EC2031-ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCES AND COMPATIBILITY

UNIT-I
BASIC CONCEPTS
PART-A

1. Define EMI/EMC (Nov. / Dec. 2012)

EMI: Electromagnetic interference is the degradation in the performance of a device or

equipment or a system caused by an electromagnetic disturbance.
EMC: Electromagnetic interference is the degradation in the performance of a device or
equipment or a system caused by an electromagnetic disturbance.

2. Give some examples of EMI.

TRANSMISSION LINES –high intensity electric and magnetic fields near transmission lines
cause unintentional activation or explosion of electro explosive devices apart from presenting
radiation hazards to humans.
MAINS POWER SUPPLY- easily picks up EM noises from lightning and thunderstorm;
transients from circuit breakers, switches etc, and impair the operation of computers and many IT
products.

3. What is the purpose of TEMPEST?

TEMPEST (Total Electrical and Mechanical Protection against Emission Spurious

Transmission) is used to denote a whole set of highly sensitive specifications and special
measurement procedures for ensuring compliance with these specifications.

4. What is the difficulty in using TEMPEST?

Difficulty in TEMPEST specifications:

 Cost effective.
 Testing involves specially designed equipment which is sensitive and precision calibrated
more frequently.
 Receivers often have a cursor controlled integrated sweep capability, which allows the
test engineer to stop and perform interactive analysis of the signal.

5. What are the classifications of EMIC? (Nov. / Dec. 2012)

i. Radiated Emission (RE)

ii. Radiated Susceptibility (RS)
iii. Conducted Emission (CE)
iv. Conducted Susceptibility (CS)
6. Define Electromagnetic distrubance.

Electromagnetic disturbance is any electromagnetic phenomenon which may degrade the

performance of a device, or equipment or a system.

1
7. Define Radio Frequency Interference.
Radio frequency interference is the degradation in the reception of a wanted signal
caused by radio frequency disturbance, which is an electromagnetic disturbance having
components in the radio frequency range.

8. What is radiated emission?

Direct radiation from source to receptor.

9. What is conducted emission?

Direct radiation picked up by the electrical power cables or the signal/control cables
connected to the receptor via conduction.

10. Mention few units of parameters

RE/RS - field strength (V/m or Tesla)

CE/CS - voltage & current(V or A)
VOLTAGE- V, dBV,dBmV,dBµV
CURRENT- A, dBA,dBmA,dBµA
POWER- W,mW,µW,pW, dBW,dBmW,dBµW
ELECTRIC FIELD- V/m,dBV/m
MAGNETIC FIELD- tesla-W/m
SOURCE STRENGTH OR WEAK CELESTIAL SOURCES-flux unit (FU) = 260
dBW/m2 /HZ

11. What are the types of natural noise?

TERRESTRIAL NOISE includes

1. atmosphere
2. lightning
3. electrostatic discharge
CELESTIAL NOISE includes
1. cosmic/galactic noise
2. solar noise

12. Draw the waveform of an ESD:

2
13. What are the different sources of EMI: (Nov. / Dec. 2011)

EM NOISE

EQUIPMENT NOISE NATURAL NOISE

SYSTEMS CIRCUITS & COMPONENTs

TERRESTRIAL CELESTIAL

14. Define ESD Phenomenon:

Electrostatic discharge is a natural phenomenon in which accumulated static electric

charges are discharged. This discharge produces EMI.

15. What are the different types of transients?

TYPES OF TRANSIENTS:
The transients carried by the electrical power lines can be identified and divided into the following
distinct categories;
 Transient over voltages-probably as a result of terrestrial phenomena such as lightning or strong
radar/radio/communication transmissions from such equipment located near power transmission
lines.
 Sudden decrease or increase in the mains voltage- caused by the switching off of a low
impedance load

PART-B

1. Explain EMI with examples(10) and Explain the classifications of EMI/EMC(6):

2. What is EMI? Explain the EMI problem with example. (8) What the basic differences are between
conducted and radiated emission (8)?
3. Explain the sources of EMI:
4. Explain natural EM noise:
5. Explain Equipment noise:
6. Explain EMI coupling modes:
7. Explain ESD phenomena and effects:
8. Explain transient phenomena and suppression:
9. Explain transient and surge suppression devices:
10. Explain the different lighting discharges, EM fields produced by lighting and its effect on
transmission lines(Nov. / Dec. 2011)
11. Explain the concept of ESD with waveform and equivalent circuits. (Nov. / Dec. 2011)
12. What are the basic differences between conducted and radiated emission? (Nov. / Dec. 2012)
13. Briefly explain about the various coupling modes of EMI. (Nov. / Dec. 2012)

3
14. Briefly explain about the various sources of EMI. (Nov. / Dec. 2012)
15. Explain the concept of transient phenomena suppression. (Nov. / Dec. 2011)

UNIT-II

EMI MEASUREMENTS

PART-A

1. What are the measurement precautions to be carried out in OATS?

EM ENVIRONMENT:
It should be quiet and free from the presence of such strong signals as those from broadcast radio
or TV receivers and manmade EM radiations.
EM SCATTERS:
Test site should be free from EM scatters.
Sources are buildings and other similar structures, electric transmission lines, open telephone and
telegraph lines, fences and vegetation such as trees, underground cables and pipelines not buried
deep enough.
To avoid underground scatters, metallic ground plane can be used.
POWER AND CABLE CONNECTIONS:
The electrical power connections to the EUT and he cables between the transmit and receive
antenna located in the test site and the transmitter and receiver equipment located nearby are placed
in underground trenches.
The power leads pass through filters to eliminate the CE carried by the power lines.

2. What are the components of OAT?

i. EUT
ii. Transmit and receive antenna.
iii. Site.

3. Brief about terrain roughness:

To avoid significant scattering from terrains within test area, some restrictions are imposed on the
roughness of the terrain.

4. What is TEM cell? (Nov. / Dec. 2012)

A TEM cell is a rectangular coaxial transmission line, resembling strip line, with outer
conductors closed and joined together. The rectangular section is tapered at both ends and
matched to a 50 ohms coaxial transmission line.

4
5. What is LISN?
LISN: Line Impedance Stabilization networ.
Objectives are,
 To present a constant impedance to the product’s power cord outlet over the
frequency range of the conducted emission test.
 To block conducted emissions that is not due to the product being tested so that
only the conducted emissions of the product are measured.

6. Draw the schematic of LISN.

7. What is a current probe?

Current probe is constructed from a core of ferrite material that is separated into two halves,
which are joined by a hinge and closed with a clip. The ferrite core is used to concentrate the
magnetic flux.

8. What is the purpose of feed through capacitor?

Feed through capacitors are intended for the use with power lines they must operate up to
600V dc and can be designed to handle mains currents of more than 100A without significant
loss. Feed through capacitors are originally designed for DC power line in RF module or system.
It passed through the DC (and low frequency signals) but blocks the RF energy. In practical use
the: feed through capacitors are fitted to the metal case of the RF module on holes where the
wires enter the system. They let the signal pass through but will stop the RF from escaping from
the device through that hole to the outside wiring.

9. What is spectrum analyzer?

Spectrum analyzers are devices that display the magnitude spectrum for periodic signals. These
devices are basically radio receivers having a bandpass filter that is swept in time. A bandpass filter
whose center frequency is swept in time from the start frequency to the end frequency (chosen by
the operator) selects and displays the spectral components of the input signal that are present within
the bandwidth of the instrument at the point in the time of the sweep.

5
10. What are the purposes of semi anechoic chamber?

It provides an indoor facility for measurements. It provides high isolation often in excess of 100
dB, from the external EM environment, so they are highly suitable for highly sensitive
measurements involving very low signal levels.

11. What is the purpose of baluns?

Balancing is a critical factor in the accurate measurement of radiated emissions. If the antenna–
feed line combination is not balanced, the measured data may appear to comply with the regulatory
limits when in fact they may not because of the pattern distortion caused by the unbalance.

12. What are EMI measuring instruments?

i. LISN
ii. Anechoic chamber
iii. OATS, iv. EMC analyzer.

13. How is radiated emission and conducted mission measured? (Nov. / Dec. 2011)

Radiated emission measurement: conducted emission measurement:

14. What is feed through capacitor? (Nov. / Dec. 2011)

Feed through capacitors are intended for the use with power lines they must operate up to 600V
dc and can be designed to handle mains currents of more than 100A without significant loss.

PART-B

1. Explain the principles of RE/RS measurements:

2. Explain the test instrumentation for emission and susceptibility testing.
3. Explain the principles of CE/CS measurements:
4. Explain LISN:
5. Explain EMC analyzer and detection technique:
6. Explain the spectrum analyzer, LISN and Antennas TEM cell. (5+5+6)
7. Explain TEM cell measurement:
8. Explain OATS:
6
9. Explain anechoic chamber measurement:
10. Explain feed through capacitor(8) and current probe(8)
11. Explain with diagram measurement of RE and RS(8)(Nov. / Dec. 2011)
12. Explain antenna factor measurement.(8) (Nov. / Dec. 2011)
13. Explain the procedure for measurement of radiation susceptibility and radiated emission using
TEM cell.(16) (Nov. / Dec. 2011)
14. Describe the EMI analysis. (Nov. / Dec. 2012)
15. Explain the voltage probes and current probes. (Nov. / Dec. 2012)
16. Explain the EMC analyser, LISN and antenna of EMI measuring instruments. (Nov. / Dec. 2012)

UNIT-III

EMC STANDARD AND REGULATIONS

PART-A

1. Define standard:
Standards are nothing but which provides enhanced compatibility, reliability and
maintainability over the appliances.

