within braided copper tubing that acts as an electrical shield. The assembly is covered
with a rubber or flexible composition coating that protects the line from moisture and
mechanical damage. Outwardly, it looks much like the power cord of a washing machine
or refrigerator.

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Fig. 5.4 - Shielded pair

The principal advantage of the shielded pair is that the conductors are balanced to
ground; that is, the capacitance between the wires is uniform throughout the length of
the line. This balance is due to the uniform spacing of the grounded shield that
surrounds the wires along their entire length. The braided copper shield isolates the
conductors from stray magnetic fields.
5.3.4 Coaxial Lines

The coaxial lines are used when unbalanced properties are needed, as in the inter-
connection of a broadcast transmitter to its ground-plane (GP) antenna. It is also
employed at UHF and microwave frequencies, to avoid the risk of radiation from the
transmission line itself.
Fig. 5.5 Coaxial line (unbalanced)
There are three types of COAXIAL LINES,

• RIGID (AIR dielectric) COAXIAL LINE
• SEMI-RIGID ( Foam Dielectric) COAXIAL LINE and
• FLEXIBLE (SOLID dielectric) COAXIAL LINE.
The physical construction of both types is basically the same; that is, each contains two
concentric (inner and outer) conductors.
The rigid coaxial line consists of a central, insulated wire (inner conductor) mounted
inside a tubular outer conductor. This line is shown in figure 5-6. In some applications,
the inner conductor is also tubular. The inner conductor is insulated from the outer
conductor by insulating spacers or beads at regular intervals. The spacers are made of
Pyrex, polystyrene, or some other material that has good insulating characteristics and
low dielectric losses at high frequencies.

RESONANCE
Fig.5.6 - Air coaxial line.

The chief advantage of the rigid line is its ability to minimize radiation losses. The
electric and magnetic fields in a two-wire parallel line extend into space for relatively
great distances and radiation losses occur. However, in a coaxial line no electric or
magnetic fields extend outside of the outer conductor. The fields are confined to the
space between the two conductors, resulting in a perfectly shielded coaxial line. Another
advantage is that interference from other lines is reduced. These are generally fitted
with factory-mounted connectors and hence require careful handling. These are
commonly used as short links in MW radio equipment assemblies.
5.3.5 Flexible coaxial lines (figure 5-7) are made with an inner conductor that consists of
flexible wire insulated from the outer conductor by a solid, continuous insulating
material. The outer conductor is made of metal braid, which gives the line flexibility.
Fig.5.7 Flexible coaxial line.

Polyethylene plastic is a solid substance that remains flexible over a wide range of
temperatures. The use of polyethylene as an insulator results in increase in losses at
high frequency than the use of air as an insulator. In semi-rigid coaxial lines,
polyurethane foams or helix are used as separators where the dielectric is almost air,
consequently the transmission loss is reduced drastically. These are mostly used as
feeder line for UHF Radio equipments. This type of construction makes the line much
less flexible compared to the solid dielectric type, hence called SEMI-RIGID.
5.3.6 Waveguides
The WAVEGUIDE is classified as a transmission line. However, the method by which it

transmits energy down its length differs from the conventional methods. Waveguides
are cylindrical, elliptical, or rectangular (cylindrical and rectangular shapes are

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shown in figure 5-8). The rectangular waveguide is used more frequently than the
cylindrical waveguide.
ELLIPTICAL
CIRCULAR RECTANGULAR
Fig. 5.8 - Waveguides.

A waveguide may be classified according to its cross section (rectangular, elliptical, or
circular), or according to the material used in its construction (metallic or dielectric).
Dielectric waveguides are seldom used because the dielectric losses for all known
dielectric materials are too great to transfer the electric and magnetic fields efficiently.
5.4 Losses In Transmission Lines
Line losses may be any of three types - COPPER, DIELECTRIC, and RADIATION or
INDUCTION LOSSES.
5.4.1 Copper Losses (I2R LOSS)
One type of copper loss is I2R LOSS. In all transmission lines the resistance of the
conductors is never equal to zero. Also the insulation resistance is never equal to
infinite, which makes the leakage current never equal to zero. Whenever current flows
through each of these conductors / insulation, some energy is dissipated in the form of
heat. This heat loss is a POWER LOSS.
Another type of copper loss is due to SKIN EFFECT. When dc flows through a
conductor, the movement of electrons through the conductor's cross section is uniform.
The situation is somewhat different when ac is applied. As frequency is increased,
current in the center of the wire becomes smaller and most of the electron flow is on the
wire surface. When the frequency applied is 100 megahertz or higher, the electron
movement in the center is so small that the center of the wire could be removed without
any noticeable effect on current. The effective cross-sectional current-carrying area
decreases as the frequency increases. Since resistance is inversely proportional to the
cross-sectional area, the resistance will increase as the frequency is increased. Also,
since power loss increases as resistance increases, power losses increase with an
increase in frequency because of skin effect.
Skin effect can be compensated by plating the line with material of higher conductivity in
a transmission line. Most of the current will flow through the outer layer and cause
lesser loss due to higher conductivity. The example is copper-wield iron wire.

RESONANCE
5.4.2 Dielectric Losses
DIELECTRIC LOSSES result from the heating effect on the dielectric material between
the conductors. Power from the source is used in heating the dielectric. The heat
produced is dissipated into the surrounding medium. When there is no potential
difference between two conductors, the atoms in the dielectric material between them
are normal and the orbits of the electrons are circular. When there is a potential
difference between two conductors, the orbits of the electrons change. The excessive
negative charge on one conductor repels electrons on the dielectric toward the positive
conductor and thus distorts the orbits of the electrons. A change in the path of electrons
requires more energy, introducing a power loss.
The atomic structure of rubber is more difficult to distort than the structure of some other
dielectric materials. The atoms of materials, such as polyethylene, distort easily.
Therefore, polyethylene is often used as a dielectric because less power is consumed
when its electron orbits are distorted.
5.4.3 Radiation and Induction Losses
RADIATION and INDUCTION LOSSES are similar in that both are caused by the fields
surrounding the conductors. Induction losses occur when the electromagnetic field
about a conductor cuts through any nearby metallic object and a current is induced in
that object. As a result, power is dissipated in the object and is lost.
Radiation losses occur because some magnetic lines of force about a conductor do not
return to the conductor when the cycle alternates. These lines of force are projected into
space as radiation and this results in power losses. That is, power is supplied by the
source, but is not available to the load.
5.5 LENGTH OF A TRANSMISSION LINE
A transmission line is considered to be electrically short when its physical length is short
compared to a quarter-wavelength of the energy it is to carry.
A transmission line is electrically long when its physical length is long compared to a
quarter-wavelength of the energy it is to carry. You must understand that the terms
"short" and "long" are relative ones. For example, a line that has a physical length of 3
meters (approximately 10 feet) is considered quite short electrically if it transmits a radio
frequency of 30 kilohertz. On the other hand, the same transmission line is considered
electrically long if it transmits a frequency of 30 gigahertz.
To show the difference in physical and electrical lengths of the lines mentioned above,
compute the wavelength of the two frequencies, taking the 30-kilohertz example first:

RESONANCE
Now, computing the wavelength for the line carrying 30 gigahertz
Thus, you can see that a 3-meter line is electrically very short for a frequency of 30
kilohertz. Also, the 3-meter line is electrically very long for a frequency of 30 gigahertz.
When power is applied to a very short transmission line, practically all of it reaches the
load at the output end of the line. This very short transmission line is usually considered
to have practically no electrical properties of its own, except for a small amount of
resistance.
However, the situation changes considerably when a long line is used. Since most
transmission lines are electrically long (because of the distance from transmitter to
load), the properties of such lines must be more carefully considered.
5.6 Transmission Line Theory
The electrical characteristics of a two-wire transmission line depend primarily on the

construction of the line. The two-wire line acts like a long capacitor. The change of its
capacitive reactance is noticeable as the frequency applied to it is changed. Since the
long conductors have a magnetic field about them when electrical energy (Current) is
being passed through them, they also exhibit the properties of inductance.
The values of inductance and capacitance presented depend on the various physical
factors. For example, the type of line used, the dielectric in the line, and the length of the
line must be considered. The effects of the inductive and capacitive reactances of the
line depend on the frequency applied.
Since no dielectric is perfect, electrons manage to move from one conductor to the other
through the dielectric. Each type of two-wire transmission line also has a conductance
value. This conductance value represents the value of the current flow that may be
expected through the insulation.

RESONANCE
5.7 Lumped Constants
A transmission line has the properties of inductance, capacitance, and resistance just as
the more conventional circuits have. Usually, however, the constants in conventional
circuits are lumped into a single device or component. For example, a coil of wire has
the property of inductance. When a certain amount of inductance is needed in a circuit,
a coil of the proper dimensions is inserted. The inductance of the circuit is lumped into
the one component. Two metal plates separated by a small space, can be used to
supply the required capacitance for a circuit. In such a case, most of the capacitance of
the circuit is lumped into this one component. Similarly, a fixed resistor can be used to
supply a certain value of circuit resistance as a lumped sum. Ideally, a transmission line
would also have its constants of inductance, capacitance, and resistance lumped
together, as shown in figure 5-9. Unfortunately, this is not the case. Transmission line
constants are distributed, as described below.
Fig. 5.9. - Equivalent circuit of a two-wire transmission line.
5.8 Distributed Constants

Transmission line constants, called distributed constants, are spread along the entire
length of the transmission line and cannot be distinguished separately. The amount of
inductance, capacitance, and resistance depends on the length of the line, the size of
the conducting wires, the spacing between the wires, and the dielectric (air or insulating
medium) between the wires. It is to be noted that the quantities L, R, C, and G,
shown in Figure 5-9, are all measured per unit length, e.g., per meter, because they
occur continuously along the line. They are thus distributed throughout the
length of the line. Under no circumstances they can be assumed to be lumped at
any one point.
5.8.1 Inductance of a Transmission Line

When current flows through a wire, magnetic lines of force are set up around the wire.
As the current increases and decreases in amplitude, the field around the wire expands
and collapses accordingly. The energy produced by the magnetic lines of force
collapsing back into the wire tends to keep the current flowing in the same direction.
This represents a certain amount of inductance, which is expressed in micro-henrys
per unit length. Figure 5-10 illustrates the inductance and magnetic fields of a
transmission line.

RESONANCE
Fig. 5.10. - Distributed inductance

5.8.2 Capacitance of a Transmission Line
Capacitance also exists between the transmission line wires, as illustrated in figure 5-
11. Notice that the two parallel wires act as plates of a capacitor and that the air
between them acts as a dielectric. The capacitance between the wires is usually
expressed in Pico-farads per unit length. The electric field between the wires is
similar to the field that exists between the two plates of a capacitor.
Figure 5.11- Distributed capacitance.
5.8.3 Resistance of a Transmission Line
The transmission line shown in figure 5-12 has electrical resistance along its length.
This resistance is usually expressed in ohms per unit length and is shown as existing
continuously from one end of the line to the other.
Figure 5.12- Distributed resistance.

RESONANCE
5.8.4 Leakage Current

Since any dielectric, even air, is not a perfect insulator, a small current known as
LEAKAGE CURRENT flows between the two wires. In effect, the insulator acts as a
resistor, permitting current to pass between the two wires. Figure 5-13 shows this
leakage path as resistors in parallel connected between the two lines. This property is
called CONDUCTANCE (G) and is the opposite of resistance. Conductance in
transmission lines is expressed as the reciprocal of resistance and is usually given in
micro-omhs per unit length.
Figure 5.13- Leakage in a transmission line.
5.9 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS ABOUT A TRANSMISSION LINE
The distributed constants of resistance, inductance, and capacitance are basic

properties common to all transmission lines and exist whether or not any current flow
exists. As soon as current flow and voltage exist in a transmission line, another property
becomes quite evident. This is the presence of an electromagnetic field, or lines of
force, about the wires of the transmission line. The lines of force themselves are not
visible; however, understanding the force that an electron experiences while in the field
of these lines is very important for understanding of energy transmission.
There are two kinds of fields; one is associated with voltage and the other with current.
The field associated with voltage is called the ELECTRIC (E) FIELD. It exerts a force on
any electric charge placed in it. The field associated with current is called a MAGNETIC
(H) FIELD, because it tends to exert a force on any magnetic pole placed in it.
Figure 5-14 illustrates the way in which the E fields and H fields tend to orient
themselves between conductors of a typical two-wire transmission line. The illustration
shows a cross section of the transmission lines. The E field is represented by solid lines
and the H field by dotted lines. The arrows indicate the direction of the lines of force.
Both fields normally exist together and are spoken of collectively as the
electromagnetic field.

RESONANCE
Figure 5.14- Fields between conductors.
5.10 Characteristic Impedance Of A Transmission Line

You learned earlier that the maximum (and most efficient) transfer of electrical
energy takes place when the source impedance is matched to the load
impedance. This fact is very important in the study of transmission lines and antennas.
If the characteristic impedance of the transmission line and the load impedance are
equal, energy from the source (transmitter) will travel down the transmission line to the
Load (antenna) with no power loss caused by reflection.
Every transmission line possesses certain CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE, usually

designated as Z0. Z0 is the ratio of E to I at every point along the line. If a load equal to
the characteristic impedance is placed at the output end of any length of line, the same
impedance will appear at the input terminals of the line. The characteristic impedance is
the only value of impedance for any given type and size of line that acts in this way. The
characteristic impedance determines the amount of current that can flow when a given
voltage is applied to an infinitely long line.
In a previous discussion, lumped and distributed constants were explained. Figure 5-

15A, shows the properties of resistance, inductance, capacitance, and conductance
combined in a short section of two-wire transmission line. The illustration shows the
evenly distributed capacitance as a single lumped capacitor and the distributed

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conductance as a lumped leakage path. Lumped values may be used for transmission
line calculations if the physical length of the line is very short compared to the
wavelength of energy being transmitted. Figure 5-15B, shows all four properties lumped
together and represented by their conventional symbols.
Figure 5.15 - Short section of two-wire transmission line and equivalent circuit.
5.10.1 Characteristic Impedance and the Infinite Line

Several short sections, as shown in figure 5-15, can be combined to form a large
transmission line, as shown in figure 5-16. Current will flow if voltage is applied across
points K and L. In fact, any circuit, such as that represented in figure 5-15-A, has a
certain current flow for each value of applied voltage. The ratio of the voltage to the
current is the impedance (Z).
Recall that:

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Figure 5.16. - Characteristic impedance.

The impedance presented to the input terminals of the transmission line is not merely
the resistance of the wire in series with the impedance of the load. The effects of series
inductance and shunt capacitance of the line itself may be more prominent than the
resistance, and even the load, as far as the input terminals are concerned.
To find the input impedance of a transmission line, determine the impedance of a single
section of line. The impedance between points K and L, in view B of figure 5-16, can be
calculated by the use of series-parallel impedance formulas, provided the impedance
across points M and N is known. But since this section is merely one small part of a
longer line, another similar section is connected to points M and N. Again, the
impedance across points K and L of the two sections can be calculated, provided the
impedance of the third section is known. This process of adding one section to another
can be repeated endlessly. The addition of each section produces an impedance across
points K and L of a new and lower value. However, after many sections have been
added, each successive added section has less and less effect on the impedance
across points K and L. If sections are added to the line endlessly, the line is
infinitely long, and a certain finite value of impedance across points K and L is
finally reached. This finite impedance value so obtained is called the
characteristic impedance of the line.
Let us assume that the sections of view C continue to the right with an infinite number of
sections. When an infinite number of sections extend to the right, the impedance
appearing across K and L is Z0. If the line is cut at R and S, an infinite number of
sections still extend to the right since the line is endless in that direction. Therefore, the
impedance now appearing across points R and S is also Z0, as illustrated in view D. You
can see that if only the first three sections are taken and a load impedance of Z0 is
connected across points R and S, the impedance across the input terminals K and L is
still Z0. The line continues to act as an infinite line. This is illustrated in view E.

RESONANCE
Figure 5-17, view A, illustrates how the characteristic impedance of an infinite line can
approach a definite value. Elements (for simplicity only resistance and conductance
have been taken into consideration in this illustration) are added in series parallel across
terminals K and L in eight steps, and the resultant impedances are noted.
In step 1 the impedance is infinite; in step 2 the impedance is 110 ohms. In step 3 the
impedance becomes 62.1 ohms, a change of 47.9 ohms. In step 4 the impedance is
48.5 ohms, a change of only 13.6 ohms. The resultant changes in impedance from each
additional increment become progressively smaller. Eventually, practically no change
in impedance results from further additions to the line. The total impedance of the line at
this point is said to be at its characteristic impedance; which, in this case, is 37 ohms.
This means that an infinite line constructed as indicated in step 8 could be effectively
replaced by a 37-ohm resistor. View B shows a 37-ohm resistor placed in the line at
various points to replace the infinite line of step 8 in view A. There is no change in total
impedance.
In figure 5-17, resistors were used to show impedance characteristics for the sake of
simplicity. Figuring the actual impedance of a line having reactance is very similar, with
inductance taking the place of the series resistors and capacitance taking the place of
the shunt resistors. The characteristic impedance of lines in actual use normally lies
between 50 and 600 ohms.

RESONANCE
Figure 5.17 - Termination of a line.
5.11 DETERMINING CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE

As discussed above, an infinite transmission line exhibits a definite input impedance.
Hence the CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE is independent of line length. The exact
value of this impedance is the ratio of the voltage to the current at all points over the
line.
Actually, taking into consideration all the four line constants (R, L, G & C), the
characteristic impedance Z0 at frequency f Hz is expressed in terms of series(R & L)
and shunt (G & C) elements.
Where Z, series impedance per section = (R + j w L)
Y, shunt admittance per section = (G + j w C)

RESONANCE
Thus
At very low frequencies the inductive components of the equivalent circuit become
insignificant and the expression for Z0 reduces to
Similarly, at higher frequencies (e.g. radio frequencies) the resistive components of the
equivalent circuit become insignificant and the expression for Z0 reduces to
Where, Z0 = Characteristic impedance of line
L= Inductance of line measured in henrys per meter,
C = Capacitance of line measured in farads per meter.
f = frequency of signal in cycles/second i.e. Hz.
w = 2πf radians / second
Z0 at any in-between frequencies will be a complex quantity i.e. it will have some
resistive part and some reactive part.
We can re-write the expression for Z0 as: -
From this, for a line whose R/L = G/C, we get,

RESONANCE
This shows that for the characteristic impedance is same at all

frequencies. Later we shall see that with this condition the line also
becomes distortion free.
Physically, characteristic impedance at high frequencies is determined by the

geometry, size and spacing of the conductors, and by the dielectric constant of
the insulator separating them. It may be calculated from the following formulas,
the various terms having meanings as shown in figure below:
For the parallel-wire line, we have
Fig.5.18 parallel wire line
If the dielectric between the conductors is only air then k value is taken as 1.
For the coaxial line, this is

RESONANCE
Fig. 5.19. Coaxial line
The usual range of characteristic impedances for balanced lines is 150 to 600 Ω , and
40 to 150 Ω for coaxial lines, both being limited by their geometry. This, as well as the
method of using the characteristic impedance formulas, will be shown in the next
examples.
Example 1: A piece of RG-59B/U coaxial cable has a 75 Ω characteristic impedance

and a nominal capacitance of 69 pF/m. What is its inductance per meter? If the diameter
of the inner conductor is 0.584 mm, and the dielectric constant of the insulation is 2.23,
what is the outer conductor diameter?
Solution:
L = Z02 C
= 752 x 69 x 10-12
= 3.88 x 10-7 = 0.388 µH/m
log d1 / d2 = Z0 = 75 = 0.81

RESONANCE
138/ √k 138/ √2.23
d1 = d2 x antilog 0.81
∴ Outer conductor diameter = 0.584 x 6.457 = 3.77 mm
Example 2: What is the minimum value that the characteristic impedance of an air-
dielectric parallel-wire line could have?
Solution: Minimum impedance will occur when d/r is also minimum, and this is reached
when the two wires just touch. Referring to fig. 6 in this condition d = 2r and substituting
this
We have Z0min= 276 x log 2r/r
= 276 x log 2
= 276 x 0.3010
= 83 Ω
5.11 VOLTAGE CHANGE ALONG A TRANSMISSION LINE
When a transmission line is "short" compared to the length of the radio-frequency

waves it carries, the opposition presented to the input terminals is determined primarily
by the load impedance. A small amount of power is dissipated in overcoming the
resistance of the line. However, when the line is "long" and the load is an incorrect
impedance, the voltages necessary to drive a given amount of current through the line
cannot be accounted for by considering just the impedance of the load in series with the
impedance of the line. The line has properties other than resistance that affect input
impedance. These properties are inductance in series with the line, capacitance across
the line, resistance leakage paths across the line, and certain radiation losses.
5.11.1 Transmission of Energy
When the load is connected directly to the source of energy, or when the transmission
line is short, problems concerning current and applying Ohm’s law can solve voltage.
When the transmission line becomes long enough so the time difference between a
change occurring at the generator and the change appearing at the load becomes
appreciable, analysis of the transmission line becomes important.
5.11.2 DC Applied to a Transmission Line

RESONANCE
In figure 5-20, a battery is connected through a relatively long two-wire transmission line
to a load at the far end of the line. At the instant the switch is closed, neither current nor
voltage exists on the line. When the switch is closed, point A becomes a positive
potential, and point B becomes negative. These points of difference in potential move
down the line.
However, as the initial points of potential leave points A and B, they are followed by new
points of difference in potential, which the battery adds at A, and B. This is merely
saying that the battery maintains a constant potential difference between points A and
B. A short time after the switch is closed, the initial points of difference in potential have
reached points A' and B'; the wire sections from points A to A' and points B to B' are at
the same potential as A and B, respectively. The points of charge are represented by
plus (+) and minus (-) signs along the wires. The arrowheads on the line represent the
directions of the currents in the wires, and an arrow below the line indicates the direction
of travel.
Conventional lines of force represent the electric field that exists between the opposite
kinds of charge on the wire sections from A to A' and B to B'. Crosses (tails of arrows)
indicate the magnetic field created by the electric field moving down the line. The
moving electric field and the accompanying magnetic field constitute an electromagnetic
wave that is moving from the generator (battery) toward the load. This wave travels at
approximately the speed of light in free space. The energy reaching the load is equal to
that developed at the battery (assuming there are no losses in the transmission line). If
the load absorbs all of the energy, the current and voltage will be evenly distributed
along the line.
Figure 5.20. - Dc voltage applied to a line.

