Overview

 Information Systems
Information  Crucialto success of modern business
organizations
 Constantly being developed to make business
Systems more competitive
 Impact productivity and profits
Reference: Systems Analysis and  Keys to successful systems development
Design in a Changing World, 3rd Edition  Thorough systems analysis and design
 Understanding what business requires

Overview (continued)
Information Systems
 Systems analysis – what system should
do  Why Do People Need Information?
 Systems design – how components of
information system should be physically Individuals- Entertainment and
implemented enlightenment

 Systems analyst – uses analysis and Businesses - Decision making, problem

design techniques to solve business solving and control
problems with information technology
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Data, Information, and Systems Information Quality

 Data vs. Information
Information products whose characteristics,
Data
 A “given,” or fact; a number, a statement, or a picture attributes, or qualities make the information
 Represents something in the real world more value
 The raw materials in the production of information
Information has 3 dimensions:
Time
Information
Content
 Data that have meaning within a context
 Data in relationships Form
 Data after manipulation

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Attributes of Information Quality Data, Information, and Systems

 Data Manipulation
Example: customer survey
 Reading through data collected from a
customer survey with questions in various
categories would be time-consuming and
not very helpful.
 When manipulated, the surveys may
provide useful information.

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Analyst’s Approach to Problem

Why Study IS? Solving
 Information Systems Careers
Research and understand the problem
 Systems analyst, specialist in enterprise resource
planning (ERP), database administrator, Verify that the benefits of solving the problem outweigh the costs
telecommunications specialist, consulting, etc.
Define the requirements for solving the problem
 Knowledge Workers
Develop a set of possible solutions (alternatives)
 Managers and non-managers
 Employers seek computer-literate professionals who Decide which solution is best, and make a recommendation
know how to use information technology.
Define the details of the chosen solution
 Computer Literacy Replacing Traditional
Implement the solution
Literacy
 Key to full participation in western society Monitor to make sure that you obtain the desired results
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Data, Information, and Systems Data, Information,

Information in Context and Systems
 Generating Information
 Computer-based IS take data as raw material,
process it, and produce information as output.

Characteristics of useful information

Input-process-output
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 Specification of Information
Data, Information, and Systems Systems
 What Is a System?
 Specification of any system before its development is
 System: A set of components that work crucial.
together to achieve a common goal  Specifications perform for information systems the same
 Subsystem: One part of a system where the function that blue-prints and engineering specifications
perform for physical structures.
products of more than one system are
 Specifications serve as benchmarks for evaluating
combined to reach an ultimate goal designs as well as their implementation.
 Closed system: Stand-alone system that has  Specifications facilitate quality assurance via verification
no contact with other systems (are we building the system right, ie., do the design and
implementation meet the specifications?) and validation
 Open system: System that interfaces with (are we building the right system, ie., does the system
other systems meet the user needs?).

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Components of specifications

 Structure: How it is organized.

 Function: What it does.
 Behavior: How it responds to
events and stimuli.
 Data: Its meaning and
organization.

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Data, Information, Information Systems and

and Systems Subsystems

Several subsystems make up this corporate accounting system.

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Information Systems and
Data, Information, and Systems
Component Parts

Components of an information system

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Components of an Information System Boundary vs.

Systems Strategic Plan Automation Boundary

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Information required at different Levels of Management Decision

management levels Making
Strategic management
Executives develop organizational goals, strategies,
policies, and objectives
As part of a strategic planning process

Tactical management
Managers and business professionals in self-directed
teams
Develop short- and medium-range plans, schedules and
budgets
Specify the policies, procedures and business objectives
for their subunits
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 Levels of Management Decision
Decision Structure
Making
Structured – situations where the
Operational management procedures to follow when a decision is
Managers or members of self-directed teams needed can be specified in advance
Develop short-range plans such as weekly Unstructured – decision situations where it
production schedules
is not possible to specify in advance most
of the decision procedures to follow
Semistructured - decision procedures that
can be prespecified, but not enough to lead
to a definite recommended decision
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Information Systems to support decisions