2. List five national and international standards used for CE and RE:
ANSI, FCC, DOD, IEC, CNELEC

3. What is MIL-STD-461/462?
MIL-STD 461 Requirements of the control of EMI emissions and susceptibility
MIL-STD 462 EMI characteristics, measurements.

4. What is the abrivation of CE?

Conformity European

5. Name four CE standards adapted in India :

7
6. What is frequency assignment?

The term frequency assignment is used for easier functioning of radio–based services to
function harmoniously without causing electro-magnetic interference.

7. What is spectrum conservation? (Nov. / Dec. 2012)

8. What are the objectives of EMC standards? (Nov. / Dec. 2011)

 Enhanced compatibility, reliability and maintainability

 Competitiveness of product in multi vendor market
 Inbuilt quality improvements to meet intended performance
9. What are the approaches for efficient spectrum utilization? (Nov. / Dec. 2011)

 Reduction of bandwidth per channel

 Increase in information transmitted.

10. Why are EMC regulations needed? (Nov. / Dec. 2012)

Compliance to EMC regulation is mandatory now for importing and exporting of

products in respective countries. EMC regulations cover entire spectrum of electrical products,
from computing devices to microwave oven to aircraft.

PART-B

1. Explain FCC CE and RE standard:

2. Explain CISPR CE and RE standard:
3. Explain IEC/EN CS standard:

8
4. Explain EMC standards and specifications:
5. Explain frequency assignment and spectrum conservation:
6. Explain the types of modulation used for spectrum conservation:
7. Compare the different performance standards for EMC (Nov. / Dec. 2011)
8. Explain any two spectrum conservation methods by frequency planning? (Nov. / Dec. 2011)
9. Explain in detail about the following international standardizing organizations.
10. FCC, CISPR, ANSI, DOD. (Nov. / Dec. 2012)
11. Explain indetail about the following international standardizing organizations,
FCC CE and RE Standards
IEC / EN and CS Standards. (Nov. / Dec. 2012)

UNIT-IV

EMI CONTROL METHODS AND FIXES

PART-A

1. What is grounding?

Grouding is a technique that provides a low resistance path between electrical or electronic
equipment and the earth or common reference low impedance plane to bypass fault current or EMI
signal.

2. What are the precautions used in earthing for EMC?

i. Moisturization
ii. Chemical salting
iii. Cathode protection
iv. Material, size, coatings and method of bonding.

3. What is single point grounding?

In this each subsystem is grounded to separate planes (structural grounds, signal grounds
shield grounds, AC primary and secondary power grounds

4. What is multy point grounding?

In this scheme, every equipment is heavily bonded to a solid ground conducting plane
which is then earthed for safety purpose.

5. What is hybrid grounding?

In this scheme, the ground appears as a single point ground at low frequencies and a
multi point ground at high frequencies.

9
6. What is floating ground?

This system is electrically isolated from the equipment cables, building, ground and other
conductive objects to avoid a coupling loop for noise.Currents present in the ground systems and
their flow in signal circuits.

7. What is cable shield grounding?

When shielded cable is used for interconnection of two subsystems or system, the shield
must be single ground reference at both ends.

8. What is single shield?

For a conductor used below optical frequencies, the conduction current is normally much
greater than the displacement current.

9. What is multimedia laminated shield?

In this shielding, where there are n-number os shields of impedances z1, z2,.. zm
including both metals and air gaps. The total reflection loss can be expressed as the sum of the
reflection losses at earth interface.

10. What is isolated double shield?

In a big shielding enclosure, a very high shielding is normally provided with double
isolated conducting metal sheets seperated by an inner core made up of dry plywood.

11. What is shielding?

It’s a technique that reduces or prevents coupling of undesired radiated electromagnetic

energy into equipment to enable it to operater compatibily in its electromagnetic environment.

12. What is bonding?

Electrical bonding is a process in which components or modules of an

assembly,equipment or subsystems are electrically connected by means of a low impedance
conductor.

13. What is filtering ?

Filtering is an important mitigation for suppressing undesired conducted elctromagnetic

interference (EMI). When a sysytem incorporates shielding, undesired coupling caused by
radiated EMI is reduced.

14. What is EMC gasket?

EMC gaskets are shielding arrangements used to reduce the leakage of eletromagnetic
energy at metal-to-metal joints. Conductive gaskets,when properly compressed,provide electrical
continuity between seam-mating surfaces.

10
15. What is the purpose of isolation transformer?

To supresss the common and differential mode interference the isolation transformed is
used.

16. What is the purpose of opto isolator? (Nov. / Dec. 2012)

Electromagnetic interference problems are greatly reduced in signal transmission lines

when optical isolators are used for coupling signals in both digital and analog forms.

17. What are the factors that influence the EMI performance of bonding? (Nov. / Dec. 2011)

i. Generation of intermodulation produts because of nonlinear effects at contacts between

similar and dissimilar metals.
ii. Development of potential differences caused by DC and AC resistances and
inductance of a given length of the bond strap.
iii. Adverse impedance response because of resonance of inductance and the residual
capacitance of the bond strap.

18. Write in brief how optoisolator is used to control EMI. (Nov. / Dec. 2011)

Electromagnetic interference problems are greatly reduced in signal transmission lines

when optical isolators are used for coupling signals in both digital and analog forms. The guided
wave propagation of modulated optical signals through optical fibers does not involve radiation,
and interference signal cannot enter fiber-optic transmission lines.

PART-B
1. Explain grounding:
2. Explain the precautions in earthing and system grounding for EMC:
3. Explain the types of shielding discontinuities that exist in shielding walls:
4. Explain EMC gaskets:
5. What is shielding? Explain shielding theory and effectiveness:
6. Explain cable shielding :
7. Explain power line filter design:
8. Explain the characteristics of filters.
9. Explain the principles and practice of earthing. (Nov. / Dec. 2011)
10. Explain shielding theory and shielding effectiveness based on the types of shield. (Nov. / Dec.
2011)
11. Write shorts notes on the following topics:
i. Electrostatic discharge
ii. Errors in EMI testing. (Nov. / Dec. 2012)
12. Write short notes on the following topics:
i. Isolation transformer
ii. Opto isolator. (Nov. / Dec. 2012)

11
 UNIT-V

EMC DESIGN AND INTERCONNECTION TECHNIQUES

PART-A

1. What are the types of EMI suppression cables?

 Twisted Pair Cable

 Coaxial Cable
 Shielded wire bundles
 Absorptive Cable
 Ribbon Cable

2. What is PCB Board?

Printed Circuit Boards are primarily an insulating material used as base ,into which
conductive strips are printed.The base material is generally fiber glass and the conductive
connections are generally copper and are made through etchoing process.

3. What is pads in PCB?

Pads come in all sorts of shapes and sizes .They can be through hole or SMD but they all
follow the same general guidelines.

4. What is vias in PCB?

Vias are special pads which connect electrical signals from one side of board to
another.Vias are made of conducting material which are called plated through hole.

5. What is Trace Routing?

A PCB design tool represent the necessary connections between parts with a wire.These
wires are called nets.Nets acts as design guide.

6. Define decoupling.
It is important to remember that noise signals should be confined to their known and
desired location and not be allowed to propagate to other parts of the system where they may
radiate more efficiently or cause functional problems.These noise signals can couple either by
radiation from PCB to PCB or via conducting paths such as in terconnect cables or
backplanes.Eliminating this coupling is referred to as decoupling the sub systems.

7. What is system Zoning?(Nov. / Dec. 2011)

Handling every EMC problem at once is a very complex task.It is thewrfore a good idea
to split the systems into smaller subsystems or zones and handle these individually.The zones
may in some casesa only be different areas of the same PCB.The important part is to have
control of what happens in side one zone and how the zones interact.

8. What is internal cable routing?(Nov. / Dec. 2011)

The connection between the sub systems through internal cables is known as internal cable
routing.

12
9. What is the purpose of grounding in PCB?
The main purpose of grounding pattern is to minimize the ground impedance and the size
of any potential ground loops from a circuit back to the power supply.

10. What is the use of the Bypass Capacitor?

The main function of the bypass capacitor is to create an AC shunt to remove the
undesirable energy from entering susceptable areas .It is acting as a high frewquency bypass source
to reduce the transient circuit demand on the power supply unit.

PART-B
1. Explain the types of EMI suppression cables and considerations carried out in connectors for
improving EMC(8 +8):
2. Explain about component selection and mounting:
3. Explain trace routing and impedance control:
4. Explain decoupling in PCB design:
5. Explain zoning and grounding in PCB:
6. Explain the suppression techniques used in PCB design:
7. Explain the signal integrity problems in IC packages and PCBs:explain about the SI issues in
PCB design:
8. Explain the different methods of component relation and mounting in EMC design. (Nov. / Dec.
2011)
9. Explain PCB design and trace routing with necessary diagrams. (Nov. / Dec. 2011)
10. Explain the case studies of some EMI problems in PCBs and high frequency Ics. (Nov. / Dec.
2012)
11. Discuss how passive components are chosen for EMC in detail. (Nov. / Dec. 2012)
12. Explain how various components and modules of an assembly are bonded together. (Nov. / Dec.
2012)

13
 EC 2401 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION VII SEM, ECE
QUESTION BANK
UNIT I
PART A
1. What are the different types of services in wireless communication?
Broadcast, paging, cellular telephony, trunking radio, cordless telephony, WLANs and personal
area networks, fixed wireless access and satellite cellular communications.
2. What are the properties of broadband service?
1. The information is only sent in one direction, 2. The transmitted information is the same for
all users, 3. The information is transmitted continuously.
3. What is the difference between broadcast TV and satellite TV?
In satellite TV, the transmissions are intended only for a subset of all possible users. Therefore,
encryption of the content is required to prevent unauthorized viewing.
4. What are the characteristics of paging system?
1. The user can only receive information, but cannot transmit. 2. The information is intended for
only a single user. 3. The amount of transmitted information is very small.
5. Why bandwidth required for paging system is small?
Due to the unidirectional nature of communications and the small amount of information, the
bandwidth required is small.
6. What are the characteristics of cellular telephony?
The information flow is bi-directional, The user can be anywhere within a network, A call can originate
from either the network or the user, The location of a user can change significantly during a call.
7. What are the characteristics of trunking radio?
1. Group calls 2. Call priorities 3. Relay networks
8. What is the difference between cordless telephony and cellular phone?
The cordless telephone is associated with only a single base station. There is no MSC. The base
station is directly connected to the PSTN.
9. What are the characteristics of cordless telephony?
1. The BS does not need to have any network functionality. 2. There is no central system
10. What is the difference between cordless phone and fixed wireless access?
In fixed wireless access,There is no mobility of the user devices. 2.BS always serves multiple
users.