5.11.3 AC Applied to a Transmission Line
When the battery of figure 5-20 is replaced by an ac generator (fig. 5-21), each
successive instantaneous value of the generator voltage is propagated down the line at
the speed of light. The action is similar to the wave created by the battery except that
the applied voltage is sinusoidal instead of constant. Assume that the switch is closed at
the moment the generator voltage is passing through zero and that the next half cycle

RESONANCE
makes point A positive. At the end of one cycle of generator voltage, the current and
voltage distribution will be as shown in figure 5-21.
Figure 5.21. - Ac voltage applied to a line.
In this illustration the conventional lines of force represent the electric fields. For
simplicity, the magnetic fields are not shown. Points of charge are indicated by plus (+)
and minus (-) signs, the larger signs indicating points of higher amplitude of both voltage
and current. Short arrows indicate direction of current (electron flow). The waveform
drawn below the transmission line represents the voltage (E) and current (I) waves.
The line is assumed to be infinite in length so there is no reflection. Thus, traveling

sinusoidal voltage and current waves continually travel in phase from the generator
toward the load, or far end of the line. Waves traveling from the generator to the load
are called INCIDENT WAVES. Waves traveling from the load back to the generator are
called REFLECTED WAVES and will be explained in later paragraphs.
5.11.4 DC Applied to an Infinite Line
Figure 5-22 shows a battery connected to a circuit that is the equivalent of a

transmission line. In this line the series resistance and shunt conductance are not
shown. In the following discussion the line will be considered to have no losses.
Figure 5.22. - Dc applied to an equivalent transmission line.

RESONANCE
As the switch is closed, the battery voltage is applied to the input terminals of the line.
Now, C1 has no charge and appears, effectively, as a short circuit across points A and
B. The full battery voltage appears across inductor L1. Inductor L1 opposes the change
of current (0 now) and limits the rate of charge of C1.
Capacitor C2 cannot begin to charge until after C1 has charged. No current can flow
beyond points A and B until C1 has acquired some charge. As the voltage across C1
increases, current through L2 and C2 charges C2. This action continues down the line
and charges each capacitor, in turn, to the battery voltage. Thus a voltage wave is
traveling along the line. Beyond the wave front, the line is uncharged. Since the line is
infinitely long, there will always be more capacitors to be charged, and current will not
stop flowing. Thus current will flow indefinitely in the line.
Notice that current flows to charge the capacitors along the line. The flow of current is
not advanced along the line until a voltage is developed across each preceding
capacitor. In this manner voltage and current move down the line together in phase.
5.11.5 AC Applied to an Infinite Line
A transmission line displays similar characteristics when an ac voltage is applied to its

sending end or input terminals. In figure 5-23, view A, an ac voltage is applied to the line
represented by the circuit shown.

RESONANCE
Figure 5.23. - Ac applied to an equivalent transmission line.

In view B the generator voltage starts from zero (T1) and produces the voltage shown.
As soon as a small voltage change is produced, it starts its journey down the line while
the generator continues to produce new voltages along a sine curve. At T2 the
generator voltage is 70 volts. The voltages still move along the line until, at T3, the first
small change arrives at point W, and the voltage at that point starts increasing. At T5,
the same voltage arrives at point X on the line. Finally, at T7, the first small change
arrives at the receiving end of the line.
Meanwhile, all the changes in the sine wave produced by the generator pass each point
in turn. The amount of time required for the changes to travel the length of the line is the
same as that required for a dc voltage to travel the same distance.
At T7, the voltage at the various points on the line is as follows:

RESONANCE
At the generator: -100 V
At point W: 0V
At point X: +100 V
At point Y: 0V
If these voltages are plotted along the length of the line, the resulting curve is like the
one shown in figure 5-24, view A. Note that such a curve of instantaneous voltages
resembles a sine wave. The changes in voltage that occur between T7 and T8 are as
follows:
At the generator: Rise from -100 V to -70 V
At point W: Drop from 0 V to -70 V
At point X: Drop from +100 V to +70 V
At point Y: Rise from 0 V to +70 V
+100
_100
Sending Point Point Performing
end W Length of line X end
A) VOLTAGE ON LINE AT TIME T7
+150
+70
0
X X
-70
-100
B) VOLTAGES ON LINE AT TIME T8 (DOTTED LINE
IS T7 VOLTAGE FOR REFERENCE)
+100
+70
C) A CURVE OF READINGS ON AN A.C. METER

WOULD SHOW THE EFFECTIVE OR RMS VOLTAGE
TO BE THE SAME OVER LENGTH OF LINE
Figure 5.24. - Instantaneous voltages along a transmission line.

RESONANCE
A plot of these new voltages produces the solid curve shown in figure 5.24, view B. For
reference, the curve from T7 is drawn as a dotted line. The solid curve has exactly the
same shape as the dotted curve, but has moved to the right by the distance X. Another
plot at T9 would show a new curve similar to the one at T8, but moved to the right by the
distance Y.
By analyzing the points along the graph just discussed, you should be able to see that
the actions associated with voltage changes along an transmission line are as follows:
1. All instantaneous voltages of the sine wave produced by the generator travel down
the line in the order they are produced.
2. At any point, a sine wave can be obtained if all the instantaneous voltages passing
the point are plotted. An oscilloscope can be used to plot these values of instantaneous
voltages against time.
3. The instantaneous voltages (oscilloscope displays) are the same in all cases except
that a phase difference exists in the displays seen at different points along the line. The
phase changes continually with respect to the generator until the change is 360 degrees
over a certain length of line.
4. All parts of a sine wave pass every point along the line. A plot of the readings of an
ac meter (which reads the effective value of the voltage over a given time) taken at
different points along the line shows that the voltage is constant at all points. This is
shown in view C of figure 5-24.
5. Since the line is terminated with a resistance equal to Z0, the energy arriving at the
end of the line is absorbed by the resistance.
5.12 VELOCITY OF WAVE PROPAGATION
If a voltage is initially applied to the sending end of a line, that same voltage will appear
later some distance from the sending end. This is true regardless of any change in
voltage, whether the change is a jump from zero to some value or a drop from some
value to zero. The voltage change will be conducted down the line at a constant rate.
Recall that the inductance of a line delays the charging of the line capacitance. The
velocity of propagation is therefore related to the values of L and C.
If the switch in figure 5-25 is closed for a given time, the quantity (Q) of electricity
leaving the battery can be computed by using the equation Q = IT. The electricity leaves
the battery and goes into the line, where a charge is built up on the capacitors. The
amount of this charge is computed by using the equation Q = CE.

RESONANCE
Figure 5.25. - DC applied to an equivalent transmission line.
Since none of the charge is lost, the total charge leaving the battery during T is equal to
the total charge on the line. Therefore: Q = IT = CE
As each capacitor accumulates a charge equal to CE, the voltage across each inductor
must change. As C1 in figure 5-22 charges to a voltage of E, point A rises to a potential
of E volts while point C is still at zero volts. This makes E appear across L2. As C2
charges, point C rises to a potential of E volts as did point A. At this time, point C is at E
volts and point E rises. Thus, as this action continues down the line, we have a
continuing action of voltage moving down the infinite line.
The equation used for finding the time required for a voltage change to travel a unit
length, in terms of L and C given unit length,
is
Thus the velocity of the waves is,
This is the rate at which the wave travels over a unit length. The units of L and C are
henrys and farads per unit length, respectively. T is in seconds and V is in unit meters
per second.
5.13 Reflections On A Transmission Line
Transmission line characteristics are based on an infinite line. If the line is infinite or is
terminated in a resistance equal to the characteristic impedance, voltage and current
waves traveling the line are in phase. A line cannot always be terminated in its
characteristic impedance since it is sometimes operated as an OPEN-ENDED line ( i.e
terminating impedance that is infinitely large) and other times as a SHORT-CIRCUIT
at the receiving end. If the line is not terminated by its characteristic impedance Z0, it is
said to be finite.

RESONANCE
When a line is not terminated in Z0, the incident energy is not absorbed but is returned
along the only path available - the transmission line. Thus, the behavior of a finite line
may be quite different from that of the infinite line or a properly terminated line.
5.13.1 Reflection Of Dc Voltage From An Open Circuit

The equivalent circuit of an open-ended transmission line is shown in figure 5-26, view
A. Again, losses are to be considered as negligible, and L is lumped in one branch.
Assume that:
(1) The battery in this circuit has an internal impedance equal to the characteristic
impedance of the transmission line (Zi = Z0);
(2) The capacitors in the line are not charged before the battery is connected; and
(3) Since the line is open-ended, the terminating impedance is infinitely large.
Figure 5.26. - Reflection from an open-ended line.

When the battery is connected to the sending end as shown, a negative voltage moves
down the line. This voltage charges each capacitor, in turn, through the preceding
inductor. Since Zi equals Z0, one-half the applied voltage will appear across the internal
battery impedance, Zi, and one-half across the impedance of the line, Z0. Each
capacitor is then charged to E/2 (view B). When the last capacitor in the line is charged,

RESONANCE
there is no voltage across the last inductor and current flow through the last inductor
stops. With no current flow to maintain it, the magnetic field in the last inductor collapses
and forces current to continue to flow in the same direction into the last capacitor.
Because the direction of current has not changed, the capacitor charges in the same
direction, thereby increasing the charge in the capacitor. Since the energy in the
magnetic field equals the energy in the capacitor, the energy transfer to the capacitor
doubles the voltage across the capacitor. The last capacitor is now charged to E volts
and the current in the last inductor drops to zero.
At this point, the same process takes place with the next to the last inductor and
capacitor. When the magnetic field about the inductor collapses, current continues to
flow into the next to the last capacitor, charging it to E volts. This action continues
backward down the line until the first capacitor has been fully charged to the applied
voltage. This change of voltage, moving backward down the line, can be thought of in
the following manner. The voltage, arriving at the end of the line, finds no place to go
and returns to the sending end with the same polarity (view C). Such action is called
REFLECTION.
When a reflection of voltage occurs on an open-ended line, the polarity is unchanged.

The voltage change moves back to the source, charging each capacitor in turn until the
first capacitor is charged to the source voltage and the action stops (view D). As each
capacitor is charged, current in each inductor drops to zero, effectively reflecting the
current with the opposite polarity (view C). Reflected current of opposite polarity cancels
the original current at each point, and the current drops to zero at that point. When the
last capacitor is charged, the current from the source stops flowing (view D).
Important facts to remember in the reflection of dc voltages in open-ended lines are:
• Voltage is reflected from an open end without change in polarity, amplitude, or

shape.
• Current is reflected from an open end with opposite polarity and without change in
amplitude or shape.
5.13.2 Reflection Of Dc Voltage From A Short Circuit
A SHORT-CIRCUITED line affects voltage change differently from the way an open-
circuited line affects it. The voltage across a perfect short circuit must be zero; therefore,
no power can be absorbed in the short, and the energy is reflected toward the
generator.
The initial circuit is shown in figure 5-27, view A. The initial voltage and current waves
(view B) are the same as those given for an infinite line. In a short-circuited line the
voltage change arrives at the last inductor in the same manner as the waves on an

RESONANCE
open-ended line. In this case, however, there is no capacitor to charge. The current
through the final inductor produces a voltage with the polarity shown in view C. When
the field collapses, the inductor acts as a battery and forces current through the
capacitor in the opposite direction, causing it to discharge (view D). Since the amount of
energy stored in the magnetic field is the same as that in the capacitor, the capacitor
discharges to zero.
Figure 5.27- Reflection from a short-circuited line.

Now there is no voltage to maintain the current through the next to the last inductor.
Therefore, this inductor discharges the next to the last capacitor.
As each capacitor is discharged to zero, the next inductor effectively becomes a new
source of voltage. The amplitude of each of these voltages is equal to E/2, but the
polarity is the opposite of the battery at the input end of the line. The collapsing field

RESONANCE
around each inductor, in turn, produces a voltage that forces the current to continue
flowing in the same direction, adding to the current from the source to make it 2I. This
action continues until all the capacitors are discharged (view E).
Reflected waves from a short-circuited transmission line are characterized as follows:
• The reflected voltage has the opposite polarity but the same amplitude as the incident
wave.
• The reflected current has the same polarity and the same amplitude as the incident
current.
5.13.3 Reflection Of Ac Voltage From An Open Circuit
In most cases where transmission lines are used, the voltages applied to the sending
end are ac voltages. The action at the receiving end of the line is exactly the same for
ac as for dc. In the open-ended line, shown in figure 5-28, view A, the generated ac
voltage is distributed along the line, shown in view B. This voltage is distributed in such
a way that as each instantaneous voltage arrives at the end, it is reflected with the same
polarity and amplitude. When ac is used, this reflection is in phase. Each of the reflected
voltages travels back along the line until it reaches the generator. If the generator
impedance is the same as the line impedance, energy arriving at the generator is
absorbed and not reflected again. Now two voltages are on the line.
View B shows how two waves of the same frequency and amplitude moving in opposite
directions on the same conductor will combine to form a resultant wave. The small solid
line is moving steadily from left to right and is the INCIDENT WAVE (from the source).
The broken-line waveform is moving from right to left and is the REFLECTED WAVE.
The resultant waveform, the heavy line, is found by algebraically adding instantaneous
values of the two waveforms. The resultant waveform has instantaneous peak
amplitude that is equal to the sum of the peak amplitudes of the incident and reflected
waves. Since most indicating instruments are unable to separate these voltages, they
show the vector sum. An oscilloscope is usually used to study the instantaneous
voltages on transmission lines.
Since two waves of voltage are moving on the line, you need to know how to distinguish
between the two. The voltages moving toward the receiving end are called INCIDENT
VOLTAGES, and the whole wave shape is called the INCIDENT WAVE. The wave
moving back to the sending end after reflection is called the REFLECTED WAVE. The
resultant voltage curve (view B of figure 5-28) shows that the voltage is maximum at
the end of the line, a condition that occurs across an open circuit.

RESONANCE
A) RF LINE
Voltage that would
have continued on
had line been longer
1
Reflected wave
moving to left
0
Sending end Incident Wave
moving to right
Resultant wave
B) INCIDENT AND REFLECTED VOLTAGES ADD TO FORM RESULTANT VOLTAGE
Reflected current moving

to left
Current that would
0
have continued on
Incident Above current
Voltage
inverted
Incident current
moving to right Current wave
folded back
Resultant wave
C) INCIDENT AND REFLECTED CURRENT ADD TO FORM RESULTANT WAVE
Figure 5.28. - Formation of standing waves.
Another step in investigating the open-circuited transmission line is to see how the
current waves act. The incident current wave is the solid line in figure 5-28, view C. The
voltage is represented by the dotted line. The current is in phase with the voltage while
traveling toward the receiving end. At the end of the line, the current is reflected in the
opposite polarity; that is, it is shifted 180 degrees in phase, but its amplitude remains the
same. The reflected wave of current is shown by dashed lines in view C. The heavy-line
curve represents the sum of the two instantaneous currents and is the resultant wave.
Notice that current is zero at the end of the line. This is reasonable, since there can be
no current flow through an open circuit.
Views B and C of figure 5.28 show the voltage and current distribution along a
transmission line at a point about 1/8 after a maximum voltage or current reaches the
end of the line. Since the instantaneous values are continuously changing during the

RESONANCE
generation of a complete cycle, a large number of these pictures are required to show
the many different relationships.
Figure 5-29 shows the incident and reflected wave shapes at several different times.
The diagrams in the left column of figure 5-29(representing voltage) show the incident
wave and its reflection without change in polarity. In figure 5-29, waveform (1), the
incident wave and the reflected wave are added algebraically to produce the resultant
wave indicated by the heavy line. In waveform (2), a zero point preceding the negative-
going cycle of the incident wave is at the end of the line. The reflected wave and
incident wave are 180 degrees out of phase at all points. (The reflected wave is the
positive cycle that just proceeded the negative cycle now approaching the end of the
line.) The resultant of the incident and reflected waves is zero at all points along the line.
In waveform (3), the waves have moved 1/8 along the line; the incident wave has
moved 45 degrees to the right, and the reflected wave has moved 45 degrees to the left.
The resultant voltage, shown by the heavy line, has a maximum negative at the end of
the line and a maximum positive 1/2 wavelength from the end of the line.
In waveform (4), the incident wave is at a maximum negative value at the end of the
line. The wave has moved another 45 degrees to the right from the wave in the
preceding illustration. The reflected wave has also moved 45 degrees, but to the left.
The reflected wave is in phase with the incident wave. The resultant of these two waves,
shown by the dark line, again has a negative maximum at the end of the line and a
positive maximum 1/2 wavelength from the end of the line. Notice that these maxima
have greater amplitude than those in waveform (3).
In waveform (5), the incident wave has moved another 45 degrees to the right and the
reflected wave 45 degrees to the left. The resultant again is maximum negative at the
end and positive maximum 1/2 wavelength from the end. The maxima are lower than
those in waveform (4). In waveform (6), the incident and reflected wave have moved
another 1/8 wavelength. The two waves again are 180 degrees out of phase, giving a
resultant wave with no amplitude. The incident and reflected waves continue moving in
opposite directions, adding to produce the resultant wave shapes shown in waveforms
(7) and (8). Notice that the maximum voltage in each resultant wave is at the end and
1/2 wavelength from the end.

RESONANCE
VOLTAGE CURRENT
Reflections
+
Reflections in phase +
out of phase
1
1 0 A 0
8
- -
1
2 B
4
Resultant
3
3 C
8
RECEIVING END
RECEIVING END
4 1 D
2
Resultant
5 5
8 E
6 3
4 F
Resultant
7
7
8
G
8
H
Resultant
Figure 5.29. - Instantaneous values of incident and reflected waves on an open-ended line.
Study each part of figure 5.29 carefully and you will get a clear picture of how the
resultant waveforms of voltage are produced. You will also see that the resultant voltage
wave on an open-ended line is always zero at 1/4 wavelength and 3/4 wavelengths from
the end of the transmission line. Since the zero and maximum points are always in the
same place, the resultant of the incident and the reflected wave is called a STANDING
WAVE of voltage.
The right-hand column in figure 5.29 shows the current wave shapes on the open-ended
line. Since the current is reflected out of phase at an open end, the resultant wave
shapes differ from those for voltage. The two out-of-phase components always cancel
at the end of the transmission line, so the resultant is always zero at that point. If you
check all the resultant wave shapes shown in the right-hand column of figure 5-29, you

RESONANCE
will see that a zero point always occurs at the end and at a point 1/2 wavelength from
the end. Maximum voltages occur 1/4 wavelength and 3/4 wavelengths from the end.
When an ac meter is used to measure the voltages and currents along a line, the
polarity is not indicated. If you plot all the current and voltage readings along the length
of the line, you will get curves like the ones shown in figure 5-30. Notice that all are
positive. These curves are the conventional method of showing current and voltage
standing waves on transmission lines.
Figure 5.30- Conventional picture of standing waves.

When a transmission line is terminated in a short circuit, reflection is complete, but the
effect on voltage and current differs from that in an open-ended line. Voltage is reflected
in opposite phase, while current is reflected in phase. Again refer to the series of
pictures shown in figure 5-29. However, this time the left column represents current,
since it shows reflection in phase; and the right column of pictures now represents the
voltage changes on the shorted line, since it shows reflection out of phase.
The composite diagram in figure 5.31 shows all resultant curves on a full-wavelength
section of line over a complete cycle. Notice that the amplitude of the voltage varies
between zero and maximum in both directions at the center and at both ends as well;
but, one-fourth of the distance from each end the voltage is always zero. The resultant
wave shape is referred to as a standing wave of voltage. Standing waves, then, are
caused by reflections, which occur only when the line is not terminated in its
characteristic impedance.
The voltage at the center and the ends varies at a sinusoidal rate between the limits
shown. At the one-fourth the three-fourths points, the voltage is always zero. A
continuous series of diagrams such as these is difficult to see with conventional test
equipment, which reads the effective or average voltage over several cycles.
The curve of amplitude over the length of line for several cycles is shown in figure 5-31,
view B. A meter will read zero at the points shown and will show a maximum voltage at
the center, no matter how many cycles pass.

RESONANCE
LENGH OF LINE
+ 8
A 1-7
AMPLITUDE 0 2-6
3-5
_
4
COMPOSITE PICTURE OF RESULTANTS IN
LEFT COLUMN OF FIGURE 5 - 29
3 1 1
4 2 4 0
MAX
B
AMPLITUDE
0
ZERO
RELATIVE AMPLITUDE AT EACH POINT
OVER A PERIOD OF TIME
B
A-C
C
D-H
AMPLITUDE 0
E-G
_ F
COMPOSITE PICTURE OF RESULTANTS IN
RIGHT COLUMN OF FIGURE 5 - 29
3 1 1
MAX 4 2 4 0
D
AMPLITUDE
ZERO 0
RELATIVE AMPLITUDE AT EACH POINT
OVER A PERIOD OF TIME
I
E
E
COMBINED VOLTAGE AND CURRENT PICTURE
Figure 5.31 - Composite results of instantaneous waves.

As shown in view D, the amplitude varies along the length of the line. In this case it is
zero at the end and center but maximum at the one-fourth and three-fourths points.
The entire diagram of the open-ended line conditions is shown in view E. The standing
waves of voltage and current appear together. Observe that one is maximum when the
other is minimum. The current and voltage standing waves are one-quarter cycle, or 90
degrees, out of phase with one another.
5.13.4 Reflection Of Ac Voltage From A Short Circuit
Reflection is complete when an transmission line is terminated in a short circuit, but the
effect on voltage and current differs from the effect obtained in an open-ended line.

RESONANCE
Voltage is reflected in opposite phase, while current is reflected in phase. Again look at
the series of diagrams in figure 5-29. The left column represents current, and the right
column shows voltage changes on the shorted line. The standard representation of
standing waves on a shorted line is shown in figure 5-32; the voltage is a solid line, and
the current is a dashed line. The voltage is zero at the end and center (1/2λ) and
maximum at the 1/4λ and 3/4λ points, while the current is maximum at the end and
center and minimum at the 1/4λ and 3/4λ points.
Figure 5.32. - Standing waves on a shorted line.

As we discussed voltage and current waves on transmission lines, we pointed out
several differences between open and shorted lines. Basic differences also appear in
the standing-wave patterns for open and shorted lines. You can see these differences
by comparing figure 5-31, view E, and figure 5-32. Notice that the current and voltage
standing waves are shifted 90 degrees with respect to the termination. At the open end
of a line, voltage is maximum (zero if there are no losses in the line). At a short circuit,
current is maximum and voltage is minimum.
5.14 Terminating A Transmission Line
A transmission line is either NONRESONANT or RESONANT. First, let us define the

terms non-resonant lines and resonant lines. A non-resonant line is a line that has no
standing waves of current and voltage. A resonant line is a line that has standing waves
of current and voltage.
5.14.1 Non-resonant Lines
A non-resonant line is either infinitely long or terminated in its characteristic impedance.