Management Decision
Information Support
Decision Support Trends
Systems Systems
Decision Provide information about Provide information Personalized proactive decision analytics
support the performance of the and techniques to
provided organization analyze specific Web-Based applications
problems
Decisions at lower levels of management
Information Periodic, exception, Interactive inquiries
form and demand, and push and responses and by teams and individuals
frequency reports and responses
Business intelligence applications
Information Prespecified, fixed format Ad hoc, flexible, and
format adaptable format
Information Information produced by Information produced
processing extraction and by analytical modeling
methodology manipulation of business of business data
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data

Decision Support Systems

Business Intelligence Applications DSS
Provide interactive information support to
managers and business professionals
during the decision-making process
Use:
Analytical models
Specialized databases
A decision maker’s own insights and judgments
Interactive computer-based modeling
To support semistructured business
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decisions 30
DSS components DSS Model base
Model base
A software component that consists of models
used in computational and analytical routines
that mathematically express relations among
variables
Examples:
Linear programming models,
Multiple regression forecasting models
Capital budgeting present value models
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Types of Information Systems Types of Information Systems

 Transaction processing systems (TPS)
 Capture and record information about
organization’s transactions
 Management information systems (MIS)
 Take information captured by TPS
 Produce reports for planning and control
 Executive information systems (EIS)
 Monitoring competitive environment and
strategic planning
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 Decision support systems (DSS)
 Explore impact of available options or
decisions (What-if scenarios)
 Communication support systems
 Facilitatecommunication internally and with
customers and suppliers
 Office support systems
 Help employees create and share documents
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Data, Information, The Analyst’s Role in Strategic

and Systems Planning
 Special projects affecting executives
 Information and Managers  Businessprocess reengineering – radical
improvements to existing processes

Systems thinking  Strategic planning - development process

 Creates a framework for problem solving
 Information systems strategic planning
and decision making.  Application architecture plan (business focus)
 Technology architecture plan (infrastructure
 Keeps managers focused on overall goals
focus)
and operations of business.
 Enterprise resource planning (ERP) -
integrated systems
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 Data, Information,
Data, Information, and Systems
and Systems  The Benefits of Human-Computer
Synergy
Synergy
 When combined resources produce output
that exceeds the sum of the outputs of the
same resources employed separately

Allows human thought to be translated

into efficient processing of large
Qualities of humans and computers that contribute to synergy
amounts of data
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Systems Development Life

Data, Information, and Systems
 The Four Stages of Data Processing Cycle (SDLC) Overview
 Input:
Data is collected and entered into  Systems development life cycle (SDLC)
computer.  Provides
overall framework for managing
system development process
 Data processing: Data is manipulated into
information using mathematical, statistical,  Two main approaches to SDLC
and other tools.  Traditional approach: structured systems
development and information engineering
 Output: Information is displayed or presented.  Object-oriented approach: object technologies
requires different approach to analysis,
 Storage: Data and information are maintained design, and programming
for later use.
 All projects use some variation of SDLC
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Systems Development Life Phases of the Systems

Cycle (SDLC) Development Lifecycle (SDLC)
 Systems development project  Project planning: initiate, ensure feasibility,
 Planned undertaking with fixed beginning and end plan schedule, obtain approval for project
 Produces desired result or product  Analysis: understand business needs and
 Can be a large job of thousands of hours of effort processing requirements
or a small one month project
 Design: define solution system based on
 Successful development project:
requirements and analysis decisions
 Provides a detailed plan to follow
 Organized, methodical sequence of tasks and  Implementation: construction, testing, user
activities training, and installation of new system
 Produces reliable, robust, and efficient system  Support: keep system running and improve
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The waterfall approach to the
SDLC
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Iterations across life cycle
phases
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SDLC and problem-solving
 Problem definition: On receiving a request from the
user for systems development, an investigation is
conducted to state the problem to be solved.
 Deliverables: Problem statement.
 Feasibility study: The objective here is to clearly define
the scope and objectives of the systems project, and to
identify alternative solutions to the problem defined
earlier.
 Deliverables: Feasibility report.
 Systems analysis phase: The present system is
investigated and its specifications documented. They
should contain our understanding of HOW the present
system works and WHAT it does.
 Deliverables: Specifications of the present system.
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Overlap of Systems
Development Activities
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Information System
Development Phases
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SDLC and problem-solving
 Systems design phase: The specifications of the present
system are studied to determine what changes will be
needed to incorporate the user needs not met by the
system presently. The output of this phase will consist of
the specifications - WHAT the proposed system will do
and HOW it will work.
 Deliverables: Specifications of the proposed system.
 Systems construction: Programming the system, and
development of user documentation for the system as well
as the programs.
 Deliverables: Programs, their documentation, and user
manuals.
 System testing & evaluation: Testing, verification and
validation of the system just built.
 Deliverables: Test and evaluation results, and the
system ready to be delivered to the user/client.
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 Models Used in Analysis

