ELECTRONICS: A SYSTEMS APPROACH

11 SENSORS

11.1 INTRODUCTION

11.2 DESCRIBING SENSOR PERFORMANCE

11.3 TEMPERATURE SENSORS

11.4 LIGHT SENSORS

11.5 FORCE SENSORS

11.6 DISPLACEMENT SENSORS

11.7 MOTION SENSORS

11.8 SOUND SENSORS

11.9 SENSOR INTERFACING

11.10 SENSORS – A SUMMARY

KEYPOINTS

EXERCISES

11.1 INTRODUCTION. PAG 2/10

We use Sensors to sense External Physical Quantities and Actuators to affect or control External
Physical Quantities. Sensors and Actuators are referred to as Transducters, that is a device that
converts one physical quantity into another.

Transducers that convert physical quantities into electrical signals will be used to produce inputs and
will be referred to as Sensors. Transducers that take electrical input signals and control or affect an
external physical quantity will be referred to as Actuator.

Almost any physical property of a material that varies in response to some excitation can be used to
produce a Sensor. Commonly used devices include those whose operation is:

 Resistive
  Inductive
 Capacitive
 Piezoelectric
 Photoelectric
 Elastic
 Thermal

11.2 DESCRIBING SENSOR PERFORMANCE. PAG 2/21

We will look the more important terms that describe Sensors and Instrumentation Systems to
quantify their characteristics and Performance.

11.2.1 RANGE. PAG 2/21

The Range is the value between the Maximum and Minimum Values of the quantity that the Sensor
can measure

11.2.2 RESOLUTION OR DISCRIMINATION. PAG 2/21

The Resolution/Discrimination is the smallest discernible change in the measured quantity that the
Sensor is able to detect. It is usually expressed as a percentage of the Range.

11.2.3 ERROR. PAG 3/21

The Error is the difference between a measured value and its true value. Errors may be:

 Random Errors, they produce Scatter within repeated readings. They can be reduced by
taking the average of these repeated readings
 Systematic Errors are caused by factors such as Mis-Calibration.
11.2.4 ACCURACY, INNACCURACY AND UNCERTAINTY. PAG 3/21

The Accuracy describes the maximum expected error associated with a measurement (or a Sensor)
and may be expressed as an absolute value or as a percentage of the Range of the System.

11.2.5 PRECISION. PAG 3/21

The Precision measures the lack of Randome Errors (Scatter) produced by a Sensor or Instrument.
Devices with high precision will produce repeated readings with very little spread. Figure 11.1 shows
the performance of 3 different sensors where it can be seen the differences between Precision and
Accuracy

11.2.6 LINEARITY. PAG 3/21

If the Output of a Sensor is linearly proportional to the quantity being measured, the Sensor will be a
perfectly linear device.

11.2.7 SENSITIVITY. PAG 4/21

The Sensitivity measures the change produce at the output for a given change in the quantity being
measure.
11.3 TEMPERATURE SENSORS. PAG 4/21

Temperature Sensors may be divided into those that give:

 A simple binary output to indicate that the temperature is above or below some threshold
value, like the Thermostat
 A temperature measurements to be made

11.3.1 RESISTIVE THERMOMETERS. PAG 4/21

Resistive Thermometers measure the temperature using the variation of the Resistance R of a piece
of metal since this changes with the Temperature, such devices as Platinum Resistance
Thermometers PRTs. Figure 11.2 shows examples of Resistive Thermometers

11.3.2 THERMISTORS. PAG 4/21

Thermistors measure the temperature as the Resistive Thermometers do giving much improved
sensitivity. However, they are Non-Linear. Figure 11.3 shows typical Thermistors.
11.2.3 PN JUNCTIONS. PAG 5/21

A PN Junction is a Semiconductor Device that has the properties of a Diode. The Diodes conduct
electricity in one direction (The Diode is Forward-Biased) but opposes the flow of electricity in the
other direction (when the Device is Reverse-Biased). For more information, see Chapter 16
Semiconductors and Diodes

11.4 LIGHT SENSORS. PAG 6/21

Sensor for measuring light intensity fall into two main categories:

 Photovoltaic, those that generate electricity when illuminated

 Photoconductive, those whose properties change under the influence of light

11.4.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC. PAG 6/21

Light falling on a PN Junction produces a voltage and can be used to generate power. Photodiodes
can be used to measure light intensity, since the Output Voltage produced depends a not related
linearly of light falling on them. Figure 11.5(a) shows an example of a Photodiode Light Sensor
11.4.2 PHOTOCONDUCTIVE. PAG 6/21

There are 3 kind of Light Sensors which can be used as Photoconductive Sensors:

 Photoconductive Sensors do not generate electricity, but their conduction of electricity

changes with illumination. The Photodiodes as a Photovoltaic Device may also be used a
Photoconductive Device is it is Reverse Biased by an External Voltage Source v(i). In absence
of light it will behave like any other diode and conduct only a negligible leakage current.
However, if light is allowed to fall on the device, charge carriers will be formed in the
junction region and a current will flow. The Current I is proportional to the intensity of the
incident light.
 Phototransistors combine the Photoconductive properties of the photodiode with the
current amplification of Transistor to form a device with much greater intensity since the
Currents I created by Photodiodes are very small. For more information about Transistor,
see Chapter 17 Field-Effect Transistors and Chapter 18 Bipolar Junction Transistors.
 Light-Dependent Resistor LDR are a Resistive Device that changes its Resistance R when
illuminated. They respond to different wavelengths of light in a manner similar to the human
eye.

