CRIMINOLOGIST LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW

WHAT TO EXPECT?

AREA: Criminological Research & Statisctics

TOPICS: Nature and Bases of Research; Research Format/ Parts of the Theses or Dissertation; The
Research Process; and Criminological Research.

PART 1- CONTENT UPDATES

I. The Nature and Legal Bases of Research

A. Constitutional Bases of Research

Section 10, Article XIV, 1987 Constitution

Science and technology are essential for national development and progress. The state shall
give priority to research and development, invention, and their utilization; and the science and
technology education, training and services. It shall support indigenous, appropriate and self-reliant
scientific and technological capabilities, and their application to the country’s productive systems and
national life.

Section II, Article XIV, 1987 Constitution

The Congress may provide for incentives, including tax deductions, to encourage private
participation in programs of basic and applied scientific research. Scholarships, grant-in-aid, or other
forms of incentives shall be provided deserving science students, researchers, scientists, inventors,
technologists, and specially gifted citizens.

B. Meaning of Research

Scientific investigation of phenomena, which includes collection, presentation, analysis, and

interpretation of facts that links man’s speculation with reality.

Research is a process of identifying possible solutions to the complex problems of man. It is

the ultimate remedy when he is not capable of rationalizing the nature, causes and effects of his
problems in a short span of time.

A systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical proposition about

the presumed relations among natural phenomena.

C. Types of Research

1. Basic. Sometimes known as pure research. It is done for the development of theories of
principles.

2. Applied. Primarily aims to test theories and concepts developed for verification, application,
development and support and their relationships to the existing fund of knowledge.

3. Action. The focus is on immediate solution of the problem without necessarily using scientific
principles in order to find solutions to a problem.

D. Research Problems Indicators

1. When there is an absence of information resulting in a gap in our knowledge.
2. When there are contradictory results.
3. When a fact exists and you intend to make your study explain it.
4. When there is dissatisfaction in services and information.
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E. Attributes of a Good Research Problem
1. The topics should be of great interest to you.
2. It is useful to the concerned people in a particular field.
3. It possesses novelty.
4. It can be completed in the allotted time desired.
5. It does not carry ethical or moral impediments.
6. It should be researchable.

Note:
Acronym for a Good Research Problems SMART
S pecific- specifically stated
M easurable- easy to measure by using research instrument in collecting data.
A chievable- data are achievable using correct statistical treatment/techniques to arrive at
precise results.
R ealistic- real results are not manipulated.
T ime-bound- time frame is required in every activity because the shorter completion of the
activity the better.

F. Sources of Research Problems

1. Classroom lectures
2. Class discussions
3. Seminars
4. Reading assignments
5. Experiences and observation
6. Course you have taken
7. Vast amount of literature
8. Journals, books, magazines, abstracts
9. Theses and dissertations
10. Professors and classmates

G. Capsulizing Research Problems into Titles

1. It should be clearly and specifically stated
2. Variables investigated should by all means be written as part of the title
3. Relationship between and among variables should be indicated
4. Target population should be included in the title to achieve specificity.
5. It should have a maximum of twenty (20) substantive words. Function words are not included
6. Function words should not be placed at the end of each line.
7. Title must take the form of an inverted pyramid.

Note:

If you are writing research titles avoid redundancies like “ A Review of …” “An Evaluation of…”
“An Assessment of…” “An Analysis….” Etc. because even without those terms, the researcher will
review; evaluate, assess and analyze the problem anyway.

H. Ethics in Research
 Practical science of the morality of human conduct.
 Refers to questions of right and wrong.
 Conforming to the standard of conduct of given profession or group.
 It is conforming to accepted professional practices.

Ethical and Legal Concerns in Research with Human Participants

1. Protection of the participants from harm, danger or discomfort in the course of research.
2. Anonymity and confidentiality of the research data must be strictly observed.
3. The researcher must be responsible for his/her participants.
4. The researcher must be responsible for his/her own actions and those of his/her aides.
5. Deception such as deceit on the true purpose of the study, asking questions that will cause
extreme embarrassment, invading privacy, making a study without respondents’ knowledge must
be avoided.

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 6. Weighing of the risk involved for the subjects, consent of the parents and legally designated
guardians must be secured in case of research involving children or minor subjects.

Plagiarism
 Any act of incorporating into one’s work the work of another without indicating the source.
 The unacknowledged use of somebody else’s words or ideas.
 An act wherein the writer uses the passages, ideas, writings, and statements of others
without giving due credit.