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Models Used in Design Some Tools Used in System

Development

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Some Techniques Used in Two Approaches to System

System Development Development
 Traditional Approach
 Also called structured system development
 Structured analysis and design technique (SADT)

 Structured programming
 Improves computer program quality
 Allows other programmers to easily read
and modify
code
 Each program module has one beginning and one
ending
 Three programming constructs (sequence, decision,
repetition)
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Components of a Traditional Analysis Traditional Approach (Structured Systems
Model Development)

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Physical and Logical DFDs Structured Design

 Logical model  Technique developed to provide design
 Assumes implementation in perfect guidelines
 What set of programs should be
technology
 What program should accomplish
 Does not tell how system is implemented
 How programs should be organized into a
hierarchy
 Physical model  Modules are shown with structure chart
 Main principle of program modules
 Describes assumptions about implementation
 Loosely coupled – module is independent of
technology other modules
 Developed in last stages of analysis or in  Highly cohesive – module has one clear task
early design
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Structure Chart Created Using Data Flow Diagram (DFD) created

Structured Design Technique using Structured Analysis Technique

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Object-Oriented Approach Object-Oriented Approach to
 Views information system as collection of Systems
interacting objects that work together to
accomplish tasks
 Objects - things in computer system that can
respond to messages
 No processes, programs, data entities, or files
are defined – just objects
 Object-oriented analysis (OOA)
 Definestypes of objects that do work of system
 Shows how objects interact with users to
complete tasks
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Object-Oriented Approach Relationships Among

(continued) Components of a Methodology
 Object-oriented design (OOD)
 Defines object types needed to communicate with
people and devices in system
 Shows how objects interact to complete tasks
 Refines each type of object for implementation with
specific language of environment
 Object-oriented programming (OOP)
 Writing statements in programming language to
define what each type of object does

 Benefits of OOA include naturalness and reuse

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Design Phase of SDLC Design Phase Activities and Key

Questions
 Design and integrate the network
 Design the application architecture
 Design the user interfaces
 Design the system interfaces
 Design and integrate the database
 Prototype for design details
 Design and integrate system controls
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 Components Requiring Systems
Design
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Design and Integrate the Network
 Network specialists establish network
based on strategic plan
 Project team typically integrates system
into existing network
 Technical requirements have to do with
communication via networks
 Technical issues handled by network
specialists:
 Reliability,
security, throughput,
synchronization
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Design the Application Architecture
 Specify how system activities are carried out
 Described during system analysis as logical
models
 After design alternative is selected, detailed
computer processing is designed as physical
models such as: physical data flow diagrams,
structure charts, interaction diagrams
 Approach varies depending on development
and deployment environments
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Moving from Analysis to Design
 Design:
 Converts functional models from analysis into
models that represent the solution
 Focused on technical issues
 Requires less user involvement than analysis
 Design may use structured or OO
approaches
 Database can be relational, OO or hybrid
 User interface issues
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Network Design
 Integrate network needs of new system
with existing network infrastructure
 Describe processing activity and network
connectivity at each system location
 Describe communications protocols and
middleware that connects layers
 Ensure that network capacity is sufficient
 Data size per access type and average
 Peak number of access per minute or hour
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Design and Integrate the Database
 System analysis data model used to create
physical database model
 Collection of traditional computer files,
relational database, and/or object-oriented
databases
 Technical requirements, such as response
times, determine database performance needs
 Design work might involve:
 Performance tuning
 Integration between new and existing databases
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 Prototype for Design Details Design and Integrate the
 Continue to create and evaluate System Controls
prototypes during design phase  Final design activity to ensure system has
 Prototypes confirm design choices: adequate safeguards (system controls) to
 Database protect organizational assets
 Network architecture  Controls are needed for all other design
 Controls activities
 Programming environment  User interface – limit access to authorized users
 Rapid application development’s (RAD)  System interface – protect from other systems
design prototypes evolve into finished  Application architecture – record transactions
system  Database – protect from software/hardware failure
 Network design – protect communications
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Project Management: Deployment Environment