14
11. List the requirements encountered in system design for the wireless services.
Data rate, Range, Mobility, Energy consumption, Use of spectrum, Direction of transmission
and Service quality.
12. What is meant by multipath propagation?
The signal can get from the TX to the RX via a no. of different propagation paths. The signal
gets reflected and diffracted by different objects. So each of the paths has a distinct amplitude, delay
and direction of arrival. This effect is known as multipath propagation.
13. What is meant by small scale fading?
The rapid fluctuations of the amplitudes, phases, or multipath delays of a radio signal over a
short period of time or travel distance is known as small scale fading.
14. What is meant by large scale fading?
The rapid fluctuations of the amplitudes, phases, or multipath delays of a radio signal over a long
period of time or travel distance is known as large scale fading.
15. What is ISI?
Intersymbol interference (ISI) is a form of distortion of a signal in which one symbol interferes
with subsequent symbols.
16. What is meant by noise limited system?
The performance of the system is determined by the strength of the signal and the noise. As the
MS moves further away from the BS, the received signal power decreases, and at a certain distance,
SNR does not achieve the required threshold for reliable communication. Therefore, the range of the
system is noise-limited.
17. What is meant by link budget?
A link budget is the clearest and the most intuitive way of computing the required transmit
power.
18. What are the different types of multiple access schemes?
FDMA-Frequency division multiple access-different frequencies are assigned to different users
TDMA-Time division multiple access-different time slots are assigned to different users.
CDMA-Code division multiple access-each user is assigned a different code.
19. What are the advantages of FDMA?
The transmitter and receiver require much less digital signal processing, Synchronization is
simple.

15
20. What are the disadvantages of FDMA?
1. Sensitivity to fading 2. Sensitivity to random frequency modulation 3. Inter modulation
21. What is slotted ALOHA?
The BS prescribes a certain slot structure. Each TX has a synchronized clock that makes sure
that the start of the transmission time coincides with the beginning of a slot. Thus partial collisions
cannot occur anymore.
22. What is un-slotted ALOHA?
If the starting time of packet transmission is chosen completely at random by the transmitter,
then the system is called un-slotted ALOHA.
23. What is meant by carrier sense multiple access (CSMA)?
A transmitter can determine whether the channel is currently occupied by another user. This
knowledge can be used to increase the efficiency of a packet switched system. If one user is
transmitting, no other user is allowed to send a signal. Such a method is called CSMA.
24. What are the important parameters of CSMA system?
Detection delay and propagation delay are the two important parameters. Detection delay is a
measure for how long it takes a transmitter to determine whether the channel is free. Propagation delay
is the measure of how long a data packet takes to get from the MS to the BS.
25. What is non-persistent CSMA?
The TX senses the channel. If the channel is busy, the TX waits random time duration until
retransmission. This scheme is called non-persistent CSMA.
26. What is p-persistent CSMA?
This method is applied in slotted channels. When a TX determines that a channel is available, it
transmits with probability p in the subsequent frame. Otherwise it transmits one time slot later.
27. What is I-persistent CSMA?
The TX constantly senses the channel, until it realizes that the channel is free. Then it
immediately sends off the packet.
28. What is meant by CSMA with collision detection?
In this method, a node observes whether two transmitters start to transmit simultaneously. If so,
transmission is immediately terminated.
29. What is meant by data sense multiple access?
In this approach, the downlink includes a control channel, which transmits at periodic intervals a
busy/available signal that indicates the state of the channel. If a user finds the channel to be free, it can
immediately send off a data packet.

16
30. What is meant by packet reservation multiple access?
In packet reservation multiple access, each MS can send a request to transmit a data packet. A
control mechanism answers by telling the MS when it is allowed to send off the packet. This eliminates
the risk of collisions of data packets.
31. Clssify the routing methods.
1. Source driven routing- the header of the packet includes the complete route, and the nodes just
follow the instructions for forwarding. The drawback is that the header can become quite long,
especially for packets with little payload. This leads to a decrease in spectral efficiency.
2. Table driven routing- each node stores in a table the nodes to which it should forward packets.
This method has better spectral efficiency.
32. Define frequency reuse distance.
It is defined as the distance between two cells that can use the same frequency channels.
33. What is cluster? What is its significance?
Cluster is a group of cells that all use different frequencies. No co channel interference within
such a cluster. The cluster size also determines the capacity of the cellular system.
34. What is meant by frequency reuse or frequency planning?
By limiting the coverage area to within the boundaries of a cell, the same group of channels may
be used to cover different cells that are separated from one another by distances large enough to keep
interference levels within tolerable limits. This design process of selecting and allocating channel groups
for all of the cellular base stations within a system is called frequency reuse.
35. Define footprint.
The actual radio coverage of a cell is known as footprint.
36. Give an expression for capacity of a system.
C = MKN = MS where M= no. Of clusters, N= no of cells, K=no of channels in a cell, S= total
no of available radio channels.
37. What must we do to find the nearest co channel neighbors?
No of cells per cluster is given by N= i2 +ij +j2.
To find the nearest co channel neighbours of a particular cell, we must do Move i cells along any chain
of hexagons and then Turn 60 degrees counter-clockwise and move j cells.
38. What are the different methods available to increase the capacity of the system?
Increasing the amount of spectrum used, More efficient modulation format and coding,
Discontinuous transmission, Multi user detection, Reduction of cell radius, Use of sector cells and
Multiple antennas.

17
39. What are the factors influencing small scale fading?
Speed of surrounding objects, Multipath propagation, Speed of the mobile, Transmission
bandwidth of the signal
PART B
1. Explain the different types of services available in wireless communication. (April/May 2011)
2. Explain the different types of requirements encountered in system design of various services.
3. What is fading? Explain the types of fading.
4. Discuss the different approaches used for the efficient usage of spectrum.
5. Write short notes on (i)noise limited system (ii)interference limited system
6. What is link budget? Explain with an example how it can be computed for noise limited system.
7. Compare the different multiple access schemes.
8. What is CSMA? Explain the different methods of implementing CSMA.
9. Explain the concept of cell planning with relevant diagrams and expressions.(Nov/Dec2011)
10. Explain the various methods that increase the system capacity.
UNIT II
PART A
1. What are the three basic propagation mechanisms?
The three basic propagation mechanisms which impact propagation in a mobile communication
system are 1.Reflection 2.Diffraction 3.Scattering
2. How diffraction will occur?
Diffraction occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a
surface that has sharp irregularities.
3. What is scattering?
When a radio wave impinges on a rough surface, the reflected energy is spread out in all
directions due to scattering.
4. Write the effects of fading.
1. Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance or time interval.
2. Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts on different multipath signals
3. Time dispersion caused by multipath propagation delays.
5. Define coherence bandwidth.
The coherence bandwidth is related to the specific multipath structure of the channel. The
coherence bandwidth is a measure of the maximum frequency difference for which signals are still

18
strongly correlated in amplitude. This bandwidth is inversely proportional to the rms value of time delay
spread.
6. What is coherence timer?
It is defined as the required time interval to obtain an envelope correlation of 0.9 or less.
7. Define Doppler shift.
The shift in received signal frequency due to motion is called the Doppler shift.
8. What is Doppler spread?
It is defined as the range of frequencies over which the received Doppler spectrum is essentially
non-zero.
9. What are the effects of multipath propagation?
Slow fading and fast fading
10. What is flat fading?
If the mobile radio channel has a constant gain and linear phase response over a bandwidth
which is greater than the bandwidth of the transmitted signal, then the received signal will undergo flat
fading.
11. Write the conditions for flat fading.
BW of signal<<BW of channel Bs<<Bc
Symbol period>>Delay spread Ts>>¦ơƮ
12. What is frequency selective fading?
If the channel possesses a constant gain and linear phase response over a bandwidth that is,
smaller than the bandwidth of transmitted signal, then the channel creates frequency selective fading on
the received signal.
13. Write the conditions for frequency selective fading.
BW of signal>BW of channel Bs > Bc
Symbol period< Delay spread Ts < ơƮ
14. Define fast fading channel.
The channel impulse response changes rapidly within the symbol duration. This type of channel
is called fast fading channel.
15. Define slow fading channel.
The channel impulse response changes at a rate much slower than the transmitted baseband
signal. This type of channel is called slow fading channel.