Acts that Constitute Plagiarism

1. Idea plagiarism (Ideas received from others and use I in papers or constructing on one’s ideas
without citation)
2. Not citing the source
3. Reprinting any diagram; illustration or chart and pictures
4. Buying, stealing or borrowing paper
5. Using papers from previous classes- submitting papers to an instructor containing substantially
the same content for credit in more than one course
6. Hiring someone to write own paper

Actions that might be seen as plagiarism

Buying, stealing or borrowing Using the source too closely when

a paper paraphrasing

Hiring someone to write your Constructing someone’s ideas without

Paper citation

Copying from another source without citing ( on purpose

Or by accident)

Deliberate Possibly accidental

Plagiarism Plagiarism

II. The Research/ Thesis Format

Institutional Thesis Format

Suggested Research/ Thesis Format

Preliminary Pages
Title Page
Evaluation Form
Endorsement
Approval Sheet
Acknowledgment
Dedication (Optional)
Table of Contents
Lists of Tables
Lists of Figures
Thesis Abstract

CHAPTER 1

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Introduction
 The presentation of the problem, that is what the problem is all about. This will indicate
what will be covered by the study.

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  The existence of an unsatisfactory condition, a felt problem that needs a solution.
 Rationale of the study or the reason or reasons why it is necessary to conduct the study.
 Historical background of the study.
 A desire to have a deeper and clearer understanding of a situation, circumstance, or
phenomenon.
 A desire to discover something
 Geographical conditions of the study locale
 A link between the introduction and the statement of the problem

Note:
This part is a 2-3-page discussion.

Theoretical / Conceptual Framework

 Theoretical explanation of the phenomenon or problem.

 Position on a problem based on the theories and literature surveyed.
 A cognitive map of the research, clarifying the relationship between and among the
variables of the study and further illustrated in a conceptual paradigm.

Statement of the Problem

 General statement of the whole problem followed by the specific questions or sub-
problems into which the general problems are broken up.

Assumptions and or hypotheses

 A self- evident truth which is based upon known fact or phenomenon.
 A tentative conclusion or answer to a specific question.

Importance of the Study

 Contribution of the result of the study to concerned individuals, administrators, agencies,
services providers, beneficiaries, general society, science, practice of profession, etc.

Scope and Limitations

 Scope- the boundaries in terms of time, samples, location, etc.

 Limitations- the weakness of the study beyond the control of the researcher.

Definition of Terms
 Either lexical or operational definition or a combination of both.
 Arranged in alphabetical order.

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Related Literature
 Present chronologically and categorized as foreign and local.
 Must be separated to related studies.

Related Studies
 Categorized as foreign and local.
 Five years from the writing of the present study.

Synthesis
 A summary emphasizing the relevance of the literature to the current study; citing among
others how it is similar or different from a previous research.

CHAPTER 3

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 METHODOLOGY

Research Design
 Brief description of the research method used.
 Justification on the method used for the study.

Research Locale
 Brief description of the place where the participants are to be obtained.

Respondent/ Samples and Sampling Techniques Used

 Brief description of the population.
 Type of Sampling and the specific technique used in selecting samples.

Instrumentation
 Description of the instrument indicating whether it is original, adopted or standardized test;
explanation of the content, how it is developed and interpreted; and may include the validity
and reliability of the test.

Procedures
 Details on the gathering of data, duration and time-frame.

Statistical Analysis
 Descriptive or inferential statistics used in consonance with specific problem/ hypothesis to
be tested.

CHAPTER 4

PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

 Contains the climax of the study, answering all the questions, raised according to the
chronological sequence of the problem accompanied by a presentation of data in tables and
figures.
 Made one-by-one with the sub-problems. The arrangement must be based on the order of the
sub- problems.
 Tabular and textual presentation of data.
 Label or title of the table in graph.
 Don’t break the date.
 Textual presentation comes before the table. Right after the initial discussions, the table or
graph follows.
 Should be a tabular presentation of sub-problems for significant relationships or differences of
variables considered for clarity and understanding.
 Meaning of data generated from the instrument to answer the problems raised on the study
and justification/ explanation of that meaning which would be based on the previous study or
literature surveyed.

CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

 The research problems, hypothesis, assumptions, research design, respondents, research

instruments including validation and the test of reliability, data- gathering procedures, and
statistical tools. It should be brief so that it will not duplicate Chapter 1 and 3.