Coordinating the Project  Deployment environment definition bridges
 Coordinating Project Teams analysis and design
 Project schedule - coordinating ongoing work  Hardware
 The Project Team at RMO  System software
 As project team grows – structure may change  Networking

 Coordinating Information  Common deployment environments in

 CASE tools and central repository which system will operate
 Team communication and information coordination  Related design patterns and architectures
 Track open items and unresolved issues for application software
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Implementation Phase of SDLC Implementation Alternatives

 Construct software components

 Verify and test
 Convert data
 Train users and document the system

 Install the system

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Construction and Test Plan Testing
 Development order
 Process of examining a product to
 Testing order determine if any defects exist

 Data used to test modules, module
groups, methods, classes, programs, and
subsystems
 Acceptance criteria
 Relevant personnel assignments
(construction and testing)
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 Testing levels are related to specific SDLC
phases
 Testing activities spread throughout SDLC
 Most of testing takes place following
software construction and definition of
defect standards
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Correspondence Between SDLC Phases and Testing

SDLC Phases and Various Activities Performed Within
Types of Testing Each Phase

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Installation
Direct Installation and Cutover
 After development and testing, system
must be put into operation
 Important planning considerations
 Costs of operating both systems in parallel
 Detecting and correcting errors in new system
 Potentially disrupting the company and IS
operations
 Training personnel and customers with new
procedures

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Parallel Installation and Phased Installation with Direct
Operation Cutover and Parallel Operation

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Lifecycle Phases and System

System Documentation Documentation Generated in Each
 Descriptions of system functions, Phase
architecture, and construction details
 Used by maintenance personnel and
future developers
 Generated as a byproduct of development
 Includes source code
 Includes analysis and design models
 Failure to maintain system documentation
compromises value of a system
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Training and User Support Maintenance and System

 Without training, user error rates will be Enhancement
high
 Modification of software after delivery to
 Training considerations correct faults, improve performance, or
 Frequency and duration of system use adapt the product to a changed
environment
 Needto understand system’s business  Tracking modification requests and changes
context
 Implementing changes
 Existing computer skills and proficiency  Monitoringsystem performance
 Upgrading hardware/software
 Number of users
 Updating documentation
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Implementing a Change Upgrading Computing
 Planning for a change includes: Infrastructure
 Identify parts of system to change or addition  Infrastructure requires periodic updates
 Secure personnel to implement change  Software maintenance releases
 Schedule design and implementation
 Software version upgrades
activities
 Declining system performance
 Develop test criteria and testing plan for
changed system  Infrastructure includes computer hardware,
system software, networks, DBMSs
 System documentation is reviewed to  Technical, complex, and risky
determine scope of change  Outages can impact entire system
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Life Cycles with Different

Support Phase of SDLC
Names for Phases
 Maintain system
 Small patches, repairs, and updates
 Enhance system
 Small upgrades or enhancements to expand
system capabilities
 Larger enhancements may require separate
development project
 Support users
 Help desk and/or support team
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Ethical and Societal Issues Ethical and Societal Issues

The Not-So-Bright Side The Not-So-Bright Side
 Consumer Privacy  Freedom of Speech
 ITincreases opportunities for pornography, hate
Organizations collect (and sometimes speech, intellectual property crime, and other intrusions;
prevention may abridge free speech.
sell) huge amounts of data on
individuals.
 IT Professionalism
 Employee Privacy  No mandatory or enforced code of ethics for IT
professionals--unlike other professions.
IT supports remote monitoring of
employees, violating privacy and  Social Inequality
creating stress.  Less than 20% of the world’s population have ever used
a PC; less than 3% have Internet access.
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