Since no reflections occur, all the energy traveling down the line is absorbed by the
load, which terminates the line. Since no standing waves are present, this type of line is

RESONANCE
sometimes spoken of as a FLAT line. In addition, because the load impedance of such a
line is equal to Z0, no special tuning devices are required to effect a maximum power
transfer; hence, the line is also called an UNTUNED line.
5.14.2 Resonant Lines
A resonant line has a finite length and is not terminated in its characteristic impedance.
Therefore reflections of energy do occur. The load impedance is different from the Z0 of
the line; therefore, the input impedance may not be purely resistive but may have
reactive components. Tuning devices are used to eliminate the reactance and to bring
about maximum power transfer from the source to the line. Therefore, a resonant line is
sometimes called a TUNED line. The line also may be used for a resonant or tuned
circuit.
Figure 5.33. - Sending-end impedance of various lengths and terminations.

A resonant line is sometimes said to be resonant at an applied frequency. This means
that at one frequency the line acts as a resonant circuit. It may act either as a high-
resistive circuit (parallel resonant) or as a low-resistive circuit (series resonant). The line
may be made to act in this manner by either open- or short-circuiting it at the output end
and cutting it to some multiple of a quarter-wavelength.
At the points of voltage maxima and minima on a short-circuited or open-circuited line,

the line impedance is resistive. On a short-circuited line, each point at an odd number of
quarter-wavelengths from the receiving end has a high impedance (figure 5-33, view A).

RESONANCE
If the frequency of the applied voltage to the line is varied, this impedance decreases as
the effective length of the line changes. This variation is exactly the same as the change
in the impedance of a parallel-resonant circuit when the applied frequency is varied.
At all even numbered quarter-wavelength points from the short circuit, the impedance is
extremely low. When the frequency of the voltage applied to the line is varied, the
impedance at these points increases just as the impedance of a series-resonant circuit
varies when the frequency applied to it is changed. The same is true for an open-
ended line (figure 5-33, view B) except that the points of high and low impedance are
reversed.
At this point let us review some of the characteristics of resonant circuits so we

can see how resonant line sections may be used in place of LC circuits.
A PARALLEL-RESONANT circuit has the following characteristics:
• At resonance the impedance appears as a very high resistance. A loss-free circuit has
infinite impedance (an open circuit). Other than at resonance, the impedance decreases
rapidly.
• If the circuit is resonant at a point above the generator frequency (the generator
frequency is too low), more current flows through the coil than through the capacitor.
This happens because XL decreases with a decrease in frequency but XC increases.
A SERIES-RESONANT circuit has these characteristics:
• At resonance the impedance appears as a very low resistance. A loss-free circuit has
zero impedance (a short circuit). Other than at resonance the impedance increases
rapidly.
• If the circuit is resonant at a point above the generator frequency (the generator
frequency is too low), then XC is larger than XL and the circuit acts capacitive.
• If the circuit is resonant at a point below the generator frequency (the generator
frequency is too high), then XL is larger than XC and the circuit acts inductively.
Since the impedance a generator sees at the quarter-wave point in a shorted line is that
of a parallel-resonant circuit, a shorted quarter-wavelength of line may be used as a
parallel-resonant circuit (figure 5-33, view C). An open quarter-wavelength of line may
be used as a series-resonant circuit (view D). The Q of such a resonant line is much
greater than can be obtained with lumped capacitance and inductance.
5.14.3 Impedance for Various Lengths of Open Lines
In figure 5-34, the impedance (Z) the generator sees for various lengths of line is shown
at the top. The curves above the letters of various heights show the relative value of the
impedances presented to the generator for the various line lengths. The circuit symbols

RESONANCE
indicate the equivalent electrical circuits for the transmission lines at each particular
length. The standing waves of voltage and current are shown on each length of line.
c c c c c c
R R
OR OR OR OR
H IG H R LO W R H IG H R LO W R H IG H R
0 0 0 0 0
360 270 100 90 E 0
3 I
4 2 4
E
I
E I
E I
E I
E I
E I
E I
Figure 5.34. - Voltage, current, and impedance on open line.

At all odd quarter-wave points (1/4 wavelength, 3/4 wavelength, etc.), the voltage is
minimum, the current is maximum, and the impedance is minimum. Thus, at all odd
quarter-wave points, the open-ended transmission line acts as a series-resonant circuit.
The impedance is equivalent to a very low resistance, prevented from being zero only
by small circuit losses.
At all even quarter-wave points (1/2 wavelength, 1 wavelength, 3/2 wavelength, etc.),
the voltage is maximum, the current is minimum, and the impedance is maximum.
Comparison of the line with an LC resonant circuit shows that at an even number of
quarter-wavelengths, an open line acts as a parallel-resonant circuit. The impedance is
therefore an extremely high resistance.

RESONANCE
In addition, resonant open lines may also act as nearly pure capacitances or
inductances. The illustration shows that an open line less than a quarter-wavelength
long acts as a capacitance. Also, it acts as an inductance from 1/4 to 1/2 wavelength,
as a capacitance from 1/2 to 3/4 wavelength, and as an inductance from 3/4 to 1
wavelength, etc. A number of open transmission lines, with their equivalent circuits, are
shown in the illustration.
5.14.4 Impedance of Various Lengths of Shorted Lines
c c c c c c c
R R
R
OR
OR OR OR
LOW R H IG H R LO W R H IG H R LO W R
0 0 0 0 0
360 270 100 90 I 0
3
E
4 2 4
E I
E I
E I
E I
E I
E I
E I
Figure 5.35. - Voltage, current, and impedance on shorted line.

Follow figure 5-35 as we study the shorted line. At the odd quarter-wavelength points,
the voltage is high, the current is low, and the impedance is high. Since these conditions
are similar to those found in a parallel-resonant circuit, the shorted transmission line
acts as a parallel-resonant circuit at these lengths.
At the even quarter-wave points voltage is minimum, current is maximum, and

impedance is minimum. Since these characteristics are similar to those of a series-
resonant LC circuit, a shorted transmission lines whose length is an even number of
quarter-wavelengths acts as a series-resonant circuit.
Resonant shorted lines, like open-end lines, also may act as pure capacitances or
inductances. The illustration shows that a shorted line less than 1/4 wavelength long

RESONANCE
acts as an inductance. A shorted line with a length of from 1/4 to 1/2 wavelength acts as
a capacitance. From 1/2 to 3/4 wavelength, the line acts as an inductance; and from 3/4
to 1 wavelength, it acts as a capacitance, and so on. The equivalent circuits of shorted
lines of various lengths are shown in the illustration. Thus, properly chosen line
segments may be used as parallel-resonant, series-resonant, inductive, or capacitive
circuits.
5.15 Standing Waves On A Transmission Line

There is a large variety of terminations for transmission lines. Each type of termination
has a characteristic effect on the standing waves on the line. From the nature of the
standing waves, you can determine the type of termination that produces the waves.
5.15.1 Termination In Z0
Termination in Z0 (characteristic impedance) will cause a constant reading on an ac

meter when it is moved along the length of the line. As illustrated in figure 5-36, view A,
the curve, provided there are no losses in the line, will be a straight line. If there are
losses in the line, the amplitude of the voltage and current will diminish as they move
down the line (view B). The losses are due to dc resistance in the line itself.
5.15.2 Termination In An Open Circuit
In an open-circuited transmission line (figure 5-36, view C), the voltage is maximum at
the end, but the current is minimum. The distance between two adjacent zero current
points is 1/2 wavelength, and the distance between alternate zero current points is 1 .
The voltage is zero at a distance of 1/4 wavelength from the end of the line. This is true
at any frequency. A voltage peak occurs at the end of the line, at 1/2 wavelength from
the end, and at each 1/2 wavelength thereafter.
5.15.3 Termination In A Short Circuit
On the line terminated in a short circuit, shown in figure 5-36, view D, the voltage is zero
at the end and maximum at 1/4 wavelength from the end. The current is maximum at
the end, zero at 1/4 wavelength from the end, and alternately maximum and zero every
1/4 wavelength thereafter.

RESONANCE
I
E E
I
NO
Z O LOSSES XC = Z O
A E
E
I
E
I
Z O W IT H XL = Z O
LO S S E S
B F
E
E
I
I
^
ONE W AVE LENGTH OPEN R ZO
C G
E
I
I E
^
SHORT R ZO
D H
Figure 5.36. - Effects of various terminations on standing waves.

5.15.4 Termination In Capacitance
When a line is terminated in capacitance, the capacitor does not absorb energy, but
returns all of the energy to the circuit. This means there is 100 percent reflection. The
current and voltage relationships are somewhat more involved than in previous types of
termination. For this explanation, assume that the capacitive reactance is equal to the
Z0 of the line. Current and voltage are in phase when they arrive at the end of the line,
but in flowing through the capacitor and the characteristic impedance (Z0) connected in
series, they shift in phase relationship. Current and voltage arrive in phase and leave
out of phase. This results in the standing - wave configuration shown in figure 5-36, view
E. The standing wave of voltage is minimum at a distance of exactly 1/8 from the end.
If the capacitive reactance is greater than Z0 (smaller capacitance), the termination
looks more like an open circuit; the voltage minimum moves away from the end. If the
capacitive reactance is smaller than Z0, the minimum moves toward the end.
5.15.5 Termination In Inductance

RESONANCE
When the line is terminated in an inductance, both the current and voltage shift in phase
as they arrive at the end of the line. When XL is equal to Z0, the resulting standing
waves are as shown in figure 5-36, view F. The current minimum is located 1/8 from
the end of the line. When the inductive reactance is increased, the standing waves
appear closer to the end. When the inductive reactance is decreased, the standing
waves move away from the end of the line.
5.15.6 Termination In A Resistance Not Equal To The Characteristic Impedance (Z0)
Whenever the termination is not equal to Z0, reflections occur on the line. For example,
if the terminating element contains resistance, it absorbs some energy, but if the
resistive element does not equal the Z0 of the line, some of the energy is reflected. The
amount of voltage reflected may be found by using the equation:
Where: ER = the reflected voltage
Ei = the incident voltage
RR = the terminating resistance
Z0= the characteristic impedance of the line
If you try different values of RL in the preceding equation, you will find that the reflected
voltage is equal to the incident voltage only when RL equals 0 or is infinitely large. When
RL equals Z0, no reflected voltage occurs. When RLis greater than Z0, ER is positive, but
less than Ei. As RL increases and approaches an infinite value, ER increases and
approaches Ei in value. When RL is smaller than Z0, ER has a negative value. This
means that the reflected voltage is of opposite polarity to the incident wave at the
termination of the line. As RL approaches zero, ER approaches Ei in value. The smaller
the value of ER, the smaller is the peak amplitude of the standing waves and the higher
are the minimum values.
5.15.7 Termination In A Resistance Greater Than Z0
When RL is greater than Z0, the end of the line is somewhat like an open circuit; that is,
standing waves appear on the line. The voltage maximum appears at the end of the line
and also at half-wave intervals back from the end. The current is minimum (not zero) at
the end of the line and maximum at the odd quarter-wave points. Since part of the
power in the incident wave is consumed by the load resistance, the minimum voltage
and current are less than for the standing waves on an open-ended line. Figure 5-33,
view G, illustrates the standing waves for this condition.

RESONANCE
5.15.8 Termination In A Resistance Less Than Z0
When RL is less than Z0, the termination appears as a short circuit. The standing waves
are shown in figure 5-33, view H. Notice that the line terminates in a current LOOP
(peak) and a voltage NODE (minimum). The values of the maximum and minimum
voltage and current approach those for a shorted line as the value of RL approaches
zero.
A line does not have to be any particular length to produce standing waves; however, it
cannot be an infinite line. Voltage and current must be reflected to produce standing
waves. For reflection to occur, a line must not be terminated in its characteristic
impedance. Reflection occurs on lines terminated in opens, shorts, capacitances, and
inductances, because the load absorbs no energy. If the line is terminated in a
resistance not equal to the characteristic impedance of the line, some energy will be
absorbed and the rest will be reflected.
The voltage and current relationships for open-ended and shorted lines are opposite to
each other, as shown in figure 5-36, views C and D. The points of maximum and
minimum voltage and current are determined from the output end of the line, because
reflection always begins at that end.
5.16 Standing-Wave Ratio
The measurement of standing waves on a transmission line yields information about

equipment operating conditions. Maximum power is absorbed by the load when ZL = Z0.
If a line has no standing waves, the termination for that line is correct and maximum
power transfer takes place.
You have probably noticed that the variation of standing waves shows how near the
transmission line is to being terminated in Z0. A wide variation in voltage along the
length means a termination far from Z0. A small variation means termination near Z0.
Therefore, the ratio of the maximum to the minimum is a measure of the perfection of
the termination of a line. This ratio is called the STANDING-WAVE RATIO (SWR) and is
always expressed in whole numbers. For example, a ratio of 1:1 describes a line
terminated in its characteristic impedance (Z0).
5.16.1 Voltage Standing-Wave Ratio

The ratio of maximum voltage to minimum voltage on a line is called the VOLTAGE
STANDING-WAVE RATIO (VSWR). Therefore:

RESONANCE
The vertical lines in the formula indicate that the enclosed quantities are absolute and
that the two values are taken without regard to polarity. Depending on the nature of the
standing waves, the numerical value of VSWR ranges from a value of 1 (ZL = Z0, no
standing waves) to an infinite value for theoretically complete reflection. Since there is
always a small loss on a line, the minimum voltage is never zero and the VSWR is
always some finite value. However, if the VSWR is to be a useful quantity, the power
losses along the line must be small in comparison to the transmitted power.
5.16.2 Power Standing-Wave Ratio
The square of the voltage standing-wave ratio is called the POWER STANDING-WAVE
RATIO (PSWR). Therefore:
This ratio is useful because the instruments used to detect standing waves react to the
square of the voltage. Since power is proportional to the square of the voltage, the ratio
of the square of the maximum and minimum voltages is called the power standing-wave
ratio. In a sense, the name is misleading because the power along a transmission line
does not vary.
5.16.3 Current Standing-Wave Ratio
The ratio of maximum to minimum current along a transmission line is called CURRENT
(I) STANDING-WAVE RATIO (ISWR). Therefore:
This ratio is the same as that for voltages. It can be used where measurements are
made with loops that sample the magnetic field along a line. It gives the same results as
VSWR measurements.
5.17 Noise Immunity Performance Of Balanced & Unbalanced Lines

A transmission line may be balanced or unbalanced. An unbalanced line has one of its
two conductors at ground potential. A balanced transmission line has both conductors
floating with respect to ground i.e. neither conductor is tied at ground potential. An
example of an unbalanced transmission line is coaxial cable. The outer shield of coaxial
cable is grounded. An example of a balanced transmission line is two-wire line or a
twisted pair line only when neither conductor is grounded. On such a balanced line the
instantaneous signal voltage V will appear on one conductor as (+)V/2, and on the other
conductor as (–)V/2, with respect to ground. However if any of the conductors is tied at
ground or any other common point the line will become an un-balanced line.

RESONANCE
5.17.1 Unbalanced Lines

A coaxial line with its outer conductor connected to ground or a signal common point, is
an unbalanced line. The outer conductor acts as a shield surrounding its inner
conductor. The shield stays at a constant ground potential while the signal voltage in the
center conductor varies in a positive and negative manner relative to it. Because the
shield completely surrounds the center or "signal" conductor and is connected to
ground, it intercepts most of the external electrical interference encountered by the line
and passes it away harmlessly to ground. Very little or no interference will be able to
reach the center conductor where it would interact with desired signal. Because the
shield is one of the two conductors required to complete the circuit, it must always be
connected at both ends of the line. This may set up a condition called a "ground loop"
that sometimes produces hum when the grounds of different pieces of electrical
equipment are connected to each other.
Fig. 5.37 Unbalanced line (coaxial)
(Note: A shield that consists of wire that is braided instead of just spun around the
center in a spiral will provide superior coverage. Spiral shield is less expensive but can
spread apart when the cable is flexed, exposing the center conductor to unwanted hum
and buzz.)
Fig.5.38 Unbalanced line connection

RESONANCE
If outside electrical interference does manage to penetrate the shield, it will mix with the
desired signal that is present in the center conductor and be amplified right along with it
as noise, buzz, etc. In environments containing a lot of interference or when an
unbalanced signal is sent long distances it will become more and more susceptible to
unwanted interference. This problem can be alleviated with the use of balanced lines.
(a)
(b)
Fig.5.39 Effect of noise on (a) unbalanced transmission line and
(b) Unbalanced system
5.17.2 Balanced lines.

A balanced line consists of two exactly similar conductors. Examples of balanced lines
are twin-lead or twisted-pair. Both these conductors are used for carrying signal. The
signals on these conductors are 180 degrees out of phase. If the signal on one
conductor is considered as positive then the signal on the other conductor is considered
as negative. The two together are referred to as a "differential" signal.
Being exactly identical in construction, both the wires of a balanced line will encounter
an external electrical and/or electromagnetic interference equally and pick up exactly
equal amount (both amplitude as well as phase) of noise induction from the external
source. When the line connects the load (or amplifier), both the positive and negative
signals have the same noise added to them, because both the limbs/wires of the line

RESONANCE
are exactly similar. The net effect of external noise interference on such lines will be
zero. For example consider the figure given below. If the noise voltage due to external
noise interference on limb A is VnA and that on limb B is VnB.
Then it is VnA = VnB
+ -
Fig.5.40 (a) External noise interference on a Balanced line wires
+ -
Fig.5.40 (b) the effective noise voltages on both wires
Thus the net effect on the load due to VnA and VnB will be zero, as they will cancel each
other like two equal batteries are connected in anti-series. This way balanced lines are
having an ability to reject noise signals on the line. This ability of balanced lines to reject
noise and interference makes them popular when it is necessary to send signals over
long distances.
Fig.5.41 A balanced to unbalanced interconnection
The above diagram explains the advantage of a balanced line system. A balanced line
system is having a signal source connected to one end and a load to the other end,
through a transformer. Primary side of the transformer is balanced whereas the

RESONANCE
secondary side is unbalanced. Noise voltages on both the limbs VnA and VnB are equal
in magnitude and they get cancelled on the primary of transformer. If any one limb of the
line gets grounded due to some fault then the noise voltage on that limb gets grounded
and the noise voltage on the other limb will reach the load on the secondary of the
transformer because it cannot get cancelled. This effect is seen on a telephone line,
which is a balanced one. If any limb of a telephone line is grounded hum is heard in the
telephone.
Some balanced lines also come with a shield, surrounding its conductors. This shield is
connected to ground like outer conductor of unbalanced lines but it is not required as
one of the signal conductors. The shield intercepts most of the external electrical
interference encountered by the line and passes it away harmlessly to ground. The
balanced line inside the shield further cancels the noise power, which might have
entered through the shield. These lines, called ‘shielded lines’ are therefore more
immune to noise compared to unshielded lines. Benefit of this configuration is available
only when the shield is connected to ground at one end of the cable.
5.18 Distortion less Condition on a Transmission Line - Necessity of Lumped

Loading.
The propagation constant of a line is a function of both attenuation constant and phase
constant of that line.
That is γ = α + jβ
Where,
γ Propagation constant of a transmission line
α The real part of γ is called attenuation constant and
β The imaginary part of γ is called phase constant of that line and both of them are
functions of frequency (w)
The propagation constant per unit length of line is also a function of

distributed line parameters (R, L, C, G) and given by
γ = √ ZY
Where Z = R + jwL and
Y = G + jwC

RESONANCE
Therefore,
There are two types of distortions a signal (comprising of a group/band of frequencies)

is subjected to while traveling along a transmission line. These are
• Attenuation distortion and

• Delay (or phase) distortion.
The attenuation constant,α being a function of frequency all frequencies transmitted
on a line will then not be attenuated equally. A complex applied voltage, such as a voice
voltage containing many frequencies, will not have all frequencies transmitted with equal
attenuation, and the received waveform will not be identical with the input waveform at
the sending end. This variation is known as attenuation distortion.
The velocity of propagation of a wave has been stated as
ν = ω/ β
It is apparent that ω and β do not both involve frequency in the same manner and that
the velocity of propagation will in general be some function of frequency. All frequencies
applied to a transmission line will not have the same time of transmission, some
frequencies being delayed more than others. For an applied voice voltage wave the
received waveform will not be identical with the input waveform at the sending end,
since some frequency components will be delayed more than those of other
frequencies. This phenomenon is known as delay distortion or phase distortion.
Let us examine the values of attenuation and propagation delay on a line when the
distributed constants of the line satisfy the condition given below amongst them.
R/L = G/C = k
We have
Supposing distortion less condition is achieved, this can be written as
by substituting k

RESONANCE
We know that, γ = α β
+ jβ
Therefore, from equation (1) we can write
Now by the equation α = k√

√LC we can say that attenuation constant α is independent of
frequency when LG = RC. This means all frequencies are attenuated equally. Hence no
attenuation distortion on the line.
Now come to the other distortion on the line that is delay or phase distortion. This
distortion occurs when different frequency signals travel at different velocities on the
line.
Fig.5.42 Wave propagation
Consider the above figure. Velocity of a wave is given by
ν = distance traveled/time
= λ/T = λf (bécasse 1/T = f)
And phase constant, β = phase change/distance
= 2π/λ
Therefore ν = λf = (2π/β) f (λ = 2π/β)

RESONANCE
=2πf /β
But 2πf = ω
Therefore ν = ω/β
For the condition of line, when LG = RC the phase constant, β is given by
β = ω√
√LC
Then
This tells the velocity of wave is no longer a function of its frequency and hence all
frequencies travel at the same velocity resulting in no delay or phase distortion on the
line.
By the equations (2) and (3) it is observed that a transmission line becomes distortion
free when its line parameters satisfy the condition
R/L = G/C or LG = RC
Because of very thin diameter of conductor, cable pairs of voice frequency quad cables
usually have high value of R. For such pairs LG<<RC. This makes the line non-
distortion-less.
To make the line distortion less it requires a large value of L, since G is generally small.
If G is intentionally increased,α and the attenuation are increased, resulting in poor line
efficiency. If C is to be decreased the conductors should be taken far from each other,
which make the cable bulky. And to reduce R raises the size and cost of the conductors
above economic limits.
The only possibility to achieve the distortion less line condition is by adding L externally
in a lumped form, at regular intervals on the line, which process is called loading of the
line.
With L increased by an amount L’; Characteristic impedance

RESONANCE
This explains how a loaded cable shows increase in characteristic impedance and
decrease in transmission loss.
For example; 0.9 mm dia Cu quad cable
α = 0.63 db/km and Z0 = 470 Ω (when Unloaded)
α = 0.25 db/km Z0 = 1120 Ω (When Loaded)

WAVE GUIDES
CHAPTER 6
WAVE GUIDES
6.0 Wave Guides are hollow conducting tubes used for transmission of electromagnetic
waves. At microwave frequencies wave-guides provide a practical alternative to parallel
wire or coaxial transmission lines. Many phenomena encountered in wave-guides are
similar to those of ordinary transmission lines. In particular, the concepts of reflection,
standing wave, and impedance matching can be applied directly to wave-guide
systems. At the same time wave-guides possess a number of properties that do not
exist in conventional transmission lines.
Propagation in the Wave-guides cannot be easily explained by the ordinary current

voltage impedance relationships. It is easier to understand their functioning on the basis
of wave theory.
6.1 A Transverse Electromagnetic wave consists of two fields namely, the electric field
and the magnetic field. As shown in Fig.1, the electric field and the magnetic fields are
in phase which means their amplitudes are in phase, i.e., maximum or minimum etc., at
the same time.
Fig. 6.1 Transverse Electromagnetic Wave (TEW)
However, in space, electric field and the magnetic fields are always at right angles. The
direction of propagation of an electromagnetic wave is given by the corkscrew rule Fig.
2. That is, if the electric vector is rotated in the direction of the magnetic vector (by the
shorter path), the direction in which the corkscrew would move is the direction of
propagation. Thus, the electric and magnetic vectors, which are mutually perpendicular,
and also at right angles to the direction of propagation. The plane in which the electric
field is located is the plane of polarisation. A plane containing the two vectors at any
point is known as the Wave front. If you consider the field pattern at any instant, it will
be a wave with the positive maximum, zero wave fronts occurring every quarter
wavelength respectively and repeating cyclically. Hence, an electromagnetic wave can
be represented by means of a set of wave fronts spaced at λ /4.