Findings
 Only specific results are included-both qualitative and quantitative without any explanations
or reasons.

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  Presented as they were organized and categorized in the specific sub-problems of the
study.
 It must be written in the past tense.

Conclusions
 Written in the present tense.
 Inferences, deductions, abstractions, implications, interpretations, general statements,
and/or generalizations based upon the findings.
 Logical and valid outgrowth of the findings.
 Should not contain any numerals, generally limit the forceful effect or impact and scope of
generalizations. No conclusions should be made that are not based upon the findings.
 Appropriately answer the specific questions raised at the beginning of the investigation in
order they are given under the statement of the problem.
 Point out what were factually learned from the inquiry.
 Formulated concisely i.e. brief and short, yet conveys all the necessary information
resulting from the study as required by the specific questions.
 Stated categorically, as in 100 percent true and correct.
 Refers only to the population, area, or subject of the study.
 Should not be repetitions of any statements anywhere in the thesis.

Recommendations
 An appeal to people or entities concerned to solve or help solve the problems discovered in
the inquiry.
 Recommendations should aim to solve or help to solve problems discovered in the
investigation.
 No recommendations should be made for a problem, or anything for that matter that has not
been discovered in the study.
 There may also be recommendations for the continuance of a good practice or system, or
even recommendation for its improvement.
 Aim for the ideal but feasible, practical and attainable.
 Logical and valid.
 Addressed to the persons, entities, agencies, or offices who, or which are in the position to
implement them.
 There should be recommendation for further research or the same topic in other places to
verify, amplify or negate the findings of the study.

Bibliography
 A complete list of a writer’s work; a list of books on a particular subject

Appendices
 An addition to a document or book (generally at the end) which supplements or illustrate the
text.

Curriculum Vitae
 An outline of one’s career listing, relevant achievements, education, and position held, etc.

III. THE RESEARCH PROCESS

A. Identification of the research problem/ title.

Research title must be:

1. Brief
2. Specific
3. Relevant to the researcher, his work and the community

Ex: “The Operational Effectiveness of the Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency in the
National Capital Region”

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 Some characteristics of a Good Research Problem

1.It must be relevant to the needs of the time.

2.It must be within the researcher’s interest and capabilities
3.It must be clear, specific and attainable within a given period of time
4.Information should be available
5.It should not be harmful to people and society
6.It must be new
7.It should provide information for planning, development and legislation
8.In writing titles avoid redundancies like “ A Review..”, “An Evaluation of…”, “ An Assessment
of…”, “An Analysis….” Etc.
Sources of a Problem
1. When there is dissatisfaction in services and information
2. Problems may be encountered in classrooms or at work
3. Breakthroughs in science and technology may present
4. Research thrusts and priorities of certain organizations
5. Misconception on culture

B. Construction of the Statement of the main problem and sub-problems of the study

Guides for Stating the Problem

1. The major problem of the study can be stated by briefly pointing out the objectives, the
subject and the coverage as well as the time frame.

Ex. The study aimed to assess the operational capabilities of the anti- illegal drug
operations of the Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency in the National Capital Region

2. Specify the sub-problems of the main problem

Ex. Specifically, it sought to answer the following questions:

1. What is the profile of PDEA-NCR in terms of:
1.1 Personnel
1.2 Operational capabilities
1.3 Community coordination

3 . Include all possible components under the sub-problems of the study .

4. State the sub-problems in either interrogative or declarative form.
5. Have an advance information on the instrument to be used for data- gathering. This would help
prepare the methodology of the study.
6. Must be brief, clear, specific and relevant.

C. Formulation of the theoretical and conceptual framework

1. Theoretical Framework

This cites the theory on which the study is premised on theories of authors in order to
establish the relationship among the variable or variables in the study.

Presentation of the paradigm is required in some disciplines in order to explain how the
theories are going to be operationalized in the study.

It presents the theory which the cornerstone of the research or springboard of the study.

The students a task is to operationalize the concepts and usually a paradigm or scheme
which can make the theory easier to understand.

Types of Theories

1. Descriptive theories- it seek to describe a phenomenon.

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 2. Prescriptive theories- it seek to tell how and sometimes why one should or ought to
behave in certain ways.

General Guideline in Choosing Theory/ Theories use for Research

1. Any research must be very well- grounded on universally accepted, known and tested
theories, principles and concepts.
2. A research component may be anchored on several theories available in the field.
3. A review of existing theories may be capsulized/ crystallized in a research paradigm which
may be either be adopted with some modifications and or originally constructed with all the
pertinent variables involved in the study.
4. The research paradigm must clearly show the major impact of the reviewed and cited
theories on the variables of the study.