19
16. What is meant by time dispersion?
The received signal has a longer duration than that of the transmitted signal, due to the different
delays of the signal paths. This is known as time dispersion.
17. What is meant by frequency dispersion?
The received signal has a larger bandwidth than that of the transmitted signal, due to the different
Doppler shifts introduced by the components of the multipath. This is known as frequency dispersion.
18. Classify the wireless channels.
Time-flat channels, Frequency -flat channels, Frequency-selective channels
19. What is the need of propagation model?
Propagation models have traditionally focused on predicting the average received signal strength
at a given distance from the transmitter, as well as the variability of the signal strength in close spatial
proximity to a particular location. Propagation models that predict the mean signal strength for an
arbitrary transmitter-receiver separation distance are useful in estimating the radio coverage area of a
transmitter.
20. What is free space propagation model?
It is a model which is used to predict received signal strength, when unobstructed line of sight
path between transmitter and receiver.
21. What are Fresnel zones?
The concentric circles on the transparent plane located between a transmitter and receiver
represent the loci of the origins of secondary wavelets which propagate to the receiver such that the total
path length increases by ƛ /2 for successive circles. These circles are called Fresnel zones.
22. Explain knife-edge diffraction model.
Knife edge is the simplest of diffraction models, and the diffraction loss can be readily estimated
using the classical Fresnel solution for the field behind the knife edge.
23. What is the need of path loss models in link budget design?
The path loss models are used to estimate the received signal level as the function of distance it
becomes possible to predict the SNR for a mobile communication system.
24. Differentiate Flat fading & Frequency selective fading.
Flat Fading Frequency Selective Fading
1. Bandwidth of the signal is lesser than 1.Bandwidth of the signal is greater
the bandwidth of the channel. than the bandwidth of channel.
2. Delay spread is lesser than symbol 2. Delay spread is greater than symbol
period. period.

20
25. Differentiate Fast fading & slow fading.
Fast Fading Slow Fading
1. High Doppler spread. 1. Low Doppler Spread.
2. Coherence time is lesser than symbol 2. Coherence time is greater than
period. symbol period.
3. Channel variations faster than base band 3. Channel variations slower than base
signal variations. band signal variations.
26. What are the three most important effects due to multipath in mobile radio channel?
Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance or time interval, random frequency
modulation due to varying Doppler shifts on different multipath signals.
PART B
1. Explain about reflection from dielectrics.
2. Explain the knife edge diffraction model by a single screen. (April/May 2011)
3. Explain the different methods of diffraction model by multiple screens.
4. Give a detailed note about scattering.
5. Explain Rayleigh fading model in detail. (April/May 2012)
6. Explain Rician fading model in detail.
7. Derive an expression for Doppler shift.
8. Write short notes on i) time-selective channels ii) frequency-selective channels
9. Write short notes on WSSUS channels.
10. Explain coherence time and coherence bandwidth with expressions.
11. Explain free space link budget with an example.
12. Explain terrestrial link budget with an example. (Nov/Dec2011)
13. Explain Okumura-Hata empirical model in detail.
14. Explain the different types of narrowband path-loss models. (April/May 2012)
15. Explain the different types of wideband models.
UNIT III
PART A
1. Define modulation.
It is defined as the process by which some parameters of a high frequency signal termed as
carrier, is varied in accordance with the signal to be transmitted.
2. What is demodulation?
It is the process of recovering the original modulating signal from a modulated signal.

21
3. Write the advantages of digital over analog modulation.
Greater noise immunity, Robustness to channel impairments, Easier multiplexing of various
forms of information, Greater security
4. What is meant by Amplitude shift keying?
If amplitude of the carrier is varied depending on the incoming digital signal, then it is called
Amplitude shift keying.
5. What is meant by Frequency shift keying?
If the frequency of the sinusoidal carrier frequency is varied depending on the incoming digital
signal, then it is called Frequency shift keying.
6. What is meant by Phase shift keying?
If phase of the carrier is varied depending on the input digital signal, then it is called phase shift
keying.
7. Define M-ary transmission system,
In digital modulation instead of transmitting one bit at a time, two or more bits are transmitted
simultaneously. This is called M-ary transmission.
8. What is Quadrature modulation?
Sometimes two or more quadrature carriers are used for modulation. It is called quadrature
modulation.
9. Explain the following terms a) Baud rate b) Bit rate
Baud rate: Speed at which symbols are transmittd in a digital communication system, ie., no of
symbols/second.
Bit rate: Speed at which data bits is transmitted in a digital communication system, ie no of bits/sec.
10. What is QAM?
At high bit rates, a combination of ASK and PSK is employed in order to minimize the errors in
the received data. This method is known as Quadrature amplitude modulation.
11. What is meant by QPSK?
QPSK is a multi level modulation in which four phase shifts are used for representing four
different symbols.
12. What is linear modulation?
In linear modulation technique, the amplitude of the transmitted (carrier) signal varies linearly
with the modulating digital signal. In general, linear modulation does not have a constant envelope.

22
13. Write the merits of linear modulation.
Bandwidth efficient, Very attractive for use in wireless communication systems, Accommodate
more and more users within a limited spectrum.
14. What is non linear modulation?
In non linear modulation, the amplitude of the carrier is constant regardless of the variation in the
modulating signal.
15. Mention the merits and demerits of non linear modulation.
Merits:
1. Lower efficient class c amplifiers can be used without introducing degradation in the spectrum
occupancy of the transmitted signal.
2. Low out of band radiation of the order of -60dB to -70dB can be achieved.
3. Limiter-discriminator detection can be used, which simplifies receiver design and provides high
immunity against random FM noise and signal fluctuations due to Rayleigh fading.
Demerits:
1. Constant envelope modulations occupy a larger bandwidth than linear modulation scheme
2. In situations where bandwidth efficiency is more important than power efficiency, constant
envelope modulation is not well suited.
16. What is the advantage of MSK over QPSK?
In QPSK the phase changes by 90 or 180 degrees. This creates abrupt amplitude variations in the
waveform. Therefore bandwidth requirement of QPSK is more. MSK overcomes this problem. In MSK,
the output waveform is continuous in phase hence there are no abrupt changes in amplitude.
17. Why MSK is called as fast FSK?
MSK is called fast FSK, as the frequency spacing used is only half as much as that used in
conventional non-coherent FSK.
18. Mention some merits of MSK.
Constant envelope, Spectral efficiency, Good BER performance, Self-synchronizing capability
19. Why MSK cannot be directly used in multi user communications?
1. The main lobe of MSK is wide. This makes MSK unsuitable for the applications where
extremely narrow bandwidths and sharp cut-offs are required.
2. Slow decay of MSK power spectral density curve creates adjacent channel interference.
Hence MSK cannot be used for multiuser communications.

23
20. What is the need of Gaussian filter?
Gaussian filters used before the modulator to reduce the transmitted bandwidth of the signal. It
uses less bandwidth than conventional FSK.
21. Give some examples of linear modulation.
Pulse shaped QPSK, OQPSK, π/4QPSK
22. Give some examples for constant envelope modulation.
BFSK, MSK, GMSK
23. Define QAM.
Quadrature amplitude modulation is in which both the amplitude and phase of the transmitted
signals are varied by the baseband signal.
24. Define M-ary FSK.
I n M-ary system, M=2N different symbols are used and N no of bits per symbol. Every symbol
uses separate frequency for transmission.
25. Write the applications of MFSK and OFDM.
They are used for high speed data connections as part of the IEEE 802.11a standards activities to
provide 54mbps WLAN connections, as well as for high speed line of sight and non line of sight
connections for Multi channel Multipoint Distribution service (MMDS) operation.
26. What are the modulations suitable for frequency selective mobile channels?
Both filtered and unfiltered BPSK, QPSK, OQPSK and MSK modulations are suitable for
frequency selective mobile channels.
PART B
1. Explain digital modulation transmitter and receiver with neat block diagram.
2. Explain QPSK transmitter and receiver with signal space diagram and give an expression for spectral
efficiency. (April/May 2011)
3. Explain π/4QPSK transmitter and receiver with signal space diagram and give an expression for
spectral efficiency.
4. Explain offset QPSK transmitter and receiver with signal space diagram and give an expression for
spectral efficiency. (April/May 2012)
5. Explain BFSK transmitter and receiver with signal space diagram and give an expression for spectral
efficiency. (Nov/Dec 2011)
6. Explain MSK transmitter and receiver with signal space diagram and give an expression for spectral
efficiency.

24
7. Explain GMSK transmitter and receiver with signal space diagram and give an expression for spectral
efficiency. (April/May 2012)
8. Discuss about the performance of digital modulation in fading channels.

UNIT IV
PART A
1. What are the techniques used to improve the received signal quality?
Equalization, Diversity and Channel coding
2. What is the need of equalization?
Equalization is used to compensate the inter-symbol interference created by multipath within
time dispersion channel.
3. Write the functions of diversity.
Diversity is used to compensate for fading channel impairments, and is usually implemented by
using two or more receiving antennas.
Diversity improves transmission performance by making use of more than one independently faded
version of the transmitted signal.
4. Define spatial diversity.
The most common diversity technique is called spatial diversity, whereby multiple antennas are
strategically spaced and connected to a common receiving system. While one antenna sees a signal null,
one of the other antennas may see a signal peak, and the receiver is able to select the antenna with the
best signals at any time.
5. What is the function of channel coding?
Channel coding is used by the receiver to detect or correct some of the errors introduced by the
channel in a particular sequence of message bits.
6. Write the examples of channel coding.
Block codes, Convolution codes and Turbo codes
7. What is equalizer?
The device which equalizes the dispersive effect of a channel is referred to as an equalizer.
8. Define adaptive equalizer.
To combat ISI, the equalizer coefficients should change according to the channel status so as to
track the channel variations. Such an equalizer is called an adaptive equalizer since it adapts to the
channel variations.