WAVE GUIDES
Fig. 6.2 Right-hand Screw Rule of Electromagnetic Wave Propagation
6.2 A wavelength 'λ' is defined as the distance between the successive crests or troughs on
a wave 'a' in the distance between two plates.
‘λ’ = 2a, the guide wavelength is and it decreases as the frequency is increased.
An exact analysis of the way in which fields are produced and propagated in a
waveguide is quite complicated and are derived from Mathematical equations
considering the guide wavelength g and the distance between two plates 'a' and
drawing the vectors.
For a waveguide there is a low frequency limit or cut off frequency (fc) below which the
waveguide do not transfer energy. Different waveguides will have their own cut off
frequencies. Energy is introduced into and propagated through the waveguide by the
electromagnetic fields. Two fields are always present, i.e., the electric field or E-field and
the magnetic field or H-field.
λc) for a specified mode (discussed later), this is the limiting value
Cut-off wavelength (λ
of wavelength above which the waveguide does not transmit energy for that mode.
Cutoff wavelength (λc) differs from mode to mode. The frequency corresponding to the
cutoff wavelength is known as cutoff frequency.
λg): It is the distance measured along the axis of a waveguide

Guide Wavelength (λ
corresponding to one cycle of variation of the field configuration. The guide wavelength
is always greater than free space wavelength.

WAVE GUIDES
Free space wavelength: This is equivalent to the velocity of light divided by the
operating frequency.
Example:- Given the frequency is 7 GHz. The mode of operation is TEIO. Width of the
rectangular waveguide the longer dimension is 3.36 cm.
Cutoff wavelength = λc = 2a 2 x 3.36 6.72 cm.
Cutoff frequency = fc
fc = Velocity of light/Cutoff wavelength.
Cutoff wavelength = 2a
Velocity of light = 3 X 108 or 30X 109cm/sec
fc = 30 X 109 X 4.46 X 109
= 4.46 cm.
As the cutoff frequency of the waveguide for TE 10 mode is 4.46 GHz, the transmission
takes place for above 4.46 GHz.
As the frequency increases, the size of the waveguide reduces
λ = Wavelength = Velocity of light in centimeters/freq in Hz
= 3 X 1010 7 X 109 = 4.2 cm.
But λ = 2a
4.2 = 2a
a = 2.1
Therefore b = a/2 = 1.05cm
At 18 GHz, λ = 3 X 10M/ 1.8 X 109 = 1.5cm approximately

WAVE GUIDES
λ = 2a
2a = 1.5cm
a = 0.75
Therefore, b = a/2 = 0.375cm
Which indicates, as the waveguide dimension decreases the frequency increases.
Fig. 6.3 shows some typical modes of propagation in a rectangular waveguide. The
mode is designated TE m,n. The two Subscripts m and n represent half wave patterns
along with the longer and the short sides respectively.
The electromagnetic energy travels in the waveguide with different electric and
magnetic configuration. The pattern of field is called Mode. The type of Mode depends
on frequency and dimensions of Waveguide.
TE Mode = Transverse Electric Mode.
The electric field is always perpendicular to the direction of Propagation.
TM Mode = Transverse Magnetic Mode.
The magnetic field is always perpendicular to the direction of Propagation.
TE 1,0: The first Subscript indicates tile No. of half wave variations of the field across
the wider dimensions (m) of the waveguide. The second subscript (zero) indicates the
number of half wave variations of the electric field along the narrow dimensions (n). In
this case there are no half wave variations across the dimension 'n' in the waveguide.
TE 1,0 is known as dominant mode, higher order modes TE 2,0, TM 1,1 etc., are
complex. Hence, waveguides are commonly excited for dominant mode.
On the same basis we can analyse propagation (with proper boundary conditions) of
two waves wherein the magnetic field rather than the electric field is at right angles to
the direction of propagation, and as a result of this, we get Transverse Magnetic (TM or
E) modes of propagation in the case of waveguides.

WAVE GUIDES
Fig. 6.3
As in the case of transverse electric mode of propagation, in the case of transverse

magnetic mode of propagation also, there will be various modes. Hence, a transverse
magnetic mode is also designated as TM m, n. A few typical modes are shown in Fig.
6.3. The cut off wavelength for some typical rectangular waveguide modes are as
shown below:-
MODE λc (CUT OFF WAVE LENGTH).
TE 1.0 2a
TE 1.1 or TM 1.1 2ab
√ a2 + b2
TE 2.0 a
TE 0.1 2b
TE m,n or TM m,n 2
√(m/a)2 + (n/b)2

WAVE GUIDES
6.3 The characteristic wave impedance is analogous to the characteristic impedance of the
two wire and coaxial lines. The wave impedance represents the ratio of the electric field
to the magnetic field. The actual wave impedance is of little use and is seldom
determined. Usually it is sufficient to determine the per unit impedance, since the actual
measurement of impedance in waveguide results in a value of normalized impedance.
Analysing the lines similar to these for rectangular waveguides, it is possible to
construct circular waveguides in which propagation will be sustained. A circular
waveguide is used in many special applications in Microwave technique. Circular guide
has the advantages of greater power handling capacity and lower attenuation for a
given cut off wavelength, but it has the disadvantage of somewhat greater size and
weight. Also the polarization of the transmitted wave is altered due to minor irregularities
of the wall surface of the guide, whereas the rectangular cross-section definitely
determines the Polarization. In Railway applications they are seldom used-
6.4 Elliptical waveguides: An Elliptical Waveguide is a uniform region in which the

transverse connection is of elliptical form.
Mode patterns of the transverse electric and magnetic field distribution of several of the
lower modes in an elliptical guide of eccentric type = 0,75 are shown in Fig.6.4
Fig.6.4
The ratio λc/S can be plotted for several even and odd E&H modes of lowest cut off
wavelengths. The H mode is the dominant mode in an elliptical waveguides.
In any microwave equipment, the size of the waveguide depends upon the frequency
range of operation. For the purpose of waveguides, the microwave spectrum is divided
into a number of bands. Although a series of letter designations is in general used to
identify the main regions in the spectrum. There is considerable conflict between
different manufacturers as to the precise boundaries represented by the bands.
The following table gives the band designations and limits which are commonly
adopted:-

WAVE GUIDES
Inside dimensions of
Freq. Range typical rectangular
WR Outside
designation Band (in GHz.) waveguide(in inches) dimensions
WR650 L 1.12 to 1.70 6.5 X 3.5
WR430 1.70 to 2.60 4.3 X 2.15
2,20 to 2.30 3.4 X 1.7
WR284 S 2.60 to 3.30 2.84 X 1.34 3”X1 ½
WR187 C 3.95 to 5.85 1.872 X 0.872 2” X 1”
WR137 J 5.85 to 8.20 1.372 X 0.622 1½ “ X ¾ “
WR112 H 7.05 to 10.00 1.122 X 0.497 1¼“ X5/8 “
WR 90 X 8.20 to 12,40 0.900 X 0.400 1” X ½”
WR 75 M 10.12 to 15.00 0.750 X 0.375
WR 62 Ku, U 12.40 to 18.00 0.622 X 0.311

P
WR 51 N 15.00 to 22.00 0.510 X 0.265
WR 42 K 28.00 to 26.50 0.420 X 0.170
WR 28V, Ka R 26.50 to 40.00 0.280 X 0.140
WR 22 Q 33.00 to 50.00 0.224 X 0.112
Wave-guides are manufactured from alloys of aluminum, copper or silver. In general,

the attenuation is least for silver and greatest for brass. Also, for a Wave-guide, the
attenuation increased with frequency. The following table indicates typical values:-
Band Meritical attenuation

frequencies Material in db/100 feet
in GHz Rectangular Elliptical
4 Brass Aluminium 0.85 0.85
7–8 Brass Aluminium 2.7 2.5

WAVE GUIDES
12 – 13 Brass Aluminium 4.5 4.5
18 – 26.5 Brass Aluminium 9.5 9.5
Silver
Attenuation is rectangular waveguide at 7 GHz is 0.07 db/mtr
Attenuation is elliptical waveguide at 7 GHz is 0.05 - 0.06 db/mtr. In order to improve the
surface conductivity (to reduce skin effect loss, the copper or brass guides are coated
with silver) Also, in order to make the waveguide corrosion resistant, it is coated with
gold and sometimes pressurized with some inert gas to keep out moisture (dehydration)
and corroding gases. Fig. 5 shows the attenuation of different modes in a particular
waveguide as a function of frequency.
Fig. 6.5
Advantages of using Waveguides: -
1. Larger power handling capacity in, GHz range
2. Less attenuation
3. Less radiation losses
4. Minimum skin effect
5. Minimum dielectric losses
6. Rigid in manufacture and can withstand shock and vibration.

ATTENUATORS
CHAPTER 7
ATTENUATORS
7.0 Introduction:
An attenuator is a resistive network designed to introduce a known loss in a
signal transmission path. In a number of applications a need comes to introduce
a specified loss between source and a matched load without altering impedance
relationship. Hence, attenuator serves two purposes; one is introducing known
attenuation (loss) and other one is impedance matching between input and
output circuits. Generally a transformer is used for impedance matching
purposes. But a transformer introduces attenuation distortion (all frequencies are
not attenuated to the same degree) in carrier frequency circuits.
To prevent attenuation distortion, attenuator networks are designed using purely

resistive components. These resistive attenuator networks will introduce no
phase shift. Hence, in case of attenuator networks, the phase constant (β) will be
zero, and the propagation constant (γ) will simply be equal to the attenuation
constant (α).
There are three conditions that an attenuating network must fulfill. It must give: -
• The correct input impedance

• The correct output impedance
• The specified attenuation
They may be designed to have any value of input and output impedances and also
any required value of attenuation is achieved by selecting suitable values of
resistances.
Symmetrical Attenuator: An attenuator is called symmetrical if it is used between

equal input and output impedances that is the characteristic impedance.
Asymmetrical Attenuator: An attenuator is known to be asymmetrical if it is used

between unequal input and output impedances which are called image impedances.

ATTENUATORS
Attenuators can be fixed or variable. A fixed Attenuator of constant attenuation is

called a Pad. An attenuator network uses resistances R1 and R2 to which the input
and output impedances are matched. The attenuation of such network expressed as
a power ratio is the same regardless of the direction of working.
The decrease in power due to insertion of an attenuator is expressed either in

decibels or nepers. Attenuation in decibels is given by
Attenuation in dB, D = 10 log10 (P1/P2) Or
Attenuation in nepers, N = ½ log e (P1/P2)
And also as N = loge (V1/V2)
Or N = loge (I1/I2)
Where P1 is the input power and P2 is the output power.
For a properly matched network both terminal pairs (input and output) are matched to
the characteristic resistance, R0 , of the attenuator.
Hence P1/P2 = I12Z0/I22Z0 = I12/I22
Where I1 is the input current and I2 is the output current leaving the port.
Or P1/P2 = V12/V22
Where V1 is the voltage at the input port and V2 is the voltage of output port.
Hence attenuation in dB, D = 20 log10 (V1/V2)
Or D = 20 log10(I1/I2)
if V1/V2 = I1/I2 = N
Then P1/P2 = N2
And D = 20 log10N
Or N = antilog (D/20) = 10 (D /20)
Basically, there are four types of attenuators, T ,π, lattice, and bridged T types,
based on the way of connecting the resistors in the network.
7.1 T-type attenuator (Symmetrical):

A symmetrical T type attenuator is shown in the figure below.

ATTENUATORS
Fig.7.1
This is one of the most common types of pad and consists of a divided series
arm and one central shunt arm. The pad used between equal impedance will be
symmetrical, i.e., the series arm is divided into two equal parts. The values of the
arms of the network can be specified in terms of characteristic impedance Z0.
The network in the figure is a symmetrical resistive circuit. Hence Z0 = R0. and γ
= α. By applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the network
Fig. 7.2
R2 (I1-I2) = I2(R1+ R0)
I2(R2+R1+R0) = I1R2
I1/I2 = (R2+ R1+ R0)/R2 = N
The characteristic impedance of the attenuator is R0 when it is terminated in a load of

R0.
Hence R0 = R1+ {R2 (R1+R0)/R1+ R2+ R0}
By substituting N value in the equation we get
R0 = R1 + (R1+R0)/N
From this equation we can solve for R1 and R2 as
R1 = R0 (N-1)/(N+1) and

ATTENUATORS
R2 = 2NR0/(N2-1)
Fig. 7.3
Example 1: Design a T type attenuator to introduce a loss of 60 dB in 600Ω lines.
Solution: Given R0 = 600 and D = 60dB
D = 20 log10N
N = antilog (D/20) = 10D /20)
∴ N = antilog (60/20) = 103 = 1000
the values of R1 and R2 are
R1= R0 (N-1)/(N+1) = 600(1000-1)/(1000+1) = 599 Ω
And R2= 2NR0/(N2-1) = 2x1000x600/(10002 –1) = 1.2 Ω
Example 2: Consider the design of a T type pad to give 25dB attenuation and to have a
characteristic impedance of 600 Ohms.
Solution: D = 25 dB R0 = 600 Ohms
D = 20 log10 N
N = antilog10 D/20
= antilog10 25/20
N = 17.8
R1 = R0 (N- 1)

ATTENUATORS
(N + l)
= 600x16.8 = 536 Ohms
18.8
R2 = R0 (2N)
(N2-l)
= 2 R0 (N)
(N2-l)
= 1200 x 17.8 = 67.6 Ohms Ans
316
Attenuation Series arm R1 Shunt arm

(in dB) in Ω R2 in Ω
0.5 17.265 10417.313
1 34.501 5200.039
3 102.598 1703.114
6 199.367 803.172
10 311.696 421.637
15 418.825 220.362
20 490.909 121.212
30 563.216 37.985
50 596.217 3.795
100 599.988 0.012
Table showing resistor values for symm T attenuator with Z0 = 600Ω
7.2 Asymmetrical T type network:

In asymmetrical network the input and output impedances are not equal but they
are different. In the T network shown below the input impedance is R1 and the
output impedance is R2. Because of this the two resistances in the series arms
RA and RB have to be of different values to match with the different input and
output impedances. The shunt arm is RC. These values can be determined as
follows

ATTENUATORS
Fig. 7.4
Here N = P1/P2 = I12. R1
I22. R2
Then
RC = 2N (R1R2)
(N2-1)
RA = R1 (N2+1) - RC
(N2-1)
Or
RA = R1(N2+1) - 2N (RIR2)
(N2-1)
RB = R2(N2+1) - RC
(N2-1)
Or
RB = R2(N2+1) - 2N R1R2
(N2-1)
A network consisting of these components will have image impedances R1 and

R2. If RI > R2, then it will be found that RA > RC.
7.3 π Type Attenuator:

A π type symmetrical attenuator is shown in figure below. The network is
designed using resistors hence, Z0 = R0. The series arm R2 and the shunt arm R1
of this attenuator can be specified in terms of Z0.ie.

ATTENUATORS
Fig. 7.5
R1 = R0 (N + 1)/(N – 1) and
R2 = R0 (N2 –1)/2N
Example: Design a π type attenuator to give 20dB attenuator with a

characteristic impedance of 100 Ω
Solution: Given R0 = 100 Ω and D = 20 dB.
D = 20 log10N
N = Antilog (D/20)
= Antilog (20/20) = 10
R1 = R0 (N + 1)/(N – 1)
= 100(10 + 1)/(10 – 1)
= 122 Ω
and
R2 = R0 (N2 – 1)/2N
= 100(102 – 1)/2x10
= 495 Ω
Attenuation Shunt arm Series arm

(in dB) R1 in Ω R2 in Ω
0.5 20851.891 38.775
1 10434.578 87.156
3 3508.826 421.754
6 1805.712 1784.406
10 1154.970 8538.150
15 859.549 51661.358
20 733.333 297000
30 639.187 9477346.148
50 603.807 9486738112

ATTENUATORS
100 600.012 3E+17
Table showing resistor values for symmetrical π attenuator with Z0 = 600Ω
7.4 Asymmetrical π Type Attenuator:

In the figure below an asymmetrical π attenuator network is shown. In this network the
source and load impedances are different and also RA ≠ RC. These types of pads are
used for impedance matching purpose.
Fig. 7.6
The values of the resistors are given by
RA = R1 (N2-1)
N2-2N (S+1)
RB = (N2-1) x R1R2
2 N
RC = R2 (N2- 1)
(N2-2N/S+l)
S = R 1/R2
There is no difference in the performance of the T and π type pads and each one
will suit any requirement, but one will probably be found to have more suitable or
standard components than the other. It may be noted that a deviation of 5 per
cent from the calculated values of the resistances will mismatch the impedances
by no more than that the same amount, and vary the attenuation by as little as
0.5 db.

ATTENUATORS
7.5 L type pad

If a pad is required for matching purposes only, then the design will be such as
to give minimum attenuation. Examining the T section it will be seen that this
condition will be reached when RC has been reduced to zero. This then forms
the L type pad.
Fig. 7.7
To obtain values for RA and RB, consider input impedance.
RA + R2 RB
R1 = R2+RB
R1RB +R1R2 = RARB+ R2RA+ R2RB (1)
and looking in at output terminals:-
RB (R1+ RA)
R2 = RB+R1+RA
R2RB + R2RA+ R1R2 = RA RB+ R1RB (2)
adding equations 1 & 2
Substituting in (1)
2RIR2 = 2RARB or
RA = RIR2
RB
RB = R1R2 2
R1- R2
RA = R1(R1- R2)

ATTENUATORS
Figure below shows the resultant L type network. It is a network having image
impedances R1 and R2.
7.6 Lattice Attenuator:

The lattice type shown in figure below is occasionally used.
Fig. 7.8
The characteristic impedance R of the network can best be determined by consideration

of its open circuit and short circuit impedances.
ROC = (RA+RB)/2
RsC = 2(RARB)
(RA+ RB)
R = √ROC x RsC
R = √RARB

ATTENUATORS
This gives the condition for matching the network to its adjacent circuit. It can be used
only in a symmetrical case.
N = Is = RA+ RB + 2R
IR RB - RA
By substituting RB = R2/RA (because R = √RARB )
N = RA2+ R2 +2 R RA
R2 - RA2
R+RA
R-RA
RA = R(N-1)
(N+1)
RB = R (N+1)
(N-1)
7.7 Bridged-T type

Figure below shows a symmetrical bridged-T type section used between equal
impedances.
Fig.7.9
The network may be designed to have a constant impedance R, but any desired
attenuation by making: -
RB RC = RA2 = R2
Thus, to vary the attenuation, without changing the design impedance, only two
resistances have to be varied, viz., RB & RC.

ATTENUATORS
It should be noted that, in the case of a symmetrical T or π section attenuator, three

resistances have to be varied to change the attenuation without altering the impedance.
The design formulae for the bridged - T sections are: -
RA =R
RB = R(N-1)
RC = RA2/RB = R/ (N - 1)
Example: Design a bridged T attenuator having an attenuation of 40 db when working

between two 600 ohms impedances. The network is shown below
Solution: Attenuation to be provided = 40 dB.
Then N = antilog (D/20) = 100
RA = 600 ohms
RB = 600 (100-1)
= 59, 400 ohms.
Rc = 600/ (100-1)
= 6. 06 ohms.
When it is required to balance the two legs of the circuit, as is frequently the
case in transmission equipment, then the preceding pads must be modified by
dividing the series arm into two equal halves and inserting one half in each leg
(see Fig. 7.10 below).

ATTENUATORS
Fig.7.10 Conversion from Unbalanced to Balanced

FILTERS
CHAPTER 8
FILTERS
8.0 Basic Principles of Filters

A filter is a reactive network that freely passes the desired bands of frequencies while
almost totally suppressing all other bands. A filter is constructed from purely reactive
elements for otherwise the attenuation would never become zero in the pass band of
the filter network. Filters differ from simple resonant circuits in providing a substantially
constant transmission over the band, which they accept. This band may lie between
any limits depending on the design. An ideal filter should produce no attenuation in the
desired band, called the transmission band or pass band, and should provide total or
infinite attenuation at all other frequencies, called attenuation band or stop band. The
frequency, which separates the transmission band and the attenuation band, is defined
as the cut-off frequency of the filter and is designated by fc.
The filter network shown below is passing only the required frequency f2 and
attenuating remaining all other frequencies.
Desired signal
Desired signal
Amplitude
Amplitude
Filter Network for
Selecting f2
IN OUT
f1 f2 f3 f4
f1 f2 f3 f4
Fig. 8.1 filter property
Filters are widely used in communication systems to separate various voice channels in
carrier frequency telephone circuits. It is interesting to compare a filter with other
networks
Filter: Uses purely reactive components, and its attenuation changes suddenly from
zero to some high value.
Attenuator or pad: It is a pure resistances network of a constant attenuation
(independent of frequency).