2. Conceptual Framework
An illustration of how research problems are generated from the theoretical framework of
the study.

Ex. Suppose we are interested in the factors that influence the compliance of the police
investigators in the Manila Police District to the provisions of the right of person under
custodial investigation:
Factors Identified
(Independent variables)

A. Education Related
 Bachelor’s Degree Holder Dependent
 Law Graduate Variable
 M.A. Graduate

B. In- Service Related Compliance to the provision

 Rank of R.A. 7438
 Length of Service

C. Personal
 Age
 Religion
 Gender

3. Hypothetical Framework

Which poses that compliance to the provisions to R.A. 7438 is affected by (3) three factors;
Education related; in-service related and personal.

Step 1: Describe the factors and variables in the framework

Ex. 1. What is the profile of police investigators in the Manila Police District in terms of:
1.1.1 Education- related factors
1.1.2 In- service-related factors
1.1.3 Personal-related factors

Step 2: Form a series of inferential problems based on the framework

1. How is the compliance to R.A. 7438 influenced by

1.1.1 Education- related factors
1.1.2 In- service-related factors
1.1.3 Personal-related factors

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Presentation of Conceptual Paradigm/ framework
1. Identify the conceptual derivate/ anchorage
2. Person behind the theory
3. In a nutshell explain or discuss what the theoretical derivative is all about
4. Establish the link between the cited theory, principle or concept and the present
investigation

Ex. Conceptual Framework:

“ This study is Theoretically anchored/ Conceptually premised/ or grounded on …..

( Biological Trait Theory)…….. propounded by Edmund O. Wilson.”

“Biosocial Trait Theory advocated by Edmund O. Wilson undergird the present study…”

Or

“This study is anchored to the concepts propounded by……”

Linking:

“ The foregoing concepts, shows close affinity to the present investigation for ( reason)……”
“Finally………”

Ending the citation:

The foregoing theories, principles and concepts are capsulized in the following paradigm:

Input Process Output

Internal, biological factors Environmental Crime

And conditions Factors

Figure 1- Paradigm of the Study

Specific Guidelines of Framing Research Paradigm

1. The research paradigm (RP) must be constructed in various ways namely:

1.1 Flow Model (linear/cyclical)
1.2 Top-down Model
1.3 Bottom- Up Model
2. There is no need to identify the dependent and independent variables in the research
paradigm.
3. The RP must be accompanied by a textual explanation either presented in:
3.1 Numbered or bullet form
3.2 Paragraph form
4. The RP must be properly labeled
5. Careful attention is needed when using:
5.1 Bladed arrows
5.2 Lines- solid and dotted/ broken
6. The RP must be not confuse the readers
7. Observe the principle of KISS (keep it short and simple)

C. Formulation of Assumptions and/ or Hypotheses

Assumptions- a self-evident truth which is based upon a known fact or phenomenon. In

descriptive and historical researches, assumptions are often times, not explicitly
expressed but left implicit, that is, they are unwritten. Assumptions are not
necessarily answered or proven because they are assumed to be true or correct
which are beyond the control of the researcher.

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 Hypotheses- a tentative conclusion or answer to a specific question raised at the beginning of
the investigation. It is an educated guess about the answer to a specific question.

Types of Hypotheses

1. Descriptive Hypotheses- use to answer descriptive questions

Ex.
Sub-problem
1. What is the profile of the
selected investigators at
at the MPD in terms of:
1.1 Age
1.2 Educational Attainment
1.3 Rank
1.4 Length of Service
Hypothesis
Majority of the respondents
belong to the age bracket of
30-38, College graduate, with
the rank of PO3- SPO1 and 10
years in the PNP Service.

2. Statistical Hypotheses- use to answer questions on the relationship or differences of data

obtained in descriptive questions.

Forms of Statistical Hypothesis

a) Null Form- stated in negative.
Ex. There is no significant difference between…………..

b) Operational/ Alternative- stated in the affirmative.

Ex. There is a significant difference between……….

Sub-problem
1. Is there any relationship between
the level of knowledge to R.A. 7438
and its application to the person
under custodial investigation.
Hypothesis
1. There is a significant relationship
between the level of knowledge
to R.A. 7438 and its application to
to the person under custodial
investigation.