25
9. What are the operating modes available in an adaptive equalizer?
Training and tracking modes.
10. What is training mode in an adaptive equalizer?
First, a known fixed length training sequence is sent by the transmitter, then the receiver's
equalizer may adapt to a proper setting of minimum bit error rate detection, where the training sequence
is pseudorandom binary signal or a fixed and prescribed bit pattern.
11. What is tracking mode in an adaptive equalizer?
Immediately following the training sequence, the user data is sent, and the adaptive equalizer at t
12. Write a short note on i)linear equalizers ii)non-linear equalizers
If the output is not used in the feedback path to adapt, then this type of equalizer is called linear
equalizer. If the output is fed back to change the subsequent outputs of the equalizer, this type of
equalizer is called non linear equalizers.
13. Write the advantages of lattice equalizer.
It is simplest and easily available, Numerical stability, Faster convergence, Unique structure of
the lattice filter allows the dynamic assignment of the most effective length of the lattice equalizer and
When the channel becomes more time dispersive, the length of the equalizer can be increased by the
algorithm without stopping the operation of the equalizer.
14. Mention the disadvantages of lattice equalizer.
1. If the channel is not very time dispersive, only a fraction of stages are used.
2. It is more complicated than a linear transversal equalizer.
15. Why nonlinear equalizers are preferred?
The linear equalizers are very effective in equalizing channels where ISI is not severe. The
severity of ISI is directly related to the spectral characteristics. In this case there are spectrel nulls in the
transfer function of the effective channel, the additive noise at the receiver input will be dramatically
enhanced by the linear equalizer. To overcome this problem, non linear equalizers can be used.
16. What are the nonlinear equalization methods used?
Decision feedback equalization (DFE), Maximum likelihood symbol detection and Maximum
likelihood sequence estimation (MLSE).
17. Where DFEs are used?
DFE is particularly useful for channels with severe amplitude distortions and is widely used in
wireless communications.

26
18. What are the factors used in adaptive algorithms?
Rate of convergence, Misadjustment, Computational complexity and numerical properties.
19. Define rate of convergence.
The no of iterations required for the algorithm in response to stationary inputs to converge close
enough to the optimum solution.
20. Write the basic algorithms used for adaptive equalization.
Zero forcing algorithm (ZF), least mean square algorithm (LMS) and recursive least square
algorithm (RLS).
21. Write the advantages of LMS algorithm.
It maximizes the signal to distortion at its output within the constraints of the equalizer filter
length, Low computational complexity and Simple program
22. Write the advantages of RLS algorithm.
Fast convergence, Good tracking ability
23. Explain Diversity concept.
If one radio path undergoes a deep fade, another independent path may have a strong signal. By
having more than one path to select from, both the instantaneous and average SNRs at the receiver may
be improved.
24. List out the types of Diversity.
Space diversity, Polarization diversity, Time diversity, Frequency diversity
25. What is the need for diversity schemes?
To increase signal to noise ratio, For error free digital transmission, To degrade the bit error
probability.
26. What are the two main classifications of diversity techniques?
Microscopic diversity and Macroscopic diversity
27. List out the four types of Combining Methods.
Selection combining, switched combining, Equal gain combining, Maximum ratio combining
28. What are the major classifications of speech coders?
1. waveform coders 2.vocoder
29. Define waveform coders.
Waveform coders are used to reproduce the time waveform of the speech signal as closely as
possible. They are designed to be source dependent.

27
30. Define vocoders.
Vocoder is a circuit used for digitizing voice at a low data rate by using knowledge of the way in
which voice sounds are produced. A vocoder is an example of lossy compression applied to human
speech.
31. Write the advantages of vocoders.
It achieves very high economy in transmission bit rate, Less robust.
32. What are the types of vocoders available?
Linear Predictive coder, Channel vocoders, formant vocoders, cepstrum vocoders and voice-
excited vocoders.
PART B
1. Explain the classification of equalizers.
2. Briefly explain about linear equalizers.
3. Discuss about DFE.
4. Explain about MLSE equalizer.
5. Discuss about the performance factors of an adaptive algorithm.
6. Explain LMS algorithm in detail. (April/May 2012)
7. Explain RLS algorithm in detail.
8. Discuss about space diversity with neat diagram.
9. Explain about theoretical model for polarization diversity.
10. Discuss the performance of a RAKE receiver. (April/May 2012)
11. Discuss about types of speech coders.
UNIT V
PART A
1. What are the two types of spread spectrum multiple access?
Direct sequence multiple access, Frequency hopped multiple access.
2. What are the two types of frequency hopping techniques?
Fast frequency hopping and Slow frequency hopping.
3. What do you mean by Fast frequency hopping?
A fast frequency hopping system is one where frequency hopping takes place faster than the data
rate. Fast frequency hopping changes the carrier frequency several times during transmission of one
symbol.
4. What is slow frequency hopping?
Slow frequency hopping transmits one or several symbols on each frequency.

28
5. How the power control is done in the uplink?
For the uplink, power control is vital for the proper operation of CDMA. Power control is done
by a closed loop. The MS first sends with a certain power, the BS then tells the MS whether the power
is too high or too low and the MS adjusts its power accordingly.
6. What is OFDM?
Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing splits the information into N parallel streams, which
are then transmitted by modulating N distinct carriers.
7. Define cyclic prefix.
In OFDM, delay dispersion leads to a loss of orthogonality between the subcarriers and thus
leads to Inter Carrier Interference (ICI). These negative effects can be eliminated by a special type of
guard interval called the cyclic prefix.
8. What are the second generation standards are available?
Global system mobile (GSM) in Europe, Interim Standard 136 (IS-136), Pacific Digital Cellular
(PDC) in Japan, Interim Standard (IS-95) in North America.
9. What are the services offered by GSM?
i. Telephone services ii. Bearer services iii. Supplementary services
10. Write about telephone services of GSM.
i. Teleservices provide communication between two and user applications according to a
standard protocol. ii. GSM mainly focuses on voice-oriented teleservices. iii. Emergency calling and
facsimile. iv. GSM also supports videotext and teletext.
11. What are the subsystems available in GSM system?
i. Base station subsystem (BSS) ii. Network and Switching subsystem (NSS) iii. Operation
support subsystem.
12. What are the databases available in NSS of GSM?
Home location register (HLR), Visitor location register (VLR), Authentication center (AuC).
13. Write the functions of HLR.
1. HLR is a database which contains subscriber information and location information for each
user who resides in the same MSC.
2. Each subscriber has International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) andthis number is used to
identify each home user.

29
14. What is the function of VLR?
It is a database which temporarily stores IMSI and customer information for each roaming
subscriber who is visiting the coverage area of a particular MSC.
15. What are the basic channels available in GSM?
Traffic channels and Control channels. Traffic channels carry user data and control channels
carry signaling and synchronizing commands between the BS and MS.
16. What are the channels in IS-95 supported by forward link?
Pilot channel, synchronization channel, paging and traffic channel.
17. What is the main objective of 3G system?
To provide fairly high speed wireless communications to support multimedia data and video in
addition to voice.
18. Write the advantages of WLL.
Low cost, easy installation.
19. What is Bluetooth?
Bluetooth is an open specification for short range wireless voice and data communications that
was originally developed for cable replacement in personal area networking to operate all over the
world.
20. What is piconet?
It is a collection of Bluetooth devices which are synchronized to the same hopping sequence.
PART B
1. Explain about UMTS.
2. Discuss about CDMA 2000.
3. With neat diagram explain about WLL. (April/May 2011)
4. Explain the operation of Bluetooth with neat diagram.
5. Explain GSM system architecture with neat diagram. (April/May 2012)
6. Discuss about GSM channel types.
7. Explain about IS 95 forward channel. (Nov/Dec 2011)
8. Explain about IS 95 reverse channel.
9. Explain frequency hopping spread spectrum in detail.
10. Explain cellular code division multiple access system.
11. Explain the effects of multipath propagation on CDMA. (April/May 2012)
12. Discuss about orthogonal frequency division multiplexing.

30
 EC2403 – RF & MICROWAVE ENGINEERING
UNIT – I
TWO PORT RF NETWORKS-CIRCUIT REPRESENTATION
PART - A
1) Define two-port network.
A two-port network has only two access ports, one for input or excitation and one for output or
response.

2) Which one is called junction?

The point of interconnection of two or more devices is called a junction.

3) Define scattering matrix.

Scattering matrix is a square matrix which gives all the combinations of power relationships
between the various input and output port of a microwave junction.

4) What are scattering coefficients?

The elements of scattering matrix are called scattering coefficients or scattering parameters.

5) What is waveguide?
A waveguide is a hollow metal tube designed to carry microwave energy from one place to
another.

6) Why the S-parameters are used in microwaves? .[NOV/DEC - 2011]

The H, Y, Z and ABCD parameters are difficult at microwave frequencies due to following reasons.
 Equipment is not readily available to measure total voltage and total current at the ports of the
networks.
 Short circuit and open circuit are difficult to achieve over a wide range of frequencies.
 Presence of active devices makes the circuit unstable for short (or) open circuit.
Therefore, microwave circuits are analyses using scattering (or) S parameters which linearly relate the
reflected wave’s amplitude with those of incident waves.

7) Write the properties of [S] matrix. [NOV/DEC - 2012]

 [S] is always a square matrix of order (nxn) .

 [S] is a symmetric matrix i.e. Sij=Sji
 [S] is a unitary matrix i.e. [S][S*]=[I]
 Under perfect matched conditions, the diagonal elements of [s] are zero.

8) State the reciprocity theorem.