FILTERS
Equaliser: Made of both resistive and reactive elements and its attenuation undergo a
gradual variation with frequency.
8.1 Classification of Filters

A filter may have any number of pass bands separated by attenuation bands. However,
they are classified into four common types, viz. low pass, high pass, band pass and
band stop or elimination. These are given below along with their pass and attenuation
bands characteristic maps.
Low pass filter: It passes without attenuation all the frequencies up to the cut-off
frequency fc, and attenuates all other frequencies above fc. That means its pass band is
from 0 to fc and attenuation band or stop band is from fc and above. The attenuation
characteristics of an ideal LPF are given below.
α
Amplitude
Pass Attenuation
Band Band
0 f
fc
Fig.8.2 Ideal LPF Frequency Response
High pass filter: It passes all frequencies above fc, cut-off frequency, and attenuates all
below fc. Below shown is an ideal HPF’s attenuation characteristic.
α
Attenuation
Attenuation
Pass Band
Band
f
0 fc
Fig.8.3 Ideal HPF Frequency Response
Band pass Filter: Allows a specific range of frequencies but blocks higher and lower
frequencies

FILTERS
Attenuation
Attenuation Pass Attenuation
Band Band
band
f
0 fC1 fC2
Fig.8.4 Ideal BPF Frequency Response
Band stop Filter: Blocks a specific range of frequencies but passes all higher and lower
frequencies. A band stop filter is also known as band-elimination or band-rejection or
band-suppression filter or wave trap
α
Attenuation
Pass Attenuation Pass
Band Band Band
f
0 fC1 fC2
Fig.8.5 Ideal BSF Frequency Response
An ideal filter is that which shows zero attenuation for the frequencies in the pass band
and infinite attenuation for the frequencies in the block or attenuation band. This cannot
be achieved in practice. In the first place in a practical filter, it is found that the
attenuation outside the pass band is not very high. But it can, however, be made as
large as required by using a sufficient number of sections in series. Secondly, if any
resistance is present (and it is impossible to construct an inductance that does not
possess a certain amount of resistance), the attenuation in the pass band will not be
zero but of course it is only one or two decibels. Finally, mismatch losses must be
considered, for although the characteristic impedance of the section may vary with
frequency, it will probably be terminated in a fixed resistance, or in impedance that does
not vary with frequency in the same way as the characteristic impedance of the section.
8.2 LC FILTERS

FILTERS
Low Pass Filter: It passes without attenuation all the frequencies up to the cut-
off frequency fc, and attenuates all other frequencies above fc. That means its
pass band is from 0 to fc and attenuation band or stop band is from fc and
above. The attenuation characteristics of an ideal LPF are given below. Its
property of passing only low frequencies is due to the series inductor. We know
that inductive reactance is directly proportional to frequency i.e. XL = 2πfL. That
means for lower frequencies the reactive opposition is less and for higher
frequencies it is high. Hence, lower frequencies are passed without much
opposition whereas high frequencies are blocked due to the high opposition of
inductive reactance. The shunt capacitor on the output side offers just opposite
kind of reactance. This passes the high frequencies effectively to the ground and
passes on the low frequencies to the output point. The fc is given by fc= √LC
Fig.8.6 A low pass filter and its pass band curve
High Pass Filter: It allows frequencies above a designated cut-off frequency, but blocks
frequencies below. It is constructed as shown below. The series capacitor offers high
attenuation to low frequencies and stops, whereas it passes all high frequencies above
fc without any attenuation. The shunt inductor, after the capacitor, offers easy path to
ground for low frequencies and effectively grounds them.
Fig.8.7 A high pass filter circuit and its pass-band curve
Band Pass Filter: It allows frequencies between two designated cut-off frequencies and
blocks all other frequencies. This is constructed by combining the properties of both low-
pass and high-pass filters as shown below.

FILTERS
Fig. 8.8
Band Elimination (Stop) Filter: It blocks a band of frequencies in the mid range but
passes all frequencies above and below this band. Its construction along with the
characteristic curve is shown in the figure below.
Fig.8.9
All these circuits shown are the basic or fundamental filter circuits. But in practical the
circuits used for filters of are very complex designs.
8.3 FILTERS NETWORKS

A filter ideally should have zero attenuation in the pass band. This condition can
only be satisfied if the elements of the filter are dissipation less, which cannot be
realized in practice. The filters are designed with an assumption that the elements of
the filters are purely reactive. Filters are made of symmetrical T, or π sections. T and π
sections can be considered as combinations of unsymmetrical L sections as shown in
figure below.
Z1/2 Z1/2 Z1/2 Z1/2
2Z2 2Z2
+ = Z2

FILTERS
Fig. 8.10(a) Two L sections forming a T section
Z1/2 Z1/2 Z1
2Z2 + 2Z2 = 2Z2 2Z2
Fig. 8.10(b) Two L sections forming a π section
The ladder structure is one of the commonest forms of filter network. The cascade
connection of several T or π sections constitutes a ladder work. A common form of the
ladder network is shown in figures below. Fig.(a)represents T section ladder network,
whereas Fig.(b) represents the π section ladder network. It can be observed that both
networks are identical except at the ends.
Z1/ Z1 Z1 Z1 Z1/
2 2
Z Z Z Z2
Fig 8.11 (a) Ladder network by several T sections
Z1 Z1 Z1 Z1
2Z2 Z2 Z2 Z2 2Z2
Fig.8.11 (b) Ladder network by several π sections
Study of Filter Networks

The study of the behavior of any filter requires the calculation of its

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• Propagation constant γ,
• Attenuation α, phase shift β and its
• Characteristic impedance Z0.
8.4 T- Network
Consider a symmetrical T-network as shown in below
Fig.8.12
If the image impedances at input port and output port are equal then the image
impedance is called the characteristic, or the iterative impedance Z0. Thus, if the
network in Fig. is terminated in Z0, its input impedance will also be Z0. The value of
input impedance for the network when it is terminated in Z0 is given by
Z2(Z1/2+Z0)
Zin = Z1/2 +
Z1/2+Z2+Z0
For a symmetrical network, Zin = Z0
2Z2(Z1/2+Z0)
∴ Z0 = Z1/2 +
Z1+2Z2+2Z0
(Z1Z2+2Z2Z0)
Z0 = Z1/2 +
Z1+2Z2+2Z0
Z21 + 2Z1Z2 + 2Z1Z0 + 2Z1Z2 + 4Z0Z2

Z0 =
2(Z1+2Z2+2Z0)

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4Z20 = Z21+ 4Z1Z2
Z20 = Z21 /4 + Z1Z2
Characteristic impedance of a symmetrical T section is
ZOT = Z21 /4 + Z1Z2
ZOT can also be expressed in terms of open circuit impedance ZOC and short circuit impedance
ZSC of the T network.
ZOT = ZOC x ZSC
Where ZOC = (Z1/2) + Z2 and
ZSC = Z21 + 4Z1Z2
2Z1 + 4Z2
Propagation Constant: For the T network given below the propagation constant γ is
given by
γ = log e I1/ I2
I1/ I2 = eγ
Fig. 8.13
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law for the second mesh or loop we get
I2 ( Z1/2 + ZO T) + ( I2 - I1 ) Z2 = 0
I2 ( Z1/2 + ZO T+ Z2) = I1 Z2
I1/ I2 = ( Z1/2 + ZO T+ Z2) / Z2
But I1/ I2 = eγ
∴ eγ = ( Z1/2 + ZO T+ Z2) / Z2
then γ = log e ( Z1/2 + ZO T+ Z2) / Z2

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The propagation constant can also be expressed in terms of attenuation α and phase
shiftβ, as
γ =α + j β
Attenuation constant, α : α , a measure of change in magnitude of the current or

voltage in the network, is known as attenuation constant. Its value is calculated as
α = 2sin–1 Z1 /4Z2 when β = π
Phase shift Constant, β : β is a measure of the difference in phase between the input
and output currents or voltages. Its value is given by
β = 2sin–1 Z1 /4Z2 when α = 0
These values of γ, α and β are same also for the π network given below.
8.5 π Network:
Consider the symmetrical circuit shown below.
Fig. 8.14
When the network is terminated in Z0 at the port AA’, its input impedance is given by

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Because it is a symmetrical circuit,
Rearranging the above we get,
it can be written as
but we have

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And Z0 is also equal to
Where ZOC and ZSC are open circuit and short circuit impedances of the π network
respectively.
Propagation constant of π network: The propagation constant of a symmetrical π

section is the same as that for a symmetrical T section.
8.6 Constant - K Type Filters:

A network, either T or π, is said to be of the constant-k type if Z1 and Z2 of the network
satisfy the relation
Z1Z2 = Z0 = k2
Where Z1 and Z2 are impedances in the T and π sections as shown below. From the
above equation it can be understood that Z1 and Z2 are inverse if their product is a
constant, independent of frequency. K is a real constant that is it is the resistance. K is
called as the design impedance or nominal impedance of the constant-k filter.
Prototype: The constant k, T or π type filters are also known as prototypes, because
more complex networks can be derived from them. The prototype T and π sections are
shown in the below figure. In these sections Z1 = jωL and Z2 = 1/jωC. Hence, Z1Z2 = k2
= L/C which is independent of frequency. From the above equation
We get,
k = √L/C
The cut off frequencies for constant-k types is given by
fC = 1/π √LC
The figure below shows a generalized way of representing the constant K sections of T
and π type filters with the impedance values of both Z1 and Z2 instead of showing the
actual L and C elements.

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Fig.8.15 T and π Sections Composed of the Same Series and Shunt Impedances
The characteristic impedances of T and π sections are given by
And
The constant-K, T or π sections of any type of filter are known as the prototypes. The
prototype T and π low pass and high pass filter sections are shown below.
Low pass proto type sections
Fig.8.16 Proto Types Low Pass Filter T And π Sections
For the low pass filter section of fig. 10 the values of Z1 and Z2 are,
Z1 = j ω L
And Z2 = -j/WC
We get Z1 Z2 = L/C

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Because Z1 Z2 = Zo2
Then the design impedance be R (Zo) and cut-off frequency be fC are
R = L /C fC = 1/π LC
From these equations we can calculate the actual values for L and C arms of low pass
section as
L = π fC
R/π
C = π R fC
1/π
Now it is possible design a low pass filters if the cut off frequency, fC, and design
impedance, R, are specified. For example let us design a low pass filter for speech
frequency.
Example 1: Design a low pass filter in both T and π sections for speech band with
termination impedance of 600Ω.
Solution: It is given that fC = 4 KHz (4000Hz) and R = 600Ω.
L = R/π fC
= 600/3.14x4000
= 0.0477H or
= 47.7mH
And C = 1/π R fC
= 1/3.14x600x4000
= 0.132x 10-6 Farads or
= 0.132 µF

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Fig. 8.17(a) Low pass T Filter
Fig.8.17 (b) Low pass π filter

Low pass T and π sections with 4 KHz cut off frequency and 600Ω
Ω design
impedance
Similarly we can calculate the values of L and C for any frequency and impedance. The
following table shows L and C values for different cut off frequencies and design
impedances.
Cut-off
Zo(Ro) L C
Freq
4KHz 600 47.7mH µF
0.13µ
10KHz 600 19.09mH 53pF
60KHz 300 1.6mH 17.68pF
500K 75 µH
47.7µ 8.5 pF
1000KHz 50 µH
16µ 6.36pF
Table showing L, C values for various frequencies
High pass proto type sections
Fig.8.18 The prototype high passes T and π sections
Similarly, for the High pass proto type sections shown in fig. 11

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Z1 = -j/WC
And Z2 = j ω L
Again here also we get Z1 Z2 = L/C and
R = L /C
and cut-off frequency, fC = 1/4π LC
From these equations we can derive the equations for L and C,
πfc
L = R/4π
πfcR
C = 1/ 4π
8.6.1 Constant-K Band pass Filter:

This can be either constructed as a T or π section. The series arm contains a series
resonant circuit while the shunt arm/arms contain parallel resonant circuit as shown in
figure below. The values of L and C are derived as
L1 = R/ π(f2-f1); πRf1f2
C1 = (f2-f1)/4π
L2 = C1R2 = R/ π(f2-f1); πR(f2-f1)

C2 = L1/R2 =1/π
Fig.8.19 Band Pass Filters T and π types
8.6.2 Constant-K Band Stop Filter:
A band stop or band elimination filter attenuates a certain range of frequencies and
passes all other frequencies. Hence, a band stop action may be thought of as that of a
low pass filter in parallel with a high pass filter, in which the cut-off frequency of low
pass filter is below that of a high pass filter. If the series and shunt arms of Band pass
filter are interchanged, the resulting structure behaves as a band stop filter. The
configuration of T and π constant-K band stop filter are as below.

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Fig. 8.20 Band Stop Constant – K Filter
fo = √f1f2 = 1/2π √L2C2
R2 = L1/C2 = L2/C1
L1 = R (f2-f1)/ πf1f2
C1 = 1/4πR (f2-f1)
L2 = R/4π(f2-f1)
C2 = 1/πR [(f2-f1)/f1f2]
Disadvantages of Constant-k prototypes

The constant-k filter section though simple, has two major disadvantages. The
attenuation does not rise rapidly at cutoff, so that frequencies just outside the pass band
are not appreciably attenuated with respect to frequencies just inside the pass band.
Also, the characteristic impedance varies widely over the pass band, so that a
satisfactory impedance match is not possible. In cases where impedance match is not
important, the attenuation may be built up near cutoff by cascading or connecting a
number of constant-k sections in series.
8.7 M -Derived Filters:

It is more economical to attempt to raise the attenuation near cutoff by other means.
Consider first the circuit of (a) in fig. The reactance curves sketched at (b) show that this
circuit is low pass filter. However it can be seen that the shunt arm is a series circuit
resonant at a frequency above fc. At this resonant frequency the shunt appears as a
short circuit on the network, or the attenuation becomes infinite. This frequency of
infinite or high attenuation is called f∝; and by reason of requirement that below fc the
shunt circuit appear as a capacitance, the frequency of resonance, f∝ will always be
higher in value than fc. If then, f∝ can be chosen arbitrarily close to fc, the attenuation
near cutoff may be made high.

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(a) Attenuation curve of a (b) Sharp attenuation curve of
Constant-k (prototype) filter an m-derived filter
Fig. 8.21 Comparison of Constant-k and m-derived cutoff curves
The attenuation above f∝ will fall to low values. If high attenuation is desired over the
entire band, it is necessary to use a section such as this in series with a prototype
section to provide high attenuation at all frequencies in stop band. For satisfactory
matching of several such types of filters in series, it is necessary that the Zo of all be
identical at all points in pass band. They will consequently also all have the same pass
band.
The network of above can be derived by assuming that Z1’= mZ1 the primes indicating
the derived section. It is then necessary to find the value of Z2’such that Zo’= Zo.
Setting the characteristic impedances equal,
Zo’ = Zo
(mZ1)2/4 + mZ1Z2’ = Z12/4 + Z1Z2
Z2’ = Z2/m + (1-m2) Z1/4m
Since m is arbitrary, it is possible to design an infinite variety of filter networks meeting

the required conditions on Zo and fc. However, Z2 will be opposite in sign to Z1. m must
always be positive. It is chosen so that
0< m <1
The table below gives the values of m for different filters.
S.No Filter Cutoff freq. Equation for m value
1 Low Pass fc m = 1 – (fC/f∝)2
2 High Pass fc m= 1 – (f∝/fC)2
3 Band Pass f1, f2

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m= (f∝2- f12)( f∝2- f22)

f∝2- f1f2
4 Band Stop f1, f2
Any type of the m-derived filter section is simply derived from the constant-k filter
section of same type. For example we want to design an m-derived band pass filter then
let us first find out the values of L and C needed for designing a constant-k band pass
filter. Then implementing the value of m derive the actual values needed for m-derived.
Fig. 8.22 M-derived T and π sections and prototypes
Thus m-derived section can be obtained from prototype by modifying its series
and shunt arms as shown in the above figures.
Note that if m = 1, both T and π m-derived sections reduce to the corresponding

prototype sections. Note also that the characteristic impedance of the m-derived section
is the same as that of the prototype, i.e., ZoT or Zoπ. In this way m-derived sections for

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all types of filter can be obtained by using L and C combinations. For example, some m-
derived filters are shown below.
8.7.1 m-Derived Low Pass Filter
T section π section
Fig. 8.23
Example: Let us design an m-derived low pass filter with a cutoff frequency of 1000Hz
and with very high attenuation at 1065Hz.This section to be terminated in 500 ohms
resistance.
Solution: First we need to required values of L and C for a prototype design.
L = R/πfc = 500/π x 1000 = 0.159H
C = 1/πfcR = 1/π x 1000 x 500 = 0.636 µF
This prototype section meets the specification for high attenuation at infinity. The
assembly of the section is illustrated in the circuit below, with inductance of L/2 in each
series arm.
The m-derived section to provide high attenuation at f∝ = 1065Hz may then be
designed:
m= 1 – (fC/f∝)2
m= 1 – (1000/1065)2
= 1 – 0.882 = 0.343
mL/2 = 0.343x0.159/2 =0.0273H

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(1-m2)L/ 4 m = (1–0.118) 0.159/1.372 = 0.102H
mC = 0.343x 0.636 = 0.218µF
An m-derived Low Pass Filter with fC at 1000Hz and f∝ at 1065
8.7.2 m-Derived High Pass Filter
T Section π Section
Fig. 8.24
8.8 NON-LC FILTERS

INTRODUCTION
So far we have studied about different types of LC filters. Now we will have a look at the
filters of other types which do not use L and C.
8.8.1 CRYSTAL FILTERS:

The Quartz Crystal is piezo-electric and when suitably cut and mounted plates of it will
vibrate at high frequencies. Quartz basically has a series resonant frequency, followed
by a slightly higher parallel resonant frequency. The 'Q' (Quality factor)of the crystal filter
is very high and hence, it is easy to obtain narrow bandwidths. The equivalent circuit of
the crystal and its reactance Vs frequency are shown in the Fig. 22. Co represents the
Inter-electrode capacitance and the capacitance added by leads and holder. C
represents the mechanical elasticity of the Quartz, L is a function of its mass and R is
the sum of the losses i.e., acoustic loading and frictional losses.

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Fig. 8.25 Crystal equivalent circuit and characteristic curve
The series resonant frequency
fs = 1
2 π√LC
The parallel resonant frequency
fp = 1
2 π√L (CO/C+Co)
The separation between the two resonant frequencies
S = fp/fs = 1 + C/2 Co.
The main features of the crystal filters are:
• A low attenuation in the pass band and high attenuation in the stop band
• A sharp cutoff after the cutoff frequency
• Because of the high Q, very narrow bandwidth can be obtained easily.
The applications of the crystal filters are:
• As signal frequency pick-off filter in multiplexing equipment.

• As pilot frequency pick-off filter in Multiplexing and microwave radio equipment
• As pilot frequency stop filter in the speech path in multiplexing equipment.
• As band pass filter in the output of the modulator and demodulator.
•
8.8.2 MECHANICAL FILTER:
Principle: The mechanical filter is a mechanically resonant device, which receives

electrical energy, converts it into mechanical vibration and then converts the mechanical
energy back into electrical oscillations at the output. The reason for this double
conversion is that the mechanically resonant system is better at suppressing unwanted

FILTERS
frequencies than a completely electrical system of the same size, since the mechanical
wavelengths are much shorter.
Construction: The mechanical filter consists of an input electro-mechanical transducer,

an output mechano-electrical transducer operating like the input one, but in the reverse
direction, mechanical resonators in the form of metal discs and wire couplers to couple
the resonators to each other. The construction of the mechanical filter and its electrical
analogy are shown in the figure 2. After the input signal has been converted into
mechanical vibrations, these are applied to the first section of coupling wires, which then
vibrate longitudinally and apply torsional oscillations to the first disk. These oscillations
are then transmitted to the remaining sections of the filter and the output is connected
back into electrical oscillations. As the mechanical elements have high Q, the bandwidth
can be made narrow with an extremely sharp attenuation outside the pass band.
Fig. 8.26(a) Construction
COIL
SOURCE COIL LOSES INDUCTANCE COUPLING WIRE
RESISTANCE ANALOGY
RESONATING DISC RESONATOR LOAD

CAPACITOR ANALOGY RESISTANCE
(B)
Electrical equivalent
Fig. 8.26(b) Mechanical Filter

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The magnetostrictive transducer is based on the principle that certain materials, like
nickel and ferrites will lengthen or shorten in the presence of magnetic field. Increase in
the number of disks will improve the selectivity or 'shape factor' of the filter. By varying
the mechanical coupling wires, it is possible to adjust the bandwidth of filter and it
ranges from 0.5 - 40 KHz.
Applications: -
(1) Used as a narrow band pass filter to pick-off the signaling frequency in the
multiplexing equipment.
(2) Used as a BPF to select the sideband in the BEL 100 W SSB HF transreceivers.
8.8.3 SAW FILTER.

Introduction: Surface acoustic wave (SAW) is a no electromagnetic wave that travels
along the surface of a Piezoelectric Substrate. A Piezo-electric substrate undergoes
physical s tress under the influence of an applied electrostatic field. Transducers are
provided at the ends of the piezoelectric wafer or substrate to convert electrical energy
into acoustic wave energy and then back to electrical energy. Saw Filters are of two
types, transversal Type and Resonant Type.
Construction: Surface acoustic waves are excited by inter-digital transducers that

consists of two sets of interleaved metal electrodes (called fingers) deposited on
piezoelectric substrate. The station filter is sometimes referred to as IDTs i.e., inter-
digital transducers or ceramic filters, made of lead Zirconate-titanate (PZT). The
commonly used materials for SAW devices are lithium niobate (LiN60 3), biemuth
germanium oxide (Bi12Ge0 20), and Quartz and lithium tentalate. The structure of a
SAW filter is shown in the figure 24. It is fabricated from thin highly polished strips of
Piezo-electric material on which are deposited input and output electrodes, usually of
0.01mm thick Aluminium in the form of interleaving fingers. The ends of the substrate
are terminated in acoustic absorbent material to prevent coherent edge reflections.
Fig. 8.27 SAW Filter Construction

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The width of the fingers and the gap between the fingers is usually a quarter wavelength
of the acoustic wave, which is to be preferentially excited. A typical 100 MHz transducer
on lithium niobate has Aluminium fingers 0.2 thick with 9 gaps.
The number of fingers used for the electrodes depends on the functional bandwidth
required and the overlap of the fingers is determined by the power of the signal source.
The frequency of the input signal can be 10 MHz to 1 GHz and surface acoustic waves
retain the frequency of their source with possibility of affecting different attenuation to
different bands of frequencies.
Operation: To generate a wave, an RF potential is applied between adjacent sets of

fingers, which travel at surface wave velocity. On conversion to surface acoustic wave,
the signal travels at the speed of sound. By the time the wave arrives mid-way between
the next pair of fingers, the RF excitation potential has reversed sign and the wave
excited by the second pair of fingers will be in phase with that of first pair and thus
added. The mechanism is reciprocal and hence, the transducer that excites a wave will
also detect it.
Applications:
The most common transversal type is normally used as a band pass filter in television IF
Circuits and in Digital UHF transreceivers. The advantages include high performance,
small in weight, adjustment free etc. These can be used in a variety of delay lines, filters
pulse processors and other Microwave Circuits.
8.8.4 CERAMIC FILTERS.

A Ceramic Filter is an electromechanical filter employing a ceramic piezo-electric
material like lead Zirconate-titanate and having band pass characteristics at 455/500
KHz. It is similar to Quartz and the bandwidths vary from 2 to 50 KHz. Two types as
small and Miniature are available. The insertion loss is 3 to 5 dB approximately and is
preferable to ordinary double- tuned transformers in size. It is used as a BPF in BEL
100W SSB Receiver.
8.8.5 ACTIVE FILTERS.