D. Stating the Importance of the Study

The contribution of the proposed study either to a body of a scientific knowledge, to
practitioners in the area of the research or to any other group which will benefit from the results.

Presentation of the Importance/ Significance of the Study

1. Deductive perspective (general to particular)
2. Inductive perspective (particular to general)
3. Contribution of the study to:
3.1 Solving a problem
3.2 Bridging knowledge gap
3.3 Improving social, economic and health conditions
3.4 Enriching research instruments and methods, and
3.5 Government thrusts

E. Determining Scope and Limitations of the Study

The boundaries like geographic, population, time and variables to be discussed. If certain
weakness/ shortcomings of the study are perceived by the researcher, these must be noted.

Components
1. Coverage of the study area
2. The subjects
3. The research instrument
4. The research issues and concerns
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 5. The duration of the study; and
6. The constraints that have direct bearing on the result of the studies

F. Definition of Terms
1. It must be defined conceptually and/ or operationally
2. Must be arranged alphabetically and in complete sentence
3. Must not be numbered
4. For M.A Thesis, 15 can be ideal, for a dissertation 25 can be acceptable

G. THE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Presentation of applied researches as well as other researches not included in the theoretical
framework, but which have relation to the proposed study on the problem dimension.

Sources of Related literature

A.Related Readings
1. Constitution
2. Laws
3. Department directives, such as circulars, orders, memoranda and many others which
serves as bases that the proposed study has implications to the government thrusts

B. Related Literature
1. Articles from the books, journals and magazines
2. Novels
3. Poetry
4. Others

C. Related Studies
1. Published and unpublished
2. Research Studies
3. Theses
4. Dissertations

D. Synthesis
Justify the direct bearing of the related readings, related literature, and related studies to
the proposed study. Likewise, the differences of the proposed study with the past related
studies.

Advantages of Related Literature

1. It helps the researcher look for possible theories, concepts or principles to support his
investigation.
2. It is essential in formulating a sound research problem or research title, hypotheses,
assumptions, etc.
3. It enlightens the researcher as to the direction of the study.
4. It proves that the study is researchable and possesses novelty
5. It helps to identify the statistical instruments to be used in the study
6. It serves as a guide to writing the findings, conclusions and recommendations

Guidelines in the Preparation of Review of Literature

1. Visit a number of libraries for articles related to your investigation.

2. At the library, look into the card catalogs for titles of articles, books, monographs and
documents.
3. Provide yourself with an index cards and write the following in the cards
3.1 Name of the author
3.2 Title of the book
3.3 Sources
3.4 Year of publication

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 3.5 Publisher and place of publication
4. In case of thesis or dissertation write in the index card the following:
4.1.1 Name of the author
4.1.2 Types
4.1.3 College/ Universities
4.1.4 Place
4.1.5 Year
4.1.6 Pages
4.1.7 Problem
4.1.8 Hypothesis
4.1.9 Respondents
4.1.10 Procedures
4.1.11 Findings and Conclusions
5. Refrain from copying entire chapters without proper documentation or
acknowledgments.
6. Establish the relationship of the related literatures to your research. Revise! Revise!
Revise!

H. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

In a thesis or dissertation it is consists of research designs, population of the study, data

gathering instruments and statistical treatment of data.

Research Designs

A. Qualitative Research Designs- it involves in depth analysis of problems. Its focus is to

provide accurate descriptions of problems without attempting to treat or employ sophisticated
statistical tools to solve or describe problems.

Types of Qualitative Research Designs

1. Historical. A systematic and critical inquiry of the whole truth of past events using the
critical method in the understanding and the interpretation of facts, which are applicable to
current issues and problems. Sources of data are documents, numerical records, oral
statements and records and relics.
2. Ethnographic. Aims to provide a holistic view of the problem. Data are gathered through
observation, interview and participation.
3. Case Study. An intensive investigation of a particular individual, institution, community, or
any group considered as a unit which includes the developmental, adjustment, remedial,
or corrective procedures that suitably follow diagnosis of the causes of maladjustment or
of favorable development. It utilizes, observations, interviews and examinations to identify
the strength and weaknesses of the problems.

B. Quantitative Research Designs- The opposite of qualitative research whose focus is to

describe problems descriptively and numerically. It utilizes more statistical tests to explain the
nature, characteristics, relationships and differences of variables. It includes descriptive,
correlational and experimental designs.