The theorem state that when some amount of electromotive force (or voltage) is applied at one
point (e.g., in branch k, vk) in a passive linear network, that will produce the current at any other point
(e.g., branch m, im). The same amount of current (in branch k, ik) is produced when the same
electromotive force (or voltage) is applied in the new location (branch m, vm); that is Vk/im = vm/ik

31
9) Define lossless network.
In any lossless passive network, its containing no resistive elements, always the power entering
the circuit will be equal to the power leaving the network which leads to the conserved in power.

10) What is the zero property of S-matrix?

It states that, “for a passive lossless N-port network, the sum of the products of each term of any
row or any column multiplied by the complex conjugate of the corresponding terms of any other row or
column is zero”.

11) Write the unitary property for a lossless junction.

For any lossless network the sum of the products of each term of any one row or of any column
of the S-matrix multiplied by its complex conjugate is unity.

12) Define non-reciprocal devices.

A non-reciprocal device does not have same electrical characteristics in all direction.

13) What is wire?

A wire is the simplest element having zero resistance, which makes it appear as a short circuit at
DC and low AC frequencies.

14) Mention the many forms of wire.

Wire in a circuit can takes on many forms,
 Wire wound resistors
 Wire wound inductors
 Leaded capacitors
 IV. Elements-to- element interconnection applications

15) Write about the skin effect in a wire.

As frequency increases, the electrical signal propagates less and less in the inside of the
conductor. The current density increases near the outside perimeter of the wire and causes higher
impedance for the signal. This will act as resistance of the wire.
R=rl/A Where, A-Effective cross-sectional area. When area (A) decreases, the resistance of the wire will
be increases.

16) Give a short note on straight-wire Inductance in wire.

In the wire medium, surrounding any current carrying conductor, there exists a magnetic field. If
the current (I) is AC, this magnetic field is alternately expanding and contracting. This produces an
induced voltage in the wire that opposes any change in the current flow. This opposition to change is
called “self inductance”.

17) Define a resistor.

A resistor whose purpose is simply to produce a voltage drop by converting some of the electric energy
into thermal energy (heat), when an electric current passes through it.

18) Mention the purpose of resistors.

Purpose of Resistors:
 In transistor bias networks, to establish an operating point.
 In attenuators, to control the flow of power.
 In signal combiners, to produce a higher output power.
32
  In transmission lines, to create matched conditions.

19) Name the types of resistors.

Types of resistors:
 Carbon composition resistors, which have a high capacitance due to carbon granules parasitic
capacitance.
 Wire wound resistors, which have high lead inductance.
 Metal film resistors of temperature-stable materials.
 Thin-film chip resistors of aluminum or beryllium-based materials.

20) What do you meant by capacitors?

A capacitor that consists of two conducting surfaces separated by an insulating material or
dielectric. The dielectric is usually ceramic, air, paper, mica, or plastic. The capacitance is the property
that permits the storage of charge when a potential difference exists between the conductors. It is
measured in farads.

21) Define Quality-factor (Q) of Capacitor.

It is defined as “the measure of the ability of an element to store energy, equal to 2p times the
average energy stored divided by the energy dissipated per cycle".

22) What is an Inductor?

A wire that is wound (or coiled) in such a manner as to increase the magnetic flux linkage
between the turns of the coil. The increased flux linkage increases the wire’s self inductance.

23) Write the applications of inductors.

Inductors have a variety of applications in RF circuits such as,
 Resonance circuits
 Filters
 Phase shifters
 Delay networks
 RF chokes

24) Which component is represented by the scattering matrix? [MAY/JUNE - 2012]

0 1
[ ] The above scattering matrix represents the Isolator Component.
1 0

25)Draw the equivalent circuit of a parallel plate capacitor. [MAY/JUNE - 2012]

+Q
A
-Q

33
26) What are the advantages of the S – Parameters? .[MAY/JUNE - 2012]

The elements of scattering matrix are called scattering coefficients or scattering parameters.
Scattering matrix is a square matrix which gives all the combinations of power relationships between the
various input and output port of a microwave junction. Therefore, microwave circuits are analyses using
scattering (or) S parameters which linearly relate the reflected wave’s amplitude with those of incident
waves

PART – B
1. State and derive the expressions for the Low Frequency Parameters.
2. State and derive the properties of S – Parameters.[NOV/DEC - 2011]
3. Derive the expression for describing the relationship between [S] with [Z], [Y], [ABCD] & H –
Parameters.
4. Derive the expression for the S – matrix for a two port network with mismatched load.
5. Explain about the formulation of the S – Parameters.
6. Derive the expression for the S – matrix for a transition between a coaxial line and waveguide.
7. Two transmission lines of characteristics impedances Z1 and Z2 are joined at the plane pp’. Express
S – Parameters in terms of impedances.
8. What is the S – parameters of a series element (Z).
9. Write the applications of RF in detail.
10. Write the Scattering Matrix for a transmission line. [MAY/JUNE - 2012]
11. A 50 Ω lossless line connect a signal of 300 KHz to a load of 1000 Ω. If the load power is 50 mW;
determine (8)
(a) VSWR
(b) Position of first Vmin and Vmax
(c) Vmin and Vmax
(d) Impedance at Vmin and Vmax
(ii)What is the S – parameters of a shunt element. (8)
12. A shunt impedance Z is connected across a transmission line with characteristic impedance Z0. Find
the S – matrix of the junction. [NOV/DEC - 2011]
13. The S – matrix of a two port network are given by [NOV/DEC - 2011]
𝑆11 = 0.2∠ 00 ; 𝑆12 = 0.6∠900 ; 𝑆21 = 0.6∠900 ; 𝑆22 = 0.1∠00
i. Prove that the network is reciprocal but not lossless.
ii. Find the return loss at port 1 when port 2 is short circuited.

34
14. Determine the S – matrix properties & representation of S – matrix of a n – port networks.
[MAY/JUNE - 2012]
15. Derive the S – matrices of linear lossless Microwave devices [MAY/JUNE - 2012]
4 2
16. If the impedance matrix of a simple devices [ ] find its Scattering matrix. [MAY/JUNE - 2012]
2 4
17. Give the [ABCD] matrix for a two port network and derive its [S] matrix.

UNIT – II

RF TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER DESIGN & MATCHING NETWORKS

PART - A

1) Define Stability of an amplifier.

It is the ability of an amplifier to maintain effectiveness in its nominal operating characteristics in

spite of large changes in the environment such as temperature, signed frequency or load conditions etc.

2) Define a stability circle.

A stability circle is simply a circle on a smith chart which represents the boundary between those
values of source or load impedance that cause instability and those do not.

3) What is the need for impedance matching.[NOV/DEC - 2011]

To achieve maximum power transfer it is need to match the impedance of the load to that
the source. This is accomplished by incorporating additional passive networks connected in between
source and the load.
4) What are the parameters involved into select the matching of a network.
 Simplicity
 Bandwidth
 Feasibility of manufacturing
 Ease of Tunability

5) Distinguish between conditional stability & unconditional stability[MAY/JUNE - 2012]
Conditional Stability:
A Network is said to be conditionally stable or potentially stable in a frequency range if
│𝛼𝑖𝑛 │ < 1
│𝛼𝑜𝑢𝑡 │ < 1
Only for a limited range of values of passive source and load impedances, but not for all the
values.
UnConditional Stability:
A Network is said to be conditionally stable or potentially stable in a frequency range if
│𝛼𝑖𝑛 │ < 1
│𝛼𝑜𝑢𝑡 │ < 1

35
6) A GaAs MESFET amplifier is to be designed at 5 GHz with 400 MHz bandwidth for
maximum power gain. The measured parameters at 5 GHz with a 50 ohm reference are;
[MAY/JUNE - 2012]

𝑆11 = 0.52∠ − 145°, 𝑆12 = 0.03∠20°, 𝑆21 = 2.56∠17°, 𝑆22 = 0.48∠ − 20°

ℾ𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 0.75∠170°, ℾ𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 0.72∠105°

Determine GAmax and design input and output matching networks with a 50 Ω reference for
maximum power gain.

Solution:

∆= 0.52∠ − 145° ∗ 0.48∠ − 20° − 0.030.52∠20° ∗ 2.560.52∠170°

= 0.168∠197°

1 + |∆|2 − |𝑆11 |2 – |𝑆22 |2 1 + 0.1682 − 0.522 − 0.482

𝐾= = = 3.53
2|𝑆12 𝑆21 |2 2 ∗ 0.03 ∗ 2.56

Since |∆| < 1 and |K| > 1 , the device is unconditionally stable.

𝑆21 2.56
𝐺𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = | | |𝐾 − √𝐾 2 − 1 | = |3.53 − √3.532 − 1 |
𝑆12 0.03

= 12.3346

= 10.913 𝑑𝐵

7) Define Power gain of an amplifier in terms of S – parameters & reflection coefficients.

[NOV/DEC - 2012]

1 + |∆|2 − |𝑆11 |2 – |𝑆22 |2

𝐾=
2|𝑆12 𝑆21 |2
𝑆21
𝐺𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = | | |𝐾 − √𝐾 2 − 1 |
𝑆12

8) Derive the expression for the noise figure of an amplifier. [NOV/DEC - 2012]
𝑅𝑛
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 + │𝑌 − 𝑌𝑜𝑝𝑡 │2
𝐺𝑠 𝑠

9) Define transducer power gain.

It is the ratio of the power delivered to the load to the available power from the source.

10) Define the available power gain.

The available power gain is defined as the ratio of the power delivered from the amplifier to the
ratio of the power available from the source.