Filters can be made of passive components or active components. Active filters use the
op-amp in conjunction with an RC network. The advantages in using active filters are
elimination of inductors, which are large, excellent gain and isolation Properties, good
range of Q'S.

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The limitations of op-amp filters are that its limit is restricted to 100 KHz due to stability
considerations and center frequency is a function of gain. But now active filters up to
several MHZ can also be designed.
Low Pass Filter: - it uses the op-amp in the inverting mode. At low frequencies, the Xc
is very high and hence, it appears as open. The circuit behaves like an inverting
amplifier with
Gain = R2/R1. As the frequency increases, the reactances decreases and gain drops (R2
effective drops) and at high frequencies, it acts as a short. At fc, the gain drops by 3 dB.
(A)
(B)
Fig. 8.28 (A) Low Pass Filter and (B) its frequency curve
fc = 1/2π R2C
When R1 = R2 = 1 KΩ
C = 0.1µ F
fc = 1.6 KHz
High Pass Filter: It also uses the op amp in the inverting mode. At low frequencies, the
capacitor appears open and voltage gain (effective R, is high) approaches zero. At high
frequencies, the capacitor appears shorted and. the circuit behave as an inverting

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amplifier with gain equals to R2/R1. Thus the circuit allows only high frequencies to
appear at its output.
FIG. 8.29 High Pass Filter
fc = 1/2π R1C
When C = 0.1µ F
R1 = R2 = 1 KΩ
fc = 1.6 KHz
Op-amp can also be used as Band pass and Band stop filters. These basically include a
twin T network. One way to implement a BPF is a cascaded arrangement of a high
pass filter followed by a low pass filter. The lower frequency fc1, of the pass band is set
by the critical frequency of the HPF and the upper frequency fC2 of the pass band is the
critical frequency of the LPF.

FILTERS
(a)
(b)
Fig. 8.30 (a) Multiple Feedback BPF (b) its pass band curve
The other way is to use a Multiple Feedback BPF as shown in Fig. 27. R1, & C1 provide
the low pass response and R2 & C2 provide the high pass response. The maximum gain
of this filter A occurs at the resonant frequency fr given by:
1
fr = 2π (R1+R3) R2 C1C2
if C1 = C2 = C
fr = 1 (R1+R3)
2π C R1R2R3
Q = fr/Bw
Q = π fr CR2
Ar = R2/2R1
BAND STOP RLTER:

FILTERS
(a)
(b)
Fig. 8.31 (a) Band Stop Filter (b) Pass Band Curve
If C1 = C2 = C
fr = 1
2π C (R1R2)
Bw = 1
π R2 C

EQUALISERS
CHAPTER 9
EQUALISERS
9.0 Introduction
Equalisers may be divided into two broad categories: -
(i) Attenuation Equalisers
(ii) Delay Equalisers
Attenuation equalizers are divided into two main categories, these are: -
(i) Passive attenuation equalisers, which are networks of inductors, capacitors, and
resistors.
(ii) Active attenuation equalisers, which consist of passive equalising networks in

association with amplifiers. These types of equalisers are usually called
"equalising amplifiers" or "slope amplifiers."
9.1 Passive attenuation equaliser networks introduce additional attenuation into the
transmission path, but have attenuation versus frequency characteristic, which is
opposite to that of the lines and/or equipment they are designed to equaliser.
9.2 The resultant attenuation of the equaliser plus the line and/or equipment is constant
over the frequency range, thus reducing frequency distortion. Fig.1 shows the principle
of an equalizer.
Fig.9.1 Principle Of Passive Attenuation Equaliser
designed to correct for the frequency distortion produced by an open wire transmission
line. Note that the transmission line attenuates the higher frequencies more than the
lower frequencies, whereas the attenuation equaliser attenuates the lower frequencies
more than the higher frequencies. The total attenuation of the line plus the equaliser is

EQUALISERS
constant over the entire frequency range. Since all frequencies are attenuated by the
same amount, the equaliser has corrected for the frequency distortion produced by the
line.
Fig.2 shows passive attenuation equaliser connected at the receiving end of a
transmission line. All frequencies are restored to their original amplitude relationships by
the equaliser, at thus reducing frequency distortion at the amplifier input. The amplifier
has sufficient gain to compensate for the total attenuation of the line plus the equaliser.
Fig.9.2 Typical application of a Passive Attenuation Equaliser
9.3 In many cases, the attenuation equalisers connected in transmission lines are designed
to compensate for the unequal attenuation versus frequency characteristics of
equipment components associated with the line, such as filters, as well as the line.
Passive attenuation equalisers, designed to correct for frequency distortion in
transmission lines are usually adjustable in fixed steps. This enables the equaliser to be
installed on any line, which has characteristics within certain limits of a nominal value.
Sections of the equaliser are strapped in or out, during installation, to suit the
characteristics of the particular line on which it is installed.
As well as being used to correct for frequency distortion produced by transmission lines
and their associated components, attenuation equalisers are also used to correct for
frequency distortion produced by equipment components within the line transmission
equipment, or the internal wiring between the equipment. These equalisers, that is, they
have reverse attenuation versus frequency characteristics to that of the equipment they
are designed to equalise.
Fig. 3 shows the circuit of a simple shunt type attenuation equaliser, and its frequency
versus attenuation characteristic. At low frequencies the inductive reactance is very low,
and the value of R determines the maximum attenuation produced by the equaliser. As
the frequency increases, the inductive reactance increases. This causes the shunt
impedance of the equaliser to increase and reduce the attenuation of the equaliser. As
the frequency rises further, the inductor and capacitor become resonant and other
maximum shunt impedance and therefore, minimum attenuation to the signal. This is
the frequency at which minimum attenuation of the equaliser occurs. Beyond this

EQUALISERS
frequency, the attenuation of the equaliser commences to increase again due to the
effect of the decreasing capacitive reactance, but the equaliser is not usually operated
beyond this point. In practice, the values of R,.L. and C are usually adjustable, so that
the equaliser can be installed on any line having characteristics within certain tolerances
of a nominal value.
Fig.9.3
9.4 Simple equalisers similar to the type shown in Fig. 4 have the disadvantage that their
impedance changes with frequency. In many line transmission equipment applications
it is essential that the impedance of the equaliser remains relatively constant over the
frequency, range to prevent an impedance mismatch and the resultant reflection
problems from occurring. In these cases, more complex equaliser configurations are
used, such as the bridged T type equaliser, which is constant impedance over the
frequency range for which it is designed. The basic configuration of the bridged T type
equaliser is shown in Fig.4a. The impedances Z1 and Z2 are networks of L.C. and R,
which are designed for the particular application of the equaliser. Fig. 4b shows a
practical application of the bridged T equaliser configuration. Many different variations
of the bridged T equaliser configuration are used in practice.
Fig.9.4 Bridged T type Equaliser

EQUALISERS
9.5 Active attenuation equalisers are equalising amplifiers, which have a gain versus
frequency characteristic such that when combined with the frequency response of the
lines they are designed to equalise, a flat over all frequency response is obtained. For
example, the effect of an equalising amplifier connected in the receiving end of a
transmission line is shown in Fig. 5. The transmission line attenuates the higher
frequencies more than the lower frequencies, and the equalising amplifier amplifies the
higher frequencies more than the lower frequencies. When the attenuation of the line is
subtracted from the gain of the amplifier, the overall frequency response is flat, and
frequency distortion is reduced.
Fig.9.5 Principle of Equalizer Amplifiers
(Note the gain of the amplifier has been shown in the lower quadrant of the graph for
easy comparison with the attenuation of the line). The change in attenuation with
frequency of a transmission line is often referred to as the "slope" of the line. For this
reason equalising amplifiers associated with transmission lines are often called "Slope"
amplifiers.
9.6 An equalising amplifier consists basically of an amplifier and an equalising network. The
equalising network may be connected in series with the amplifier (Fig.6a) or in the
negative feedback circuit of the amplifier (Fig. 6b). The network is designed to have
attenuation versus frequency characteristic, which causes the amplifier to amplify some
frequencies more than others, and thus produce the required gain versus frequency
characteristics.

EQUALISERS
Fig.9.6 Basic Equalising Amplifiers
9.7 An example of a practical equalising amplifier with the equalising network connected in
the negative feedback circuit is shown in Fig 7. The values of the components in the
equalising network may be varied during installation to suit the particular transmission
line.
Fig.9.7 Example of a Practical Equalizing Amplifier
9.8 Weather conditions cause the attenuation versus frequency characteristic (slope) of
transmission lines to vary, particularly in open wire lines. Fig. 8 shows typical
attenuation versus frequency graphs of an open wire line during dry and wet weather
conditions. A fixed equaliser connected to the transmission line is only capable of
compensating for the attenuation versus frequency characteristics produced by one type
of weather condition. When weather changes produce variations in slope which are too
large, a variable attenuation equaliser is used. The variable attenuation equaliser has
its slope automatically varied, under the control of pilot regulation equipment, to
compensate for changes in slope of the line. Variable equalisers are also used in some
types of line transmission equipment to compensate for changes in the frequency

EQUALISERS
response of the equipment due to component ageing, and changes in ambient

temperature.
Fig.9.8 Effect of Weather Conditions on Slope of Open Wire Line
9.9 Delay distortion occurs when the component frequencies of a complex wave travel at
different velocities through transmission lines and equipment. For example, assume that
a complex wave containing two component frequencies (Fig. 9A) is applied to the input
of a carrier telephone channel, and that the channel causes the lower frequency to
travel at a lower velocity than the higher frequency. The lower frequency will reach the
channel output later than the higher frequency (Fig. 9B); that is, the channel delays the
lower frequency for a longer period of time than the higher frequency. The difference in
delay time between the two component frequencies in the channel output produces a
change in the complex wave shape.
Delay distortion has little effect on the intelligibility of speech, but has a considerable
effect on the telegraph, data, and facsimile and television video signals.
For example, differences in the delay of the component frequencies of data pulses alter
the shape of the pulses, and thus change the information being conveyed. If the delay is
sufficiently large, some of the energy of a data pulse may be delayed to such an extent
that it affects the following pulse.
Fig.9.9 Delay Distortion
Absolute delay is the total time required for a frequency to pass through a transmission
path. The graph in Fig.10 shows the absolute delay of each frequency in the pass range
of a typical carrier telephone channel.

EQUALISERS
Fig.9.10 Absolute Delay
9.10 A delay equaliser is a network designed to make the absolute delay of a transmission
path constant over the required frequency range. The delay equaliser introduces delay
into the transmission path, but its delay versus frequency characteristic is opposite, to
that of the line and/or equipment it is designed to equalise. The total delay introduced by
the delay equaliser plus the equipment and/or line is the same value for all frequencies.
For example, Fig. 11 shows the principle of a delay equaliser connected in a carrier
telephone channel. Note that the channel introduces minimum delay at the
mid-frequency and maximum delay at the end frequencies. The delay equaliser is
designed to introduce maximum delay at the mid-frequency and minimum delay at the
end frequencies. The total delay introduced by the channel plus the equaliser is
constant over the pass band of the channel; therefore, delay distortion is reduced. (It
should be noted that delay equalisers are not normally fitted to telephone channels used
for speech transmission, but are fitted when the channels are used for such purposes as
data and facsimile transmission).
Fig.9.11

EQUALISERS
9.11 Generally delay equalisers contain a number of sections connected in series. Each of
the sections is designed to correct for the delay distortion produced in a different portion
of the frequency range. The combined effect of all the sections is to correct for the delay
distortion produced over the entire frequency range required. An example of a delay
equaliser circuit configuration containing two sections is shown in Fig.12, and the
symbol used to represent a delay equaliser is shown in Fig. 13.
Fig.9.12 Delay Equaliser
Fig.9.13 Group Delay Distortion
9.12 The absolute delay of the combined go and return paths of a four-wire circuit can be
measured relatively simple. The signal is fed over the go path to the distant terminal,
where it is connected to the return path and fed back to the originating station. The

EQUALISERS
combined go and return absolute delay is determined by comparing the received wave
with that of the transmitted wave.
9.13 However, it is necessary to know the delay for one direction of transmission only to
design a delay equaliser and suitable absolute delay figures for this purpose are not
always obtained by halving the go and return absolute delay. Also, because of the
problems of providing a synchronized reference frequency at the distant terminal, it is
not practicable to measure the absolute delay for one direction of transmission between
two stations.
9.14 For this reason, complex test equipment has been developed to assure the relative
delay over a transmission path. Basically, this equipment transmits a reference signal,
and the signal to be measured, on the distant station, where the difference in delay
between the two signals is measured. The reference signal is chosen from within the
frequency band to be checked, and since its absolute delay cannot be measured, it is
given a relative delay value of zero. All delay measurements obtained at the distant
station are relative to the reference signal delay, and indicated the difference in time
each signal takes travel over the transmission path, as compared to reference signal.
The delay characteristic obtained by this method is referred to as the Group Delay
Distortion of the transmission path.
9.15 The group delay distortion of a typical telephone channel is shown in Fig.13. In this case,
the frequency with the lowest delay 2000 Hz has been chosen as the reference and is
given the relative delay value of zero. The difference in delay time between this
frequency and each other frequency in the range has been measured and plotted
graphically. The graph shows that the 3000 Hz signal takes 5000 micro-seconds more
than the 2000 Hz signal to travel through this particular channel; that is the 3000 Hz
signal has a delay, which is 500 microseconds more than the 200 Hz signal.
In practice, a delay equaliser does not completely eliminate group delay distortion, but
reduces it to an acceptable value. Fig. 14 shows the group delay distortion
characteristics of a telephone channel equipped with a delay equaliser. Note that the
relative group delay of all frequencies is within +50 micro-seconds of the reference
frequency.
• Obtaining the relative group delay characteristics of the transmission path for
the purpose of designing a suitable equaliser, or
• To check that the group delay distortion introduced by a transmission path
equipped with a delay equaliser is within the prescribed limits.

EQUALISERS
Fig.14 shows the group delay distortion characteristic of a 5.8-mile coaxial television
video link equipped with a delay equaliser.
Fig.9.14 Group Delay
9.17 Generally, line transmission equipment is not "tailor" made for each individual route, but is
mass-produced. For this reason, each type of equipment is manufactured for a
transmission line of nominal length and characteristics. The equipment is supplied with
adjustable components, such as, adjustable equalisers and amplifiers, so that it can be
installed on lines, which vary within certain limits from the nominal.
9.18 Situation occurs, however, where it is necessary to install equipment on transmission

lines which are shorter than the minimum length for which the equipment is designed.
The characteristics of a shorter line are such that the equipment could not be adjusted
to operate satisfactorily. In these cases "Line Building Out" networks may be used to
extend the characteristics of a short line so that they fall within the required limits. Line
building out networks consists of a number of sections in series and each section is
designed to simulate the characteristics of a particular length of line. During installation,
the sections are strapped in or out until the required transmission characteristics are
obtained for the line.
9.19 Fig.15 is a block diagram showing the sections of a typical line building out network used
in coaxial cable systems. Each section simulates the characteristics of a different length
of line, and by suitable strapping, the length of the line can be increased electrically by
0.25 to 3.75 miles.

EQUALISERS
Fig.9.15 Line Building out Network
9.20 To prevent a mismatch occurring between the network and the line, a line building out
network must simulate the line characteristics in all respects. For this reason the circuit
design is very complex. Fig. 16 shows the circuit configuration of a typical line building
out network section, which is designed to simulate the characteristics of .25 miles of
coaxial cable.
Line Building out Network Section (25 Miles of Coaxial Cable)
Fig.9.16
A group delay equaliser is used at the output of IF amplifier of all Microwave receivers to
compensate the non-linear delay introduced by the I.F. amplifier for different
frequencies.

COMMONLY USED CABLES AND CONNECTORS
CHAPTER 10
COMMONLY USED CABLES AND CONNECTORS IN THE

ELECTRONIC INDUSTRY
10.0 Introduction:
In the field of electronics we use various active devices like diodes, transistors, FETs,
ICs etc, and passive devices like resistors, capacitors, inductors and transformers. In
addition to these there is also the necessity of many other accessory or supporting
components. These components are mainly the different types of connectors, wires and
cables, switches, fuses, relays etc. Now let us discuss about some of them.
10.1 Connectors:
Interconnections, between sub-units or modules, are needed in every electronic system
for two main purposes. First purpose is for the system’s own functioning as single and
complete system. The second purpose is for making measurements and conducting
tests on the system for both maintenance and restoration.
10.2 Male and Female Connectors:

For making any single interconnection in a system there is a need for at least two
connectors one each on both the interconnecting devices and modules. And these two
connectors need to be duals to each other. For example if one connector has pins then
its dual connector should have holes exactly matching to the size of pins for making firm
interconnection. These two connectors are called as male and female connectors
respectively. There is an exception for this; some RF connectors such as the
HP/Amphenol APC-7 and the General Radio GR874 and GR900BT have only one type
of construction, but no male and female constructions.
10.3 Why different sizes and shapes of connectors?

Connectors come in different sizes and shapes depending on the factors like frequency
at which they are used and the power handling requirement, impedance involved,
protection from interference signals, mechanical strength needed etc.
10.4 Care is needed while connecting and disconnecting:

RF and microwave connectors are precision-made parts, and can be easily damaged
by mistreatment. You should start with all connector surfaces as clean as possible. If the
connectors have threaded sleeves, one should rotate these to tighten, leaving the rest
of the connector and cable stationary. If other parts of the connector are twisted while
tightening or loosening, damage can easily occur.

10.5 Audio Connectors
Two of the most common connectors used for professional audio are
3-pin XLR, RCA, and 1/4" Phone Connector (6.5mm jacks). Both 3-pin XLR and
6.5mm jacks are used with balanced cables whereas RCA connector is used with
unbalanced cables.
3-pin XLR Connector

3-pin XLR connectors are mainly used for balanced audio signals. Using a balanced
signal reduces the risk of inference. The three-pin XLR connector is also the standard
connector for digital connections (electronically balanced, impedance 110 ohms).
Pin Signal
1 Shield
2 Signal +
3 Signal -
Fig10.1
XLR Male XLR Female
There are a number of different XLR's - 3-pin, 4-pin, 5-pin etc
3-pin XLR Male

3-pin XLR Female
Fig. 10.2
1/4" Phone Connector
For typical balanced lines using 1/4" phone connectors, you should connect the positive
phase signal line (hot) to the tip, the negative phase signal line (neutral) to the ring, and
the shield to the shield.
There are two types of 1/4" Phone: Mono and stereo. The mono jack has a tip and a
sleeve, the stereo jack has ring, a tip and a sleeve.
1/4" Mono Connector:
Fig. 10.3
1/4" Stereo Connector:
Pin Signal
Tip Signal +
Ring Signal -
Sleeve Shield/ground
Fig. 10.4
1/4" Stereo socket:
Fig. 10.5 Socket (female)
• On the mono jack the tip is the +ve, and the sleeve is the -ve or shield
• On a stereo jack being used for a balanced signal, the tip is the +ve, the ring is the -ve,
and the sleeve is the shield.
• On a stereo jack being used for a stereo signal (left and right), the tip is the left, the ring
is the right, and the sleeve is the shield

Jacks also come in various sizes - 6.5mm (¼"), 3.5mm, and 2.5mm. The wiring for all of
them is the same. These are really only suitable for audio frequencies.
RCA Connector: A round, press-on connector commonly used for consumer-grade

audio and composite video connections. In most recent home stereo equipment, the
jacks are color-coded as follows: red (audio-Right), black or white (audio-Left) and
yellow (composite video). Generally this connector does not have constant
characteristic impedance.
Female Male
Fig. 10.6
Frequency of operation: Max. Up to 10 MHz
Interconnections: Some Interconnections between XLR and ¼“Phone connector are

shown below

Fig. 10.7 interconnection connectors
10.6 Coaxial Connectors

10.6.1 UHF Connector:
These types of connectors are of generally non-constant (characteristic)
impedance and are suitable for use up to 200 or 300 MHz only. The UHF
connector is a robust but economical RF connector. But for serious applications
its use should be limited to below 100 MHz. The N type is far superior to this in
performance. (the BNC type connector is similar in performance to the N type,
but has the disadvantage of being less rugged.)
Fig.10.8 PL-259 (male) SO-239 (female)
Frequency of operation 300MHz or less
10.6.2 F Connector:
The “F” series connectors are primarily utilized in television cable and antenna
applications. Normally these are used at 75 ohm characteristic impedance. 3/8-32
coupling thread is standard, but push-on designs are also available.
Fig.10.9 F connector
Frequency of operation: 250MHz to 1GHz

10.6.3 Type N Connector:

The Type N 50 ohm connector was designed in the 1940s for military systems operating
below 5 GHz. The origin of its name is attributed to Mr. Paul Neill, an RF engineer at
Bell Labs. Some say N means "Navy". The Type N uses an internal gasket to seal out
the environment, and is hand tightened. There is an air gap between center and outer
conductor. Initially was used up to 12GHz. Companies like Hewlett Packard, Kings,
Amphenol, and others offer some products with slotless type-N outer conductors for
improved performance up to 18 GHz. Type-N connectors follow the military standard
MIL-C-39012. A 75 ohm version, with a reduced center pin is available and in wide use
by the cable-TV industry.
Fig.10.10 Type N Connector
Female Male
Frequency of Operation: 12 GHz or more
10.6.4 C Connector:
It is called Concelman's connector. It is a quick-connect version of the N. C connectors
are medium-size, 50-ohm impedance connectors with two-stud bayonet coupling and
good power handling capability, particularly those connectors noted as high-voltage
types. These are similar in size to type N connectors, however, they are bayonet
locking. The C series uses a Teflon dielectric for its interface. The dielectric overlap
enables better voltage handling capabilities. The bayonet coupling does not perform
well electrically during vibration
Frequency of Operation: 12GHz

Fig.10.11 C Connector
10.6.5 BNC Connector:

The "Bayonet Neil-Concelman"connector. The BNC connector is a type of RF connector
used for terminating coaxial cable. The connector was named after its "Bayonet" locking
mechanism and its two inventors "Neill"( Mr. Paul Neill) and "Concelman"( Karl W.
Concelman). Nicknames the BNC has picked up over the years include: "Baby Neill-
Concelman", "British Naval Connector" or "Bayonet Nut Connector". It is smaller than N
and C connectors.
Fig.10.12 BNC Connector
The BNC was designed for military use and has gained wide acceptance in video and
RF applications to 2 GHz. The BNC uses a slotted outer conductor and some plastic
dielectric on each gender connector. This dielectric causes increasing losses at higher
frequencies. Above 4 GHz, the slots may radiate signals, so the connector is not usable.
Both 50 ohm and 75 ohm versions are available.
Female Male
Frequency of Operation: 2GHz or higher
10.6.6 TNC Connector:

A threaded version of the BNC connector. It helps resolve leakage and geometric
stability problems, permitting applications up to 12 GHz. The specifications for N, BNC
and TNC connectors are found in MIL-C-39012. There are special "extended frequency"
versions of the TNC that adhere to the IEC 169-17 specification for operation to 11 GHz

or 16 GHz, and the IEC 169-26 specification that operate mode-free up to 18 GHz (but
with significant losses). The TNC connector is in wide use in cellular telephone
RF/antenna connections. Because the mating geometries are compatible with the N
connector, it is possible to temporarily mate some gender combinations of BNC and N.
This is not a recommended use because the connection is not mechanically stable, and
there will be significant impedance changes at the interface.
Female Male
Fig.10.13 TNC Connectors
Frequency of Operation: 2GHz or higher
10.6.7 SMA Connector:

Very popular, small, threaded connectors. Works great upto 18GHz'Sub-Miniature A’.
Small and common, but no good for bigger cable (like LMR-400) without using an
adapter. It is intended for use on semi-rigid cables and in components which are
connected infrequently. It takes the cable dielectric directly to the interface without air
gaps. A few hundred interconnect cycles are possible if performed carefully. Care
should be taken to join connectors straight-on. Prior to making a connection it is wise to
inspect the female end to ensure that the center socket is in good condition (fingers not
bent or missing). Precision SMA Connectors are available with a variety of sizes
(e.g., 3.5, 2.92 mm etc.).
Female Male

Fig.10.14 SMA Connectors
Frequency of Operation: 12 to 18GHz
10.6.8 SMC Connector: A push-on version of the SMA
Fig. 10.15 SMC Connectors
10.6.9 SMB Connector: A very small version of the SMC.