Types of Quantitative Research Designs

1. Descriptive. Describes and interprets WHAT is. It is concerned with conditions or

relationship that exist, practices that prevail, beliefs and processes that are going on,
effects that are being felt or trends that are developing.

Subtypes of Descriptive Research

a) Descriptive-survey. Collecting information on people, events and other
topics of interest to the researcher. Data may be generated through
questionnaires, interviews, telephone calls, text messages and observations.

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 b) Descriptive-documentaries. Content analysis, because the documentary
technique includes analysis of content. It is used when data cannot be
obtained through questionnaires or observation.

2. Correlational. Sometimes known as associational research because it measures the extent

or magnitude of association between two variables. It measures the existing relationships
of variables.

3. Experimental. Researchers manipulates, changes or alters the inputs or independent

variables to see the effects on the dependent variables. The most commonly- used methods
to advance scientific knowledge.

Population and Locale of the Study

This will explain how and where the subjects will be taken. It can be either the entire
population if it is small, or sample if the population is large.

Population. The theoretically specific aggregation of the elements. Also called universe.
Sample. Elements who are actually selected to participate or to be the subject of the study.

Determination of Sample Size

Sampling is advisable if the population is equal or to more than 100, but it is inapplicable to
population less than 100. The use of the total population is advisable when the population is less
than 100 due to categorization.

Sampling Designs

1. Scientific sampling. Each member of the population is given and equal chance of being
included in the sample.

Types of Scientific Sampling

a) Restricted random. Applicable only when the population being investigated is

homogeneous. It involves certain restrictions intended to improve the validity of the
sample.

b) Unrestricted random. This is the best random sampling design because no restriction
is imposed, and every member in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the
sample.
c) Stratified random. This design divides first the population into two or more strata. For
each stratum, the sample items are drawn at random.
d) Systematic. This is a design in which all individual in the population are arranged in a
methodical manner, i.e., a alphabetical or chronological (age, experience, etc.) and the
nth name ay be selected in the construction of the sample.
e) Multistage. This design is done in several stage. It can be two-stage, three-stage, four-
stage, five-stage, etc., depending on the number of stages of sampling to be used.
f) Cluster sampling. The population is grouped into clusters or small units, for instance,
blocks or districts, in a municipality or city, composed of population individuals and are
selected either by random sampling or systematic sampling. It is advantageous when
individuals in the districts or blocks belong to the heterogeneous group.

2. Non Scientific sampling. Subjectivity on the part of the researcher occurs because not
all of the individuals in a population are given an equal chance of being included in the
sample.

Types of Nonscientific Sampling

a) Purposive. This design is based on choosing individuals as samples according to the
purposes of the researcher as his controls.
b) Incidental. This design is applied to those samples which are taken because they are
most available. The researcher simply takes the nearest individuals as subjects of the
study until the sample reaches the desired size.

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 c) Quota Sampling. This design is popular in the field of opinion research because it is
done by merely looking for individuals with the requisite characteristics.

The Research Instrument

A device designed or adopted by the researcher for data gathering.

Classification of Research Instruments

1. Researcher Instruments. The researcher obtains information or data himself with little or
no direct involvement of the other people.

Specific sub problems: What is the extent of availability and adequacy of SWAT
equipment and armaments in the MPD.

To answer this problem, the researcher may have a copy of the standard equipment for
SWAT Team in its counterpart in other country, specifically from L.A.P.D. and personally check
against existing equipment of the MPD. The magnitude is based on the measuring scales made.

2. Subject Instruments. The data is collected by directly involving the respondents. As in

the problem presented, the data may be collected by asking for a copy of the available
SWAT Team equipment and armaments, indicating actual numbers. From the list, the
researcher may determine extent of availability and adequacy.

3. Informant Instruments. The data is collected from those knowledgeable or aware of the
subject such as the commander or custodian of those equipment.

Commonly Used Research Instruments

1. Questionnaire. Written or printed form containing the objectives of the study. This is
administered on the respondents to elicit the required data based on procedures made by the
researcher.

Types of Questionnaire

a) Open-ended questionnaire. Respondents are force to answer the questions asked in

the questionnaire. Best suited to a qualitative research study.
b) Closed-ended questionnaire. Referred as guided response type, closed form or
restricted. The respondents are guided in answering questions; options may be provided
like in multiple- choice test while answers are based on the rating scales provided.

2. The Interview. It involves face-to-face contacts between the interviewer and the interviewee.
In research, the interviewer and the interviewee is the client or respondent.