36
11) Write the different types of the matching networks.
 T – matching network
 𝜋 - matching network
 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑏 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
 Double stub matching network

12) Write the advantages of the two element matching networks.

It contains only two passive discrete components
The matching network is simple and it is easy to maintain.
It does not make the network complex & bulky.

13) Write the expression for the unilateral gain.

GTU = GSU G0 GLU
G0 = │𝑆21 │2
1 − │𝜏𝑆 │2
G𝑆𝑈 =
│1 − 𝜏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝜏𝐿 │2
1 − │𝜏𝐿 │2
G𝐿𝑈 =
│1 − 𝜏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝜏𝐿 │2

14) Define nodal quality factor.

Quality factor Q which is a measure of the frequency selectivity of a cavity.

15) Write the factors involved in designing a system.

 Stability
 Noise Factor
 Matching Networks
 Amplifier n- Power Relationship

PART – B

1. Explain the different types of matching networks

2. Design a π type matching network that transforms a ZL = 100Ω load to an Zin =(20 – j40) Ω input
impedance at a nodal quality factor Qn = 4. The matching should be achieved at f0 = 600 MHz’s
3. Design two element matching network that match the source impedance ZS = (50 + j25)Ω to the load
ZL = (25+j50)Ω. Assume a characteristic impedance Z0 = 50Ω and an operating frequency of f = 2
GHz
4. Investigate the stable regions of a transistor whose S – parameters are recorded as follows. (Use
smith chart)
𝑆11 = 0.7∠ − 700 ; 𝑆12 = 0.2∠ − 100 ; 𝑆21 = 5.5∠850 ; 𝑆22 = 0.7∠ − 450
5. An RF amplifier has the following S – parameter
𝑆11 = 0.3∠ − 700 ; 𝑆21 = 3.5∠850 ; 𝑆12 = 0.2∠−100 ; 𝑆22 = 0.4∠ − 450
The input node of the amplifier is connected to a voltage source Vs = 5V∠00 .
The input is utilized to drive an antenna which has an impedance of ZL = 73Ω. Assume that the S –
parameters of the amplifier are measured with reference to a Z0 = 50Ω. Find the following
transducer gain GT, unilateral gain GTU, Available Gain GA, operating power gain GP
Derive the different types of power gain expressions.

37
6. Explain microstripline matching networks.[NOV/DEC - 2011]
7. Write short notes on noise figure of a two port amplifier.
8. A Microwave transistor has the following S – parameters at 10 GHz, with 50 Ω reference
impedance. S11 = 0.45 ∠1500, S12 = 0.01 ∠-100, S21 = 2.05∠100, S22 = 0.40 ∠-1500. The source
impedance is Zs = 20Ω and l;oad impedance is
ZL = 30Ω compute the power gain, available gain and the transducer power gain. [NOV/DEC -
2011]
9. Explain about the impedance matching network.[NOV/DEC - 2011]
10. Explain input and output stability circles with different conditions.
11. Derive the amplifier power relations for a two port amplifier.
12. Design an RF amplifier for maximum gain of a properly biased BJT are found at 1 GHz are as
follows with Z0 = 50Ω. S11 = 0.606 ∠-1550, S22 = 0.48 ∠-200, S12 = 0, S21= 6 ∠1800
13. Investigate the stable regions of a transistor whose S – parameters are recorded as follows. (Use
smith chart)[MAY/JUNE - 2012]
𝑆11 = 0.385∠ − 530 ; 𝑆12 = 0.045∠900 ; 𝑆21 = 2.7∠780 ; 𝑆22 = 0.89∠ − 26. 50
14. Describe the process of visualizing the noise performance of a transistor by potting noise circles on
the S plane.[MAY/JUNE - 2012]
15. A microwave amplifier is characterized by its S – parameters. Derive equations for power gain,
available gain & transducer gain. [NOV/DEC - 2012]
16. What is a matching network? Why it is required. [NOV/DEC - 2012]
17. Design a lumped element LC network for matching ZL = 10+j10Ω to a 50Ω transmission line at 1
GHz. [NOV/DEC - 2012]

UNIT III

MICROWAVE PASSIVE COMPONENTS

PART - A
1) Define microwave.
Microwaves are electromagnetic waves (EM) with wavelength ranging from 1cm to 1mm. The
corresponding frequency range is 1 GHZ (=109 Hz) to 300GHz (=1011Hz). Therefore signals, because
of their inherently high frequencies, have relatively short wavelengths, hence the name “micro” waves.

2) What are the major bands available in microwave frequencies?

The microwave frequencies span the following three major bands at the highest end of RF
spectrum.
 Ultra High Frequency (UHF) 0.3 to 3 GHz.
 Super High Frequency (SHF) 3 to 30 GHz.
 Extra High Frequency (EHF) 30 to 300 GHz.

3) Describe IEEE microwave frequency bands.

38
Frequency Microwave band designation
3-30MHz HF
30-300MHz VHF
0.3-1GHz UHF
1-2GHz L
2-4GHz S
4-8GHz C
8-12GHz X
12-18GHz Ku
18-27GHz K
27-40GHz Ka
40-300GHz Millimeter
>300GHz Sub millimeter
4) Enumerate the basic advantage of microwaves.
 Fewer repeaters are necessary for amplification.
 Minimal cross talk exists between voice channels.
 Increased reliability and less maintenance are important factors.
 Increased bandwidth availability.
5) Write the applications of microwaves.
 Microwave becomes a very powerful tool in microwave radio spectroscopy for analysis.
 Microwave landing system (MLS), used to guide aircraft to land safety at airports.
 Special microwave equipment known as diathermy machines are used in medicine for
heating body muscles and tissues without hurting the skin.
 Microwave ovens are a common appliance in most kitchens today.
6) Define a microwave junction.
The point of interconnection of two or more microwave devices is called microwave junction.
7) Why is magic tee referred to as E-H tee?
The magic tee is a combination of the E-plane tee and H-plane tee. It is a four port hybrid circuit.
It is also known as hybrid tee.
8) Define scattering matrix.
Scattering matrix is a square matrix which gives all the combination of power relationships
between the various input and output port of a microwave junction.
9) What are scattering coefficients?
39
 The elements of scattering matrix are called scattering confidents or scattering parameters.
10) What is waveguide?
A waveguide is a hollow metal tube designed to carry microwave energy from one place to
another.
11) Why, the S- parameters are used in microwaves?
The H, Y, Z and ABCD parameters are difficult at microwave frequencies due to following reasons.
 Equipment is not readily available to measure total voltage and total current at the ports of
the network.
 Short circuit and open circuit are difficult to achieve over a wide range of frequencies.
 Presence of active devices makes the circuit unstable for short (or) open circuit.
Therefore, microwave circuits are analyzed using scattering (or) S parameters which linearly relate the
reflected wave’s amplitude with those of incident waves.
12) Write the properties of [S] matrix.
 [S] is always a square matrix of order (n x n) .
 [S] is a symmetric matrix i.e. Sij=Sji
 [S] is a unitary matrix i.e. [S][S*]=[I]
 Under perfect matched conditions, the diagonal elements of [s] are zero.
13) Write the unitary property for a lossless junction.
For any lossless network the sum of the products of each term of any one row or of any column
of the s-matrix multiplied by its complex conjugate is unity.
14) What is H-plane Tee?
An H-plane tee is a waveguide tee in which the axis of its side arm is shunting the E yield or
parallel to the H-field of the main guide.
15) What is E-plane Tee?
An E-plane tee is a waveguide tee in which the axis of its side arm is parallel to the E-field of the
main guide.
16) Define tee junction.
In microwave circuits a waveguide or co-axial line with three independent ports is commonly
referred to as a tee junction.
12) Name some uses of waveguide tees.
It is used to connect a branch or section of the waveguide in series or parallel with the main
waveguide transmission line for providing means of splitting and also of combining power in a
waveguide system.
40
13) What are the types of waveguide tees?
The two types of waveguide are
 E-plane Tee(series)
 H-plane Tee (shunt)
14) Define difference arm.
In E-plane tee, the power out of port 3 is proportional to the difference between instantaneous
powers entering from port 1 and port 2. Therefore, this third port is called as difference arm.
15) What is sum arm?
In a H=plane tee, if two input waves are fed into port1 and port2 of the collinear arm, the output
wave at port3 will be in phase and additive. Because of this, the third port is called as sum arm.
16) Write the applications of magic tee.
A magic tee has several applications,
 Measurement of impedance
 As duplexer
 As mixer
 As an isolator
17) What is hybrid ring?
The hybrid ring is a 4-port junction. The 4-ports are connected in the form of an angular ring at
proper intervals by means of series junctions. It also called Rat-Race circuits.
18) What do you meant by hybrid junction?
A hybrid junction is a 4-port network in which a signal incident on any one of the ports divides
between two output ports with the remaining port being isolated.
19) Why bends are used?
 Bends are used to alter the direction of propagation in a waveguide system.
 The reflection due to the bend is a function of its radius.
20) Name some uses of waveguide twists.
 Waveguide twists are used to change the plane of polarization of a propagating wave.
 Waveguide twists are helpful in converting vertical to horizontal polarizations or vice versa.
21) Define gradual twists.
The gradual twists changes the plane of polarizations in a continuous fashion.
22) Give a note on directional couplers.

41
 Directional couplers are transmission line devices that couple together two circuits in one
direction, while providing a great degree of isolation in the opposite direction.

23) Define coupling factor(C).

The coupling factor of a directional coupler is defined as the ratio of the incident power ‘pi’ to
the forward power ‘pi’ measured in Db
Coupling factor (dB) = 10log10Pi/Pf
The coupling factor is a measure of how much of the incident power is being sampled.