Fig 10.16 SMB Connectors
10.6.10 APC-7 Connector:

The APC-7 (Amphenol Precision Connector - 7 mm) offers the lowest reflection
coefficient and most repeatable measurement of all 18 GHz connectors.
Development of this connector was a joint effort between HP and Amphenol
which began in the early 1960s. This is a genderless (hermaphrodite) design
and is the preferred connector for the most demanding applications, notably
metrology and calibration. These connectors are designed to perform repeatably
for thousands of interconnect cycles as long as the mating surfaces are kept
clean. You will find these connectors on the front panel of some network
analyzers.
Fig. 10.17 APC-7 Connector
Frequency of Operation: 18GHz
Caution: While connecting between two of these connectors the sleeve of one
connector must be loose. Tightening both sleeves can cause damage to connectors.
10.6.11 7/16 DIN:

This relatively new connector is finding popularity as interconnect in cellular and other
so called "wireless" applications, especially on towers. The primary advantage it has
over N type connectors is that it uses a wrench to tighten. It is rated to 7.5 GHz, uses
rubber gaskets and silver or gold plate.
Female Male
Fig. 10.18 7/16 DIN connector
Frequency of Operation: up to 7.5 GHz
10.6.12 GR874 Connector:

GR874 (General Radio) connectors are hermaphroditic, 50-ohm impedance connectors
with a slide-on interface that has been a standard for many years on a wide variety of
test equipment, due to its good electrical characteristics and ease of mating. These
connectors sometimes come with a locking interface for added mechanical security
where needed. Locking and non-locking interfaces are intermateable.
Fig. 10.19 GR874 connectors
Frequency of Operation: up to 8.5GHz
10.6.13 GR900BT:
These genderless (hermaphrodite) connectors are often used in highly critical laboratory
applications at frequencies up to 8.5 GHz.

Fig. 10.20 14 mm, MPC14
Frequency of Operation: 8.5 GHz
2.4 mm Connector : The 2.4 mm connector was developed by HP, Amphenol and M/A-
COM for use to 50 GHz (the first waveguide mode is reached at 52 GHz). M/A-Com
refers to it as OS-2.4 (OS-50). This design eliminates the fragility of the SMA and 2.92-
mm connectors by increasing the outer wall thickness and strengthening the female
fingers. The inside of the outer conductor is 2.4 mm in diameter, and the outside is 4.7
mm. Because they are not mechanically compatible with SMA, 3.5-mm and 2.92-mm,
precision adapters are required in order to mate to those types. (This family is not
directly matable with the SMA family.) The 2.4-mm product is offered in three quality
grades; general purpose, instrument, and metrology. General-purpose grade is intended
for economy use on components, cables and microstrip, where limited connections and
low repeatability is acceptable. The higher grades are appropriate for their respective
applications.
Fig. 10.21 24 mm Connector
Frequency of Operation: 50 GHz
10.7 Cables
10.7.1 Audio Cables:

There are two main types of audio cables: Single core / shielded (unbalanced) and One
pair / shielded (balanced).

Unbalanced Audio Cable (Single Core / Shielded):
Traditional unbalanced cables use two lines to transmit the audio signal - a hot line
which carries the signal and an earth line. This is all that is required to transmit audio
and is common in short cables (where noise is less of a problem) and less professional
applications. In a single core / shielded cable, the single core is used for the +ve, or
'hot', and the shield is used for the -ve, or 'cold'. This type of cable is used for
unbalanced audio signals.
Fig. 10.22 Single core / shielded cable
Balanced Audio Cable (One Pair - Shielded): Balanced audio cables use an extra
line, and consist of a hot line (positive), cold line (negative) and earth. The audio signal
is transmitted on both the hot and cold lines, but the voltage in the cold line is inverted
so it is negative when the hot signal is positive. These two signals are often referred to
as being 180 degrees out of phase with each other. This terminology can be confusing it
does not mean one signal is delayed until it is out of phase, it means one signal is
effectively flipped upside down.
A one pair / shielded cable has one core as the +ve, and the other core is -ve.
The shield is earthed. This type of cable is used for balanced audio signals.
Fig. 10.23 One pair / shielded cable
Balanced Advantages
• Balanced connections are generally less susceptible to interference, hum, and loss.
Balun: A Balun or balance to unbalance transformer is a circuit element used to

connect a balanced line to an unbalanced line or antenna. Commonly it is used to
connect an unbalanced coaxial line to a balanced antenna such TV dipole antenna.

Fig. 10.24
10.8 Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable is an electrical cable consisting of a round conducting wire, surrounded

by an insulating spacer, surrounded by a cylindrical conducting sheath, and usually
surrounded by a final insulating layer.
Fig.10.25 Radio grade flexible coaxial cable.
A: outer plastic sheath

B: copper screen
C: inner dielectric insulator
D: copper core
The cable is designed to carry a high frequency or broadband signal, as a high-frequency

transmission line. Sometimes DC power (called bias) is added to the signal to supply the
equipment at the other end, as in direct broadcast satellite receivers. Because the
electromagnetic field carrying the signal exists (ideally) only in the space between the inner
and outer conductors, it cannot interfere with or suffer interference from external
electromagnetic fields.
Coaxial cables may be rigid or flexible. Rigid types have a solid sheath, while flexible types
have a braided sheath, both usually of thin copper wire. The inner insulator, also called the
dielectric, has a significant effect on the cable's properties, such as its characteristic
impedance and its attenuation. The dielectric may be solid or perforated with air spaces.
Connections to the ends of coaxial cables are usually made with RF connectors.

MICROWAVE COMPONENTS
CHAPTER 11
11.0 Introduction
Every microwave system consists of many components which are joined by sections of
transmission line. The components direct the microwave energy, control its phase and
magnitude, transform it to other forms of energy or sample the energy so that it can be
measured. In this chapter we will consider passive components.
The components of interest are: -
i) Cavity Resonators
ii) Waveguide Tees
iii) Phase Shifters
iv) Attenuators
v) Directional Couplers
vi) Microwave Switches
viii) Ferrite devices
ix) Filters
ix) Waveguide bends
x) Waveguide flange
xi) Coaxial Waveguide Adopter
xii) Waveguide terminations
xiii) Waveguide Transmission
xiv) Slotted waveguide
xv) Pressure Window, etc.

11.1 Cavity Resonators:

When electromagnetic energy propagates in a waveguide, the electric and magnetic
fields exists and travel in definite defined patterns. If a short circuit is placed across the
waveguide there is complete reflection and the reflected wave exhibits the same pattern.
The reflected wave produces a standing wave in the shorted waveguide. If the short is
at the position of voltage minimum, this minimum is repeated every half waveguide
length interval from the short. If another short is now placed at one of the other voltage
minimum, they will be in phase with the original signal. This means that the cavity
formed by the waveguide shorted at two places can sustain a signal which bounces
back and forth between the two plates.
These considerations apply to any suitable, shape of hollow cavity, but in microwave,
waveguide cavities are used either in rectangular or cylindrical shape.
Since standing waves can also exist in a coaxial line, it should be possible to build a
coaxial resonant cavity, the shorted plates being placed at exactly in multiples of half
wavelength.
In a waveguide, since there are larger numbers of modes which can exist, it follows that
there are many cavity modes also. Just as the waveguide modes are TE and TM and
have subscripts designating their configuration, in cavity resonators also we have TE
and TM modes with three subscripts. The first two subscripts designate the waveguide
mode and the third indicates the length of the cavity in half guide wave lengths. Thus,
TE1,1.1 mode in a cylindrical cavity indicates the dominant modes in the round guide
and a cavity length of half a waveguide length.
In coaxial line, the transmission is usually in the TE, M-2 and hence, it is only necessary
to specify only the length in half wavelengths.
The figure of merit of a cavity resonator is expressed in terms of Q where Q is defined

as:
Q = 2π X (Energy Stored ÷ Energy dissipated) per cycle.
In practical resonators, the amount of energy dissipated per cycle is extremely small
compared to the energy stored and hence, the value of Q is extremely high. Commercial
cavities shown in figure 1 have loaded Q values in the range of 4000 to 12000
depending upon the shape.

IRISES, Posts and Screws - If diaphragms of good conductivity and of small thickness,
compared to wavelength, are introduced into the waveguide, necessary susceptance
can be introduced. The element illustrated in figure 1 (a) adds the inductive susceptance
across the waveguide and is called an inductive iris. The capacitive iris is shown in
figure (b) in which the diaphragm is at right angles to the electric field. If the combined
effects of the inductive and capacitive irises are employed, the composite type
illustrated in figures (c) and (d) is obtained and is referred to as the resonant iris. The
circular iris, which produces inductive susceptance, is preferred in circular waveguides.
Susceptance can also be added by means of posts and, screws as shown in figures 1
(f), (g) and (h). In figures (f) and (h) the resulting susceptance is capacitive whereas in
(g), the susceptance obtained is inductive.
Fig.11.1 - Waveguide Impedance Changing Devices
a) Symmetrical Inductive Iris b) Symmetrical Capacitive Iris
c) Resonant Windows d) Resonant Windows
e) Circular Iris f) Capacitive Tuning Screw
g) Inductive Post
h) Probe Adjustable Along the Line with Variable Probe Insertion
Waveguide cavities are provided with irises, windows and posts to prevent generation of
harmonic mode.

Fig.11.2 Resonance cavity
The figure 2 above shows free resonant cavities. Figures (a), (b), (c) and (d) have
inductive iris or inductive rod. (e) shows a capacitive iris. Whereas. Figure (f) shows
resonant windows. In figure (g) we have cylindrical cavity. In Fig. (c) and (d) the
generation of TE2, 0 and TE3, 0 modes is prevented, (harmonics). For resonators
having a Q less than 500, arrangements shown in Fig. (a) to (d) are used. The
capacitive IRISES and resonant are less commonly used as they reduce the effective Q.
11.2 Waveguide Tees:

Waveguide Tees are waveguide junctions, which play an important part in waveguide,
techniques. Two of the common forms of joint of two waveguides are E-type T-junction
and H-type T-junction as shown in figure 3 (a) and (b).
Fig.11.3 Wave guide TEE

11.3 'E' Type 'T' junction
The junction arm (c) in figure extends from the main waveguide section in the same
direction as that of the 'E' lines in the waveguide. Figure illustrates the cross sectional
front views of the 'E` type 'T' junction with signals being fed into the various arms. The 'S
lines are represented by arrows in order to show the field direction and distortion. The
arrows point out towards the negative (or less positive) potential.

Fig.11.4 E type T junction

Part of figure shows an input signal applied to arm 'A' of the waveguide. As the energy
moves down -the section 'and approaches the junction, the 'E' field attempts to conform
to the discontinuity. When E' field arrives at this point positive charge there induces
electro- statically a negative charge at point 2 causing an E field between points 2 and
3. The induced E fields now proceed out through their respective arms WC. From the
figure it is evident that the signals in arms A & C are in phase whereas the output from
arm B is 180 deg., out of phase with the input signal. The input signal was introduced
into arm B instead of arm A, the junction would react in similar fashion that is output
from A will be 180 deg. out of phase with the input signal and output from arm C would
be in phase with input signal.
Part ‘B’ of (b) shows the relationship between the input arm 'C and the output at A&B
will be out of phase.
When in phase signals of equal amplitude are fed into arms A&B simultaneously (Part C
of 79) there is no E field in arm C and hence, no energy is coupled. out for this arm
since the potentials at points 1 and 2 have the same polarity and magnitude.
However, when signals fed into arms M B are 180 deg. out of phase, as shown in Part B
of, there is a difference of potential between 1 & 2. This difference of potential induced
on E field in arm C and energy is coupled through this arm.
11.4 'H' Type T Junction:

The branch arm D extends from the main waveguide in the plane of 'H' lines. Thus the
main structural differences between the E type and H type T junctions are the branch
arm extension. In the E type the arm extends from the wide dimensions of the
waveguide whereas in the H type the branch arm extension is from the narrow
dimensions.
Fig. 11.5 (a) Shows the top sectional view of an E type T junction with an input signal
fed into the A arm of the main waveguide. In the figure the tails of the 'S field lines are
represented as crosses, with points of the same potential joined together by solid lines.
The energy moves along the main waveguide until it approaches the Junction. At the
junction, the E field must change in order to conform to the discontinuity. The P.D.
between tile upper and lower walls of the main waveguide at the entrance A end causes
a p.d. at the entrance to B and D. This results the presence of an E field in both these

arms. Part A of Fig. 11.5 (b) illustrates this. The same condition will apply if signal is fed
into arm B.
11.5 MAGIC TEE

This is a combination of E type and 11 type 'T' junctions. In this the EH arms are
symmetrically placed
The properties of the 'Magic T'.
• When energy is fed to the series arm (c), it divides equally between both arms (A&B) and
none appears at the shunt arm (D). The outputs from the arms (A&B) are in opposite
phase (Fig. 11.5 (a))
Fig. 11.5 Magic TEE and Properties of Magic TEE

• When energy is fed to the shunt arm (D) it divides equally between both arms (MB) and
none appears at the series arm c. The outputs from the arms (MB) are in phase with the
input signal (Fig. 11.6 (b)).
• When an input signal is fed into arm A as shown in Fig11.6 output is obtained at C & D
and none at B. Similarly, when energy is fed to B there will be no output A.
• If fields entering A & B are equal in magnitude and of same polarity. There is no output
from C and all the energy emerges out of D.
• On the other hand, if fields entering A and B are equal and out of phase, all emerges out
from C and none from D.
• The magic tee has the disadvantage of being unable to handle higher amounts of power
because of the limitations of the matching devices required to prevent reflections at the
junctions.
At the junction two other effectively terminates each arm. Arms of equal impedance.
Therefore, mismatch will be inevitable, unless special precautions are observed. The
magic tee can be used as a phase shifter when series and shunt arms, are terminated
with adjustable short circuits.
An extensive use of the magic tee is in connection with the microwave receiver for
mixing the incoming signal frequency with local oscillator frequency to produce EF. The
magic tee provides isolation between the local oscillator signal and the incoming signal.
11.6 HYBRID RING:

This is most popularly known as "Rat Race". This is a modification of the magic 'T' and
is constructed of rectangular waveguides molded into a circular pattern. Fig.11.7a.
Waveguide arms designated E, 17,QH, form four types of 'Y' junctions, where key input
from the waveguide making up the ring.
The ring serves two purposes (1) it links the arms together with arrangement necessary
for their structural assembly and it provides the proper impedance match for the arms.
The ring performs a twofold system function. During transmission period, the hybrid ring
couples RF energy from the transmitter to the antenna while letting no energy reach the

receiver. On the other hand during reception period, the hybrid ring couples the
received signals to the receiver, at the same time effectively preventing these signals
from reaching the transmitters.
11.6.1 TRANSMISSION:
Part A of the figure 11.7(b), shows the ring with receiver arms H & F. The diagram
shows the 'E' field inside the guide. At the mouth of G arm, the energy propagated into
the ring is of opposite phase* for the opposite directions of travel as a result of E type of
(T) junction.
Fig. 11.7 Hybrid Ring
The energy arriving in a clockwise direction from G travels one-half wavelength, before,
arriving at the 'E' arm junction. But the energy traveling in the counter clockwise
direction travels a full wavelength before arriving at the same point and since the waves
are out of phase at G arm junction. they arrive at 'S junction in phase with the result no
energy is doubled to the antenna. In order to couple energy to the antenna through the
'E' arm waveguide sections, there must be a phase inversion of one of the signals
present at ‘E' arm.
This is achieved by adding an arms F having TR tube located one half wavelength from
its junction with ring. (Part B of figure 11.7)
The placement of arm F at one quarter wavelength from arm G is at a point where an
'E' field reversal. When sufficient energy is impressed across the TR tube gap, the tube
ionises and reflects the short circuit at the mount of arm F. The clockwise signal sees
no discontinuity at the junction and passes on to 'E', arm without a phase inversion thus
giving the same phase relationship from arm ‘0’ to mouth of arms.

The addition of arm H which is located at one quarter wavelength away from G arm in
the counter clockwise direction, gives the necessary phase reversal at the arm 'E' for
the energy to be propagated at arm E, located one quarter wavelength from the mouth
of section is a TR tube. When this tube is ionised, there is short-circuit across the tube.
One-quarter wavelength away at the mouth of H arm the transmitted signal sees an
open circuit, which causes a reversal of phase in the propagated signal.
The clockwise and anticlockwise signals at the mount of E' section are now 180 deg. out
of phase with each other, thus satisfying the requirement of the T-junction at arm E.
Part D shows the E field present in the complete hybrid ring for an instant during
transmission period. The G & H arms are connected to the receiver.
11.6.2 RECEPTION
For proper reception of signals, it is necessary to couple the signal present at arm E to
receive arms F&H, but not to transmitter arm G where energy will be lost. Shortly after
the end of transmitted pulse TR tubes de-ionised on strength of the tube remains de-
ionised throughout the reception period. The incoming signal from the arm E is coupled
in both clockwise and anticlockwise direction within the ring.
A part of Fig. Shows the configuration of the instantaneous E field or that portion of the
received signal, which is traveling in a clockwise direction around the ring. When it
reaches arm H, it divides, the arm H to the receiver couples a portion, and the other
portion suffers a phase inversion at the arm and appears at arm G. During the same
period, the counter clockwise signal, which is 180 deg out of phase with the clockwise
signal, is propagated around the ring and applied to E arm junction (part B of figure). A
portion of received signal travels up the Farm and the reminder undergoes a phase
inversion is coupled to the transmitter arm G.
Referring to both parts A and B of figure note the assured, instantaneous polarity of the
clockwise field at point 1 in part A and the instantaneous polarity of the counter
clockwise field at part 2 in part B. The resultant fields are in effect in phase and equal
amplitude (analogous to being fed into A&B arms of an E type T junction with zero

output from C arm). So no energy is coupled into the transmitter and arm and all
available energy is directed down the receiver arm branches.
11.7 Phase Shifter:

The difference in phase shift between any two points is determined by the velocity of
propagation and is therefore, the function of the medium. There are several methods by
which the effective velocity of propagation may be modified to introduce varying
amounts of phase shift between the two points. The phase may be changed by
restricting the cross-section of the guide, introducing inductive or capacitive irises into
the guide, or by placing diametric rods across the guide. All these are equivalent to
adding a corresponding lumped reactance at the point and hence, a phase shift results.
A ferrite can cause phase shift and hence, can be used as a phase shifter.
Another method of obtaining a variable phase shift is to insert a dielectric vane in the
waveguide. The dielectric vane is properly tapered to give minimum reflection over the
desired frequency range. The amount of phase shift depends upon the interaction
between the dielectrical slap is moved from the point of maximum inter-connection
say, at the center of rectangular wave guide, to the sidewall. This is the basis for a
variable phase shifter.
11.8 Attenuators:
Attenuators are used to control the amount of power transferred between the point on
a transmission line by absorbing or reflecting some of the microwave power.
Attenuators that operate on the reflection principle employ section of waveguide below
cutoff and the attenuators that operate oil the power absorption principles use
dissipative elements.
Fig.11.8 Attenuator
When a waveguide is fed with a signal at a frequency below its cut off the signal is
reflected. However, the reflection is not complete if the waveguide section is not too
long; some signal though greatly attenuated, will appear at the far end. The signal
entering the cutoff section of the guide does not change the phase, but decreases

exponentially with length. As long as the signal wavelength is much longer than the
cut-off wavelength the attenuation is independent of frequency and is dependent of the
value of the cut-off wavelength.
The dissipative attenuators consist of all attenuation plate supported within the guide
by means of metal rods or by moving the plate in and out of slotted guide at a fixed
location (flop attenuator) as shown in Fig. 85. The attenuator card consists of lossy
dielectric vane; one class of attenuator consists of thin metallic films coated on glass.
A blacked metallic film combining platinum and palladium and also an evaporated film
of chromium or nichrome with a protective film of magnesium fluoride have been
satisfactorily used. Glass is chosen as the base material because it does not react with
the film. Its surface is very smooth and it will not wrap or change shape.
11.9 Directional Coupler:

A directional coupler is a four port component in which two transmission lines are
employed in such a way that the output at the port of a transmission line depends upon
the direction of propagation in the 'other. In an ideal directional coupler, signal entering
port 1 will travel to port 2, and a fraction power of this signal will appear at port 3 with no
signal available at port 4, as shown in Fig.86. The coupling factor of a directional
coupler is the ratio of the input power to the coupled output power expressed in
decibels. Since it is not possible to eliminate totally the energy coupled into port 4,
therefore, the ratio. of the energy coupled to port 3 and port 4 is known as the
Directivity.
Fig. 11.9 directional coupler

In order to achieve this directional characteristic, it is necessary to provide two or more
coupling holes between the two transmission lines. The arrangement is such that in one
direction of propagation in the secondary line all the coupled signals add in phase while
in the other direction their phases and amplitudes cancel each other because the hole
spacing is 114 of guide wavelength. The number of holes is a function of wavelength.
The directional coupler characteristics are specified in terms of power coupling in the
desired direction (say 20 dB) and the directivity (say 60 dB).
11.10 Micro wave Switches:

In microwave circuits, it is somewhat necessary to switch energy on and off or to switch

it from one path to another. For this microwave switches are used. The switch can be
mechanical like a shutter or a port in a waveguide, which can be moved and this switch
is operated by a solenoid or some other electrified means
.
A single pole double throw switch is shown in Fig.11.10, An electrical switch is one in
which electrical characteristics produce the switching action. Diodes, which behave as
capacitors, are typical of the devices used in electrical switches. A change in. the
voltage across the diode changes the impedance and VSWR in the Port. shows a diode
switch in which one end of the diode is connected directly to the guide, but the other end
is bypassed to the waveguide through a large capacitor and d.c. Switching voltage is
applied to the diode to present a short circuit to the guide for the microwave signal. In
the 'ON' position, the diode is biased to have infinite impedance. This is open circuit in
shunt, which has no effect on the signal. Matching capacitances may be added to turn
out the reactance of the diode leads and package. To change to `off' condition the
voltage is changed to make the diode conduct and consequently reflect the signal.
Fig. 11.10 Microwave switches

Fig. 11.11
11.11 Ferrite Devices:
Ferrites are magnetic materials, which are formed by replacing some iron atoms in iron
oxide by other metallic atoms, such as, zinc, and cobalt manganese. The ferrite exhibits
good magnetic properties, high resistivity and propagates electromagnetic waves. An
electromagnetic wave passing through the ferrite encounters strong interaction with the
spinning electrons, which causes the magnetic properties of the ferrite.
The frequency of precision, called gyro magnetic resonant frequency is a function of

the applied magnetic field. The higher the magnetic field, higher the procession
frequency. The natural gyromagnetic resonant frequency is 2.8 MHz per orester of
magnetic field.
When a rotating magnetic field like circularly polarized microwave energy is applied in a
plane perpendicular to the aligning d.c. field the magnetic moment sector has an
instantaneous component of torque, parallel to the direction of the magnetic moment,
which adds to the energy of the processional motion. If the rotating magnetic field is in
the same direction and the same frequency as the procession, more and more energy
is delivered to the electron, causing it to go into violent oscillations. The energy thus
received is dissipated in the lattice structure as heat and there is maximum absorption
of microwave energy at this frequency.
11.12 Ferrite Isolator:
Because of the directional properties of the ferrite, it is possible to, use it as an isolator.
A linearly polarised wave can be considered to be composed of two circularly polarized
waves equal in magnitude but rotating in, opposite direction. If the r-f field applied to the
ferrite is well below the resonant magnetic field, the two components pass with
negligible loss, but experience different phase shifts. The phase rotation is equal to one
half the differences between the phase shifts of the circularly polarized waves. The
direction of resultant phase rotation is determined by the direction of propagation of the
magnetic field and not by direction of propagation of the microwave energy. This
phenomenon is applied to produce a non-reciprocal device called the Isolator.

Fig. 89 represents the Isolator. A pencil shaped ferrite material is mounted in a circular
waveguide section. A permanent magnet is placed outside the waveguide to provide the
actual magnetic field through the ferrite. The circular waveguide is transferred to
rectangular waveguide at both ends with their axis at 45 deg. The resistive attenuator
vanes are placed parallel to the wide dimension of the waveguide. The input electric
vector is perpendicular to the input attenuator vane and is not affected by it. The wave is
transformed into a mode in the circular waveguide and the polarization of this wave is
shifted clockwise by 45 deg in passing through the ferrite. The emerging electric fields
perpendicular to the second resistive vane since the electric field is now in the plane of
the vane. Practical isolators of this type have forward loss of l dB and reverse isolation
loss about 20 dB. This is called Faraday rotation isolator and is useful at low power
levels only.
Other type of oscillator is the resonant absorption type in which absorption depends
upon strength of the magnetic field direction of propagation and the frequency.
Fig. 11.12 Ferrite isolator schematic
11.13 Ferrite Circulators:

A very useful device which incorporates the non-reciprocal phase shift of ferrites is the
circulator.. A circulator is a multi-port component in which energy is fed into the first port
goes only to the second; energy fed into the second port goes only to the third, etc.

Fig.11.13 Ferrite Circulators

The energy fed into the last port going into the first. Ideally, there should be high
isolation or attenuation from any port to all ports than the one next to it. Most common
circulators are 3, port and 4 port circulators as illustrated in Fig. (a) and (b).
A four-port circulator can be used as microwave switch by changing the direction of “H”
field. If polarising “H” field is changed then the direction of circulation changes.
11.14 Filters:
The Filters used in Microwave equipment are basically of two types, namely, band pass
filters consist of a number of sections constituting inductive irises and turning screws. A
four-section band pass filter is shown in figure.
Fig.11.14 Band Pass Filter
Band stop filters are constructed in various types as shown in figure. In Fig: (A) the
length of the protruding portion of the screw (1) is selected as /4 for producing series
resonance. Q of this is small. The type (B), which is relatively simpler in construction
As most widely used as its 'Q' can be easily varied by adjusting the screw S. Fig. (c)
and (D) which use waveguide junctions are generally used for high quality Band Stop
Filters.
Fig.11.15 Band stop Filter

To connect transmitters and receivers to a transmission line with minimum coupling

loss between them, a branch filter of constant input impedance is used. This consists of
hybrid circuits and band stop filters. The wave entering antenna port will divide into two
parts by the hybrid circuit (magic tee) and will pass through each band stop filter and
again unite at the second hybrid and will be transmitted to the passing port. The Wave
rejected by the band stop filter returns to the first hybrid circuit. However, it is out of
phase because of the half guide wavelength path difference (caused by the length
difference filters of quarter wavelength). The return wave will thus branch out to the
branching port due to the hybrid. The input impedance is always matched at the
antenna port and hence, a number of branching filters can be connected in cascade
without any coupling between them.
11.15 Waveguide Bends:
To change the direction of Propagation of the energy in the waveguide, waveguide

bends are used. The bend should be continuous and smooth sharp bends cause more
reflections and hence, loss of energy. For minimum reflections the mean length of the
bevel should be multiple of half guide wavelength.
11.16 Waveguide Flange:
In rectangular waveguides since they are available in fixed lengths a number of

couplings are required to meet the required lengths. At the ends of rectangular
waveguide flanges are provided for coupling waveguides by means of bolts.
11.17 Coaxial to waveguide adaptor:
This is to provide transmission from rectangular waveguide to coaxial connectors. This

is mainly useful for connecting the microwave signal from waveguide to the coaxial
cable. This is thus useful for connecting measuring instruments for testing purposes.
11.18 Waveguide Terminations:
They are also used as dummy loads. With matched termination loads the power is
absorbed and reflections are minimised. This is widely used in non-radiating radio
equipments employed in Labs. The free end of waveguides is terminated with matched
loads. They are made up of di-electric materials. The solid-lump loads are made by
mixing carbon powder or wooden powder or any such material with resins. The shape
of the terminating load depends on type of terminations.
11.19 Waveguide Transitions:

They are used to interconnect waveguide of different cross sections from Rectangular
to Elliptical etc. These transitions do not in any way change the plane of polarisation of
the transmitting medium.
11.20 Slotted Waveguide:
There will be a narrow longitudinal slit on the centre portion of the top wall (along the
length). These are used for measuring standing wave ratio and impedance.
11.21 Pressure Window:
This is primarily used to obstruct the flow of water into the waveguide and secondly to
keep the air pressure inside the waveguide. This is made up of piece of Teflon. It
allows the propagation without any obstruction.

SPECIAL FEATURES OF COMPONENTS USED IN VHF&UHF CIRCUITS
CHAPTER 12
Special Features of Components Used In VHF and UHF Circuits
12.0 Introduction
The conventional resistors, inductors and capacitors exhibit their respective properties
up to 30 MHz only; but above these frequencies, resistors have inductive reactance
inductors have capacitive reactance and capacitors have inductive reactance due to the
respective geometries of construction. Special techniques have, therefore, to be
adopted if the resistor, inductor and capacitor are to exhibit purely their respective
characteristics. Even the loads which are normally supposed to have no impedance,
present and inductance (of the order of 0.0125) to 0.025 micro-Henry per inch) and
assume higher resistance also on account of the "Skin effect". This applies even to the
short leads of components like resistors, condensers, coils and the pin valves. A wire
lead with resistance of only 10 ohms at 3 MHz becomes a choke with 1000 ohms
reactance at 300 MHz. One method to overcome this defect is to choose the individual
components and adopt such wiring methods as to reduce the undesirable stray
inductance, capacitance or resistance.
Fig. 12.1
A Resistor At Uhf Has An Equivalent Circuit Consisting Of Inductance And Resistance
In Series And Capacitance In Parallel.
12.1 Carbon composition type resistors of values up to 10K ohms do not exhibit any
reactance up to 100 MHz At higher frequencies, the effect of stray shunt capacitance
increases and hence, the impedance decreases. The stray inductance of this type can
be neglected up to about 100 MHz except when it is to be used as attenuators. An
equivalent circuit of a resistor at VHF/UHF is shown in the Figs. The cracked carbon
type is satisfactory up to several hundred MHz when mounting and connections are

properly made. The wire wound type, even if non-inductively wound, tends to become
capacitive at higher frequencies. Some important features of resistors for use in VHF
and UHF range are given below.
1. The dimensions should be as small as possible. A long cylindrical resistor with small
diameter has better frequency characteristics than a short cylindrical one with large
diameter.
2. Sudden linear changes of shape should be avoided.
3. They should be film type.
4. All connections am trade as short as possible.
At VHF & UHF frequencies as inductor can be represented as shown in figure below.
There is capacitance between the input leads as well as between adjacent turns as well
as between any turn and ground. Besides this, there is also a higher resistance of the
leads due to skin, effect.
Fig. 12.2
The condensers tend to become lossy with the increase in frequency. An equivalent
circuit of a condenser at VHF/UHF is shown in figure below. The power dissipation is
high in the series resistor R. This is normally due to increased impedance of the lead or
due to contact resistance and skin effect. The performance of electrolytic condensers is
very poor at VHF and UHF bands.
12.2 Variable condensers are required for tuning different circuits. Some of the special
requirements are: -
• The vanes should be thicker and rigidly fixed to prevent micro phony.
• The performance have contact forks which bear against slip rings on the rotor,
must be very good to avoid noise, The materials mast be non-corrosive and
should be shielded from dust.
• The inductance of the earth on the circuit should be minimum. It should,

therefore, be rigidly mounted, and not float-mounted,

• They should be electrically screened to reduce stray couplings which may give
rise to oscillatory conditions.
Fig. 12.3
In the power stage, where a high performance of the variable tuned circuit is required,
butterfly capacitors are used, in these, the same metallic surface act both as capacitor
and inductor and hence, they can be used as compact variable tuned circuits. Below
figure shows a butterfly condenser. The stator plates are supported by a rectangular
band, which represents the inductor. When the rotor is fully meshed, both the
capacitance and inductance are maximum and the resonant frequency is therefore,
minimum. When the rotor is fully out of mesh, both the inductance and capacitance are
minimum and the resonant frequency is maximum. Since the rotor requires no electrical
connection, the necessity of conventional contact forks with its attendant faults is
avoided.
The VHF trans-receivers are generally employed for spur links or more commonly in
mobile communication. At present fully solid-state portable trans-receivers are
available indigenously, as for example, GV 650, RP 3001, LVP 213 etc. However,
certain portable trans-receivers employ vacuum tubes only in the output stages, e.g.,
GH650.The remaining stages using transistors.
Another method is to use the. "Special quality" or "Rugged" valves which are
expensive. In these types special precautions are taken during manufacture to ensure
that the,
valves will:-

Fig. 12.4
• Have a life of at least 10,000-hrs. Under normal operating voltages;

• Be highly reliable (e.g. only 0.15% special quality tubes will fail, say in 1000
hours)
• Work to very close tolerances
• Have a greater immunity to shock or vibration.
• Be free from cathode interface, which affects the functioning of normal tubes
when they have to work for long periods under standby operation, with filament
power only supplied.
• Have filaments, which will withstand numerous on and off cycles.
12.3 The performance of transistors falls off much more severely with rise in frequency than
that of valves. Special types of transistors are being used in VHF. The transit time of
current carriers (holes or electrons) is one of the limiting factors. This is not due to the
distance the carriers have to travel, but because of the characteristics conduction by
diffusion which is a relatively slow process. This results in phase shift and. a loss. of
current gain. The inter electrode capacitance at both the junctions have also a shunting
effect on the input and output, circuits introducing phase shift and feedback. The
collector junction capacitance, in particular, can introduce an effect similar to grid-anode
capacitance of a. triode valve (viz., tendency to set up oscillatory conditions). This can
be reduced by increasing the collector voltage or by neutralization.
12.4 The cables, in VHF equipment are used not only for the conventional purposes of
conveying signal, from one point to another, but also as quarter wave .impedance
transformers (by cutting them to critical lengths)and attenuators. Twin wires with
solid-polythene dielectric at low voltages are used normally as such cables. The
standard impedances are 50, 75, 150, 300 and 600 ohms. The most commonly used
type is the co-axial cable. It radiates the least power and picks up interfering signals to
the least degree. The usual impedances are 40 - 50 ohms and 70 - 80 ohms, so that the
diameter remains reasonably small.
The size of the cable to be chosen depends upon the voltage or power to be handled
and the permissible attenuation, which is quoted in dBs per 100 feet of the cable. The
voltage and power ratings increase while the attenuation factor decreases linearly with
the diameter. The weight and cost, however, increase in proportion to the square of the
diameter. But the cost of the plugs and sockets also play an important pan in the overall
cost. The centre conductor may be single or standard. In the case of former, the losses

are slightly less and voltage rating slightly high, it is also less likely to fracture the entry
into the connector. On the other hand, the later can be flexed easily without the
conductor.
The characteristic impedance of open wire and co-axial cable are calculated when the
physical dimensions and dielectric constant 'K’ known.
In an infinite transmission line no reflection takes place. A finite transmission line can be
converted into an infinite transmission line by terminating it with a calculated value of
impedance. This is called the characteristic impedance.
Terminations and Reflections: When a signal is travelling in any particular direction

along a line its voltages and currents assume a ratio known as the characteristic
impedance.
However, when the signal reaches the other end of the line where the load is
connected.
(i) If the load connected happens to be exactly the same as the characteristic
impedance. The signal happily moves into the load and it completely used up.
(ii) If the load is not exactly the same as the characteristic impedance, some of the
signal turns back towards the source.
The amount that turns back depends on the mismatch.
The ratio of the forward voltage heading towards the load and the reflected voltage is
known as the reflection co-efficient. Its value can vary from zero (no reflection) up to
one (total reflection).

12.5 The common dielectrics used are air, PVC (poly Vinyl Chloride), PIB. (Poly-Iso-Butylene)
P.l.F.E. (Poly –Tetra - Floro- Ethylene) and P.M.C.T.F.E. (Poly-Mono-Chloro-Tri-Floro-
Ethylene).
Air di-electric provides minimum capacitance and attenuation. In the case of other
dielectrics, which are fabricated as tubes, threads or foam, the losses are greater. They
are also susceptible to the ingress of moisture which increases the attenuation.
However, solid dielectric cable is much more robust impermeable to moisture and can
be flexed more easily and hence, is very commonly used.
The outer conductor may be a metal tube (copper, lead or aluminum). This type of
conductor gives lowest loss, best screening but least flexibility braided wire or tape,
when used as the outer conductor, gives a better flexibility. The braid may be made out
of plain, tinned of silver plated wire. Double or triple braiding is use where - efficient
screening -is' necessary. The outer conductor is covered by PVC Polythene or Nylon
sheath. Armoured braided or taped sheath of aluminum alloy or steel wire is provided
to give protection against rough treatment. Steel tape may prevent crushing and steel
wire may give higher tensile strength. These may be further protected by servings of
anti-termite (Poisonous) PVC Sheath.
In certain cases, high impedance, high attenuation cables are required to simulate
propagation attenuation or delay characteristics. This is achieved by increasing the
inductance per unit length by the use of a helically wound inner conductor. Special
varieties of cables are available which, unlike usual cables, do not produce noise
signals under conditions of shock and vibration. This is achieved by an application of
semi-conductive coating over the dielectric. The cable connectors are precision made
hardware and the connectors may consist of six or seven components parts.
Fig. 12.5

Printed circuitry is utilized for producing resistors, Capacitors, inductors as well as for
wiring. Figure below shows a printed inductor and capacitor. (1) Reduction in lead
length and (2) the un- varying relation among the printed elements are the advantages
of printed circuits. Basically the method is extremely simple. On a small plate of
insulating material, a resistor for instance, may be made by depositing a line of
semiconductor material. Conducting wires are made by depositing a thin coating of
either copper or silver. To obtain resonance, wire can be arranged as shown in the
figure. Either a parallel resonant or, series resonant circuit can be obtained.
This principle finds extensive application and one such application we find in Harmonic
filters, etc.
Filters are provided between VHF/UHF transmitters and aerials (to suppress the
radiation of the spurious frequencies). They are also used between the aerials and
VHF/UHF receivers to reduce interference from adjacent channels and to afford
protection from the radiation from transmitters located in the vicinity. In some cases, a
common aerial may be used for simultaneous transmission and reception. In this case,
filters comprise of hybrid transformers and directional couplers. A tuned circuit filter of
low Q can be made out of the conventional inductor and capacitor. But where very high
Q is essential, cavity filters are used. It consists of a quarter wave section of co-axial Ii
tie- short-circuited at one end, the other end being tapped suitably (see figure).
A S TR AIG H T H AS IN D U C TAN C E
TW O W IR ES H AV E C APAC ITAN C E
A SH O R TED Q U AR TER W AVE LEN G TH TR AN S M ISSIO N LIN E SEC TIO N AC TS LIKE A

P AR ALLEL R ES O N AN T C IR C U IT
SH O R TIN G BAR L C
BA SIC C O N S ID ER A TIO N S IN TR AN SM ISSIO N LIN E C IR C U ITS
Fig.12.6
At resonant frequency, this is equivalent to a very high resistance across the feeder. At
frequencies reasonably removed, it offers very low resistance and hence, they are
largely absorbed. Greater rejection is obtained at a higher tapping point at the expense
of increased attenuation at the resonant frequency.

At operating
frequency
Transmitter
4 or Receiver
Transmitter
or
Receiver
QUARTER-W AVE CO-AXIAL

LINE SINGLE PASS FILTER
Fig. 12.7
A high voltage exists across the open circuit end, and suitable precautions must be
taken when power is high. The length can be reduced by means of capacitive loading.
The tuning may alter by varying the capacitance as shown in figure below.
A number of such filters may be connected in tandem to increase the rejection of
unwanted frequencies. They are interconnected by quarter wave lengths of coaxial
lines tuned to unwanted frequencies or three quarter wave lengths at wanted
frequencies to provide a composite bypass filter arrangements as shown in below
figure. The quarter or three quarter wavelength lines act like series resonant circuits at
the desired frequencies.
TUNABLE CAVITY FILTER

Feeders three
quarter wave
lenth long at
transmit
frequency
Transmitter Junction
box
3 1 3 1 2 1
4 4 4
Feeder
Junction box to Aerial
2 1 Feeder three
quarter wave
4 length long
at receive
Frequency
Junction
Receiver box
3 2 3 2
4 4
COMMON AERIAL FILTER ARRANGEMENT
Fig. 12.8
12.6 Grounds: One of the circuit problems in UHF design is that of common chassis as 1
meter is appreciable separation at 300 MHz because wavelength then is 1 meter. Two
parts of a meter apart may be 180 deg., out of phase. Thus one point may be at positive
phase and the other at the negative maximum.
12.7 Appendix
The common symbols used in microwave block diagrams are shown below



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INDIAN RAILWAYS INSTITUTE OF

SIGNAL ENGINEERING & TELECOMMUNICATIONS

SECUNDERABAD - 500 017

PASSIVE DEVICES AND BASIC

Issued in October 2008

Chapter Description Page No

PREPARED BY Ch. Vasudev

A cross sectional area of the wire.

Resistivity Coefficients for Various Materials

Material Resistivity (Ohm-meters)

IRISET 1 PASSIVE DEVICES AND BASIC CIRCUITS

Glass 10e10 to 10e14

Hard Rubber about 10e13

Quartz (Fused) 75e16

The resistance value R is given by

V = Voltage across R, and

IRISET 2 PASSIVE DEVICES AND BASIC CIRCUITS

1.2 Types of Resistors

1.3 Unit for measurement of Resistance

1.4 Resistance value marking

V - Value digits M - Multiplier T – Tolerance Tc – Temperature coefficient

Fig.1.1 Color codes on resistors

IRISET 3 PASSIVE DEVICES AND BASIC CIRCUITS

Common resistors have values 10 ohms to 22M ohms

IRISET 4 PASSIVE DEVICES AND BASIC CIRCUITS

1.5 Resistors less than 10 ohms:

1.6 Resistor colour code

The EIA Standard Color Code Table

Black 0 0 ×100 --- ---

Brown 1 1 ×101 ±1% (F) ±100 ppm/°K

Red 2 2 ×102 ±2% (G) ±50 ppm/°K

Orange 3 3 ×103 ±3% ±15 ppm/°K

Yellow 4 4 ×104 ±4% ±25 ppm/°K

Green 5 5 ×105 ±0.5% (D)

IRISET 5 PASSIVE DEVICES AND BASIC CIRCUITS

Blue 6 6 ×106 ±0.25% (C) ±10 ppm/°K

Violet 7 7 ×107 ±0.1% (B) ±5 ppm/°K

Gray 8 8 ×108 ±0.05% (A)

White 9 9 ×109 ±1 ppm/°K

Gold ×0.1 ±5% (J)

Silver ×0.01 ±10% (K)

None ±20% (M)

Fig.1.2 Sizes of resistors for different wattages

By construction they are also available in different types like

• Resistor networks: made like strips of ceramic

Fig. 1.3: Nonlinear resistors - a. NTC, b. PTC, c. LDR

A Varistor is an electronic component with a significant non-ohmic current-voltage

IRISET 7 PASSIVE DEVICES AND BASIC CIRCUITS

A metal oxide Varistors for high voltage (385 V)

1.7 Resistor Symbols

a) American symbol b) European symbol

Fig.1.5 Resistor Symbols

Magnetic Flux Lines

Fig. 1.6 Flux lines around a current carrying conductor

IRISET 8 PASSIVE DEVICES AND BASIC CIRCUITS

It can also be stated as

Fig. 1.7 Magnetic field lines in a current carrying Solenoid

IRISET 9 PASSIVE DEVICES AND BASIC CIRCUITS

1.9 Inductance and its unit of measurement

Where, di/dt is the rate of change of current through the coil.

Physical Factors that affect the value of inductance:

Let us see the factors that affect the value of inductance.

IRISET 10 PASSIVE DEVICES AND BASIC CIRCUITS