Types of Interview

a) Structured. There is a set of carefully prepared questions, and their expected answers or
responses are provided.
b) Unstructured. Sometimes called as non-directive or informal interview. The respondents
are free to express their opinions.

3. The Observation. Essential for both qualitative and quantitative studies. Observation as a
means of gathering information for research, may be defined as perceiving data through the
senses: sight, hearing, taste, touch and smell the sense of sight is the most important and
most used among the senses. Observation is the most direct way and the most widely used in
studying behavior.

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 Types of Observation

a) Formal Observation. The researcher makes a guide on what to observe. Possible

responses or answers may also be outlined.
b) Informal Observation. Recommended for qualitative research. It needs critical
evaluation of the observations made to avoid biased results. It must checked against all
possible sources of data to ascertain the validity of the information.

Recording of the Results of Observation

a) The Checklist. Contains the items to be observed.

b) Rating Scale. Used in observing behavior.
c) Anecdotal forms. Provides for the fewer breakdowns of dimensions or factors.
d) Mechanical Record. Use of motion or still pictures, sound recording, etc.
e) Stenographic Recording.

Qualities of a Good Research Instrument

1. Validity. The degree to which a measuring instrument measures what it intends to measure.

Types of Validity

a) Content- related validity. This refers to the content and format of the instrument,
which must answer the following criteria: appropriateness; comprehensiveness; logical;
adequate; and according to proper format.
b) Criterion –related validity. This refers to the relationship between scores obtained
using one or more instruments or measures.
c) Construct- related validity. This refers to the nature of the psychological construction
or characteristics being measured by the instrument.
2. Reliability. Means the extent to which the instrument is dependable, self- consistent and
stable. It is concerned with the consistency of responses from moment to moment. Even if a
person takes the same test twice, the test yields the same results. A reliable test may not
always be valid.

3. Usability. Otherwise known as practicability. It means the degree to which the research
instrument can be satisfactorily used, which would be determined by the following factors, to
wit: a) ease of administration; b) ease of scoring: c) ease of interpretation; d) low cost; and e)
proper mechanical make-up.

Data Gathering Procedures

1. Seek permission and approval to conduct study.
2. Administer and retrieve the questionnaire.
3. Indicate the percentage return of the questionnaire.
4. Discuss how the data were processed.

Statistical Treatment

Statistics. A science which deals with the systematic process of collecting, organizing, classifying,
presenting, interpreting and analyzing qualitative and quantitative.

Types of Statistics

A) Descriptive Statistics. Used to determine the nature of variables without any attempt to
critically compare the extent of relationships or differences with other variables. It gives
information on the nature and characteristics of the problem. This statistics treated
univariate problems.

Tools of Descriptive Statistics

1. Frequency Counting/ Distribution
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 2. Percentages
3. Ranking
4. Measure of Centralities
a) Mean
b) Median
c) Mode
d) Measures of Variability

B) Correlational Statistics. Used to determine the degree or magnitude of association

between two variables. These statistics treated bivariate and multivariate problems.

Specific Measures of Correlation

1. The Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation ( Pearson r)
2. Spearman Rank- Order Coefficient of correlation ( Spearman rho)
3. Kendall’s Tau Coefficient of Correlation
4. Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance W
5. Point Biserial Coefficient of Correlation
6. Phi Coefficient of Correlation

C) Inferential Statistics. Used when the researcher is interested in making inferences on

the magnitude of differences of the samples obtained from a large universe. Also treated
bivariate and multivariate problems. These tests are used in testing hypothesis like
differences between two or more variables obtained from a large population.

Type of inferential Statistics

1. Parametric test. Applicable when the data is measured in interval or ratio scales.

Types of Parametric Test

a) T- test. Used to determine two variables means which differ significantly.
b) F- test. [Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)]. Used to determine the significant
differences between three or more variables. ANOVA is a multivariate test.

2. Non- Parametric test. Used in ordinal or ranked/ or nominal data.

Types of Non Parametric

a) Chi Square Test. (x2). Used to compare the frequencies obtained in
categorized variables.
b) Mann- Whitney U test
c) Sign test
d) Lambda
e) Kruzkall- Wallis
f) Friedman Analysis of Variance
g) Mc Nemar test

I. PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

Guidelines in the Presentation of Data

1. The presentation should be made one by one with the sub-problems. The arrangement must be
based on the order of the sub-problems.
2. There should be textual and tabular presentation of data.
3. Make a label or title of the table in graph.
4. If possible do not break the data.
5. Textual presentation comes before the table. Right after the initial discussions, the table or
graph follows.
6. There should be a tabular presentation of sub- problems for significant relationships or
differences of variables considered for clarity and understanding.