24) Define directivity of directional coupler.

The directivity of a directional coupler is defined as the ratio of forward power ‘p’ to the back
power ‘p’ expressed in Db.
D (dB) = 10log10Pf/Pb
Directivity is a measure of how well the directional coupler distinguishes between the forward and
reverse traveling powers.

25) What do you meant by isolation?

Isolation is defined as the ratio of the incident power ‘Pi’ to the back power ‘Pb’ expressed in
dB.
Isolation (dB) = 10 log10 Pi/Pb
Isolation (dB) equals coupling plus directivity.

26) Define Isolator.

An isolator or uniline is a two-port non reciprocal device which produces a minimum attenuation
to wave in one direction and very high attenuation in the opposite direction.

27) What is circulator?

A circulator is a multiport junction in which the wave can travel from one port to next immediate
port in one direction only. They are useful in parametric amplifiers, tunnel diode, amplifiers and
duplexer in radar.

28) Write the characteristics of a three port tee junction.

42
 A short circuit may always be placed in one of the arms of a three port junction in such a way
that no power can be transferred through the other two arms.
 If the junction is symmetric about of its arms, a short circuit can always be placed in that arm so
that no reflections occur in power transmission between the other two arms.
 It is impossible for a general three port junction of arbitrary to present matched impedances at all
three arms.

29) Mention the different types of directional couplers.

 Two-hole directional coupler
 Four-hole directional coupler
 Reverse- coupling directional coupler(Schwinger coupler)
 Bethe- hole directional coupler

30) Define non-reciprocal devices?

A non-reciprocal device does not have same electrical characteristics in all direction.

31) Define Isolator.

An isolator or uniline is a two-port non reciprocal device which produces a minimum attenuation
to wave in one direction and very high attenuation in the opposite direction.

32) What is circulator?

A circulator is a multiport junction in which the wave can travel from one port to next immediate
port in one direction only. They are useful in parametric amplifiers, tunnel diode, amplifiers and
duplexer in radar.

33) Write the properties of ferrites.

Properties of ferrites:
 Ferrites possess strong magnetic properties.
 Ferrites are most suitable for use in microwave device in order to reduce the reflected power.
 Ferrites possess high resistivity; hence they can be used up to 100 GHz
 Ferrites also exhibit non-reciprocal property.

34) Write the types of ferrite device.

43
 Types of ferrite device:
Three types of non-reciprocal ferrite devices which make use of Faraday rotation in microwave
system are
 Gyrator
 Isolator
 Circulators

35) What is gyrator?
It is a two port device that has a relative phase difference of 1800 for transmission from port 1 to
port 2 and no phase shift for transmission from port 2 to port 1.

36) What do you meant by Faraday rotation?

The rotation of the direction of E field of a linearly polarized wave passing through a magnetized
ferrite medium is known as Faraday rotation.

37) Define 4-port circulator.

A 4-port circulator which is a non-reciprocal component very similar to the 3-port circulator. All
the four ports are matched and transmission of power takes place in cyclic order only, that is, from port
1 to port2, port 2 to port 3, port 3 to port 4 and from port 4 to port 1.

38) Derive the [S] matrix for 3 port circulator.

For a perfectly matched, lossless, non-reciprocal three-port circulator, the S-matrix is
0 0 S13
[S] = S21 0 0
0 S32 0
If the terminal planes are properly chosen to make the phase angles of S13, S21 and S32 zero,
S13=S21=S32=1
0 0 1
Therefore, [S] matrix for 3 port circulator is𝑆 = [1 0 0]
0 1 2

39) Write the applications of circulator.

 A circulator can be used as a duplexer for a radar antenna system.
 Two three port circulators can be used in tunnel diode or parametric amplifiers.
44
  Circulators can be used as low power devices as they can handle low powers only.

40) Name some uses of isolators.

Isolators are generally used to improve the frequency stability of microwave generators, such as
Klystrons and magnetrons, in which the reflection from the load affects the generating frequency.

41) Define Faraday rotation isolator.

Isolators can be made by inserting a ferrite rod along the axis of a rectangular waveguide. Here
the isolator is called as faraday-rotation isolator.

42) Define ferrites.

Ferrites are non – metallic materials with resistivity’s (r) nearly 1014 times greater than metals
and also the dielectric constants (er) is in between 10-15 and relative permeability of the order of 1000.

PART – B
1. What are the properties of scattering matrix for a lossless junction?
2. What are ferrites devices? Explain in detail the different ferrite devices.
3. Derive the expression for the S – matrix for a two port network with mismatched load.
4. Explain about the formulation of the S – Parameters.
5. Derive the expression for the S – matrix for a transition between a coaxial line and waveguide.
6. Write the applications of RF in detail.
7. Define Two Hole Directional Coupler and derive the expression for it with neat
diagram.[MAY/JUNE - 2012]
8. Prove that it is impossible to construct a perfectly matched lossless reciprocal 3 – port junction.
9. In an H – plane Tee junction, 20 mW powers is applied to port 3 that is perfectly matched to the
junction. Calculate the power delivered to the load 60 Ω and 75 Ω connected to the ports 1 and 2.
10. Explain about the phase shifter with its working principle.
11. State and prove the properties of S – matrix.
12. Explain about the different types of Attenuators with its diagram
13. Derive the expression for the cylindrical cavity resonator.
14. Derive the expression for the E – plane Tee.
15. Explain about Circulator and Isolator with its working principle.[NOV/DEC - 2011]

16. Derive the expression for the Magic Tee with its applications. .[MAY/JUNE - 2012]
45
17. Derive the expression for the H – plane Tee with its applications. [NOV/DEC - 2012]
18. A directional coupler has the Scattering matrix given below. Find the Directivity, Coupling and
Isolation. . [NOV/DEC - 2011]

0.190 0.8 − 45 0.345 0

[𝑆] = [0.8 − 45 0 0 0.445 ]
0.3 − 45 0 0 0.6 − 45
0 0.445 0.6 45 0

UNIT – IV
MICROWAVE SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
PART – A
1. What are the Key phenomenon taking place in TRAPATT diode?
The Key phenomena are a)Carrier generation by impact ionization producing a current pulse of
phase delay of 90 degree.An additional phase shift introduced by the drift of carriers.

2.What is the operating frequency of TRAPATT devices?

TRAPATT devices operate at frequencies from 400 MHz to about 12GHz.

3. What are the applications of TRAPATT devices?

The applications are
 Phased-array Radar systems
 Intermediate frequency transmitters.
 Proxity fuse sources
 Radio altimeters
 Microwave landing systems

4. What are the applications of Tunnel Diode?

 used in self excited mixers
 High speed switching and logic operations
 Low power oscillators.

5.What are the elements that exhibit Gunn effect?

The elements are
 Gallium arsenide
 Indium phosphide
 Cadmium telluride
 Indium arsenide.

6. What are the applications of Gunn Diode?

The applications are
 Low and medium power oscillators
 Used in high pump frequencies
 Burglar alarms and aircraft rate-of-climb indicators.

46
7.What is negative resistance?
Negative resistance is defined as that property of a device which causes the current through it to
be 180 degree out of phase with the voltage across it.

8.What are the applications of Backward diode?

 Video detection
 Doppler radar

9. Why are FET‟s preferred to bipolar transistor at high frequencies?

FET‟s are preferred over Bipolar transistors at high frequencies as they easily lend themselves
more readily to integration.

10.What is the main advantage of TRAPATT over IMPATT?

TRAPATT diode has much greater efficiency than IMPATT.

11.What are the applications of low Q-oscillators and amplifier circuits?

 Final output stage of FM telecommunication transmitter
 Up converter pump
 CW Doppler radar transmitter

12. Define GUNN EFFECT.

Guneffect was first observed by GUNN in n_type GaAs bulk diode.according to GUNN,above
some critical voltage corresponding to an electric field of 2000-4000v/cm,the current in every specimen
became a fluctuating function of time.The frequency of oscillation was determined mainly by the
specimen and not by the external circuit.

13. What is MESFET?

If the field effect transistor is constructed with metal semiconductor schottky
barrier diode,the device is called metal-semiconductor field effect transistor.

14.Explain stable amplification mode.

When „n0l‟product of the device is less than about 10 ^(12)/cm^2 the device exhibits
amplification at transit time frequency rather than spontaneous oscillation. This is called stable
amplification mode.Here n0 is the amount of doping and „L‟ is the length.

15.What are the factors reducing efficiency of IMPATT diode?

 Space charge effect
 Reverse saturation current effect
 High frequency skin effect
 Ionization saturation effect.

16.Explain plasma formation in TRAPATT diode.

47
 During the operation of the diode a high field avalanche zone propagates through the depletion
region and fills the layer with a dense plasma of electrons and holes which get trapped in the low field
region behind the zone.

17.What is negative resistance in gunn diode?

The carrier drift velocity increases linearly from 0 to maximum when the electric field is
increased from 0 to threshold value in gunndiodes.When the electric field is beyond the threshold value
of 3000v/cm the drift velocity is decreased and the diode exhibit negative resistance.

18.What are the applications of GaAsMESFET.?

 Used in microwave integrated circuits for high power, low noise
applications.
 Used in broadband amplifier application.

19.What are the applications of TRAPATT?

 Used in airborne
 Marine radars.

20.What is Transferred electron effect?

Some materials like GaAs exhibit negative differential mobility,when biased above
a threshold value of the electric field.This behaviour is called transferred electron effect.

21.What are time parameter for TED‟S

 Domain growth time constant
 Dielectric relaxation time
 Transit time.

22.What are the various modes of transferred electron oscillators?

 Transit time mode
 