11.5 FORCE SENSORS. PAG 7/21

11.5.1 STRAIN GAUGE. PAG 7/21

Strain Gauge are a rectangular piece of uniform electrically conducting material whose Resistance
between opposite faces is proportional to the distance between the faces and inversely proportional
to its cross-sectional area. Strain Gauge use those two principles to measure the force applied to it
since the shape of it will change with it. Figure 11.6 shows a typical Strain Gauge device.

11.5.2 PIEZOELECTRIC. PAG 8/21

Piezoelectric Sensors are built with Piezoelectric Materials which have can generate a non
proportional Electrical Ouput Signal to the applied force.

11.6 DISPLACEMENT SENSORS. PAG 8/21

Displacement or Position may be sensed using various methods: resistive, inductive, mechanical and
optical techniques.

11.6.1 POTENTIOMETERS. PAG 8/21

NOT SUMMARIZED

11.6.2 INDUCTIVE SENSORS. PAG 8/21

NOT SUMMARIZED

11.6.3 SWITCHES. PAG 8/21

NOT SUMMARIZED

11.6.4 OPTO-SWITCHES. PAG 9/21

NOT SUMMARIZED

11.6.5 ABSOLUTE POSITION ENCODERS. PAG 10/21

NOT SUMMARIZED

11.6.6 INCREMENTAL POSITIUON ENCODERS. PAG 11/21

NOT SUMMARIZED

11.6.7 OPTICAL GRATINGS. PAG 12/21

NOT SUMMARIZED

11.6.8 OTHER COUNTING TECHNIQUES. PAG 13/21

NOT SUMMARIZED

11.6.9 RANGERFINDERS. PAG 14/21

NOT SUMMARIZED

11.7 MOTION SENSORS. PAG 14/21

Tacho-generator can be used to measure rotational speed and Radars use the Doppler Effect to
measure linear motion.

11.8 SOUND SENSORS. PAG 15/21

Sound represents variation in air pressure, the objective of the microphone is to measure these
variations and to represent them by some form of electrical signal as the Figure 11.14 shows

11.8.1 CARBON MICROPHONES. PAG 15/21

Carbon Microphones are composed by a Diaphram that detects sound waves which form one side of
an enclosure containing Carbon Particles. These carbon particles are striked by the sound waves,
being compressed to a greater or lesser degree and thus affecting their resistance.

11.8.2 CAPACITIVE MICROPHONES. PAG 15/21

Capacitance Microphones operate the same way that Carbon Microphones using a variation in
Capacitance rather than Resistance.
11.8.3 MOVING-COLL MICROPHONES. PAG 16/21

Moving-Coil Microphones are the most common form of microphone. They consist of a permanent
magnet and a coil connected to a diaphragm. Sound waves move the diaphragm which causes the
coil to move with respect to the magnet generating an electrical signal.

11.8.4 PIEZOELECTRIC MICROPHONES. PAG 16/21

The Piezoelectric Force Sensor can also be used as microphone. The diaphragm is made of a
piezoelectric material which is distorted by sound waves producing electrical signal.

11.9 SENSOR INTERFACING. PAG 16/21

Sensor Interfacing are a relatively simple Circuitry required to generate the Output of one device
compatible with the Input of another device.

11.9.1 RESISTIVE DEVICES. PAG 16/21

One way of converting a changing resistance into a changing voltage is to use the sensor in a
Potential Divider Circuit, as illustrated in Figure 11.15(a), where R(s) represents the variable
resistance of the sensor

Where the Ouput Voltage Vo is

Figure 11.5(b) shows an example of this arrangement with a Light Meter based on a Light-
Dependent Resistor LDR where light falling on the Resistor R(s) affects its Resistance, which in turn
determines the Output Voltage Vo. The Output Voltage Vo is not linearity with the Resistance R(s).
To produce a Voltage Vo that is linearly related to the resistance of a sensor, a constant Current I can
be passed through the device, as shown in Figure 11.16

The Constant current I comes from some external Circuity. This Circuits are called Constant Current
Sources.

11.9.2 SWITCHES. PAG 17/21

Switches have two contacts, which are connected electrically when the switch is in one state (the
closed state) and disconnected (or open circuit) when the switch is in the other state) as Figure
11.17(a) shows where a binary electrical signal is generated by adding a voltage source and a
resistance. When the switch is closed, the Output Voltage Vo is connected to the 0 Volts. When the
switch is open, the Output Voltage is connected to the V Volts.

Switch Bounce is a problem of Switches that it tends to bounce as Figure 11.17(b) shows
This problem can be tracked using computer software techniques in system that incorporate
microcomputers. Other solution is to use Opto-Switch Sensor. They do not produce Bounce Switch.

11.9.3 CAPACITIVE AND INDUCTIVE DEVICES. PAG 18/21

Sensor that change their Capacitance C or Inductance L in response to external influences require
Alternal Current AC Circuitry. We will leave further consideration of such circuits until later.

11.10 SENSORS – A SUMMARY. PAG 18/21


NOT SUMMARY

EXAMPLE 11.1. PAG 19/21

NOT EXECUTED

KEY POINTS. PAG 20/21

 Some Sensors produce an Output Voltage or Output Current that is related to the quantity
being measured
 Other Sensors change their physical attributes, such as Resistance R, Capacitance C or
Inductance, in response to changes in the measured quantity.
 Interfacing Circuitry may be required with some sensors to produce a signal in the desired
form
 Some sensors produce an output that is linearly related to the quantity being measured
 Other devices are non-linear in operation