Analysis and Interpretation of Data

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 Data Analysis. An examination of data or facts in terms of quantity, quality, attribute, trait,
pattern, trend, relationship among others so as to answer research questions which involve
statistical techniques and procedures.

Types of Data Analysis

1. Univariate. It tests a single variable to determine whether the sample is similar to the
population from which it has been drawn.
2. Bivariate. It test two variables on how they differ with each other.
3. Multivariate. It test three or more independent variables at a time on the degree of
relationship with dependent variable.
4. Normative. The results of the study is compared with the norm.
5. Status. Stresses real facts relating to current conditions in a group of subjects chosen for
study.
6. Descriptive. Describes the characteristics, composition, structures, substructures that
occur as units within the larger structure.
7. Classification. This type of analysis is usually employed in natural science subjects.
8. Evaluative. It appraises carefully the worthiness of the current study.
9. Comparative. The researcher considers at least two entities and establishes a formal
procedure for obtaining criterion data on the basis of which he can compare and conclude
which of the two is better.
10. Costs- Effective. Applicable in comparing the cost between two or more variables and to
determine which of the variable is most effective.

Interpretation of Data. An act or instance of interpreting an explanation. This is done to give

meaning to data generated from the instrument to answer the problems raised in the study.

Levels of Interpreting Data

1. Table reading
2. Implications or meaning of data
3. Cross referencing or corroboration wherein the results of the study are to be compared with the
existing knowledge or finished studies.

J. SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This is the last chapter of a research report, thesis or dissertation. It covers the summary,
findings, conclusions and recommendations of the study.

Summary of the Study

It presents the research problem and specific sub problems, hypotheses, assumptions,
research instruments, data gathering procedures, and statistical tools. It must be brief so that it will
not duplicate Chapter 1 and 3 of the study.

Findings of the Study

In the findings of the study, only specific results are included—both qualitative and
quantitative without any explanation or reasons; it must be presented as they were organized and
categorized in the specific sub-problems of the study; avoid irrelevant, indirect or unnecessary
findings; and findings must be written in the past tense.

Writing the Conclusions

1. Must be written in the present tense.

2. Stated must be based on the findings of the study.
3. Made in a general statement which reflects the result of the study.
4. If there are sub topics under one sub-problem, it may not present them separately.

Writing of the Recommendations

1. It must be based on the findings and conclusions.

2. Must be specific and point out the direct agency or people involved.

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 3. There may be also be recommendation for the continuance of a good practice or system,
or even recommendations for its improvement.
4. Recommendations should aim for the ideal but they must be feasible, practical and
attainable.
5. Recommendation should be logical and valid.
6. There should be a recommendation for further research on the same topic in other places
to verify, amplify, or negate the findings of the study.

IV. CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH METHOD

A. Definitions

CRIMINOLOGY. The scientific study of the nature, extent, cause and control of criminal behavior

CRIMINOLOGISTS. Researchers who use scientific methods to study the nature, extent, cause, and
control of criminal behavior.

CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH. A specialized type of research whereby criminologists use a wide

variety of research techniques to measure the nature and extent of criminal behavior; understand,
and evaluate its theories and patterns.

B. Approaches Use by Criminologists in Studying Crimes

1. Survey Research. Designed to measure the attitudes, beliefs, values personality traits and
behavior of the participants. This is the most widely used methods of Criminological
Research.

2. Cohort Research. It involves observing a group of people who share a like characteristics
over time.

Types
2.1 Longitudinal. A criminological research method which the criminologist follow and
monitor the behavior pattern of a selected subjects for a specific period of time
(usually 10 to 20 years).
2.2 Retrospective. Done by taking an intact cohort of known offenders and look back
into their educational, family, police and hospital records.

3. Aggregate Data Research. A method of criminological research which data of social friends
are collected from government agencies and correlated it with the pattern of the crime
rate. Collected data can be used to focus on the social forces that affect crime, e.g.
studying relationship between crime and poverty.

4. Experimental Research. A test to determine the direct effect of one factor on another e.g.
testing the effect of watching violent TV show to aggressive act of the viewer.

5. Observational and Interview Research. A criminological research method which

criminologists focus their research on relatively few subjects, interviewing them in depth or
observing as hey go about their activities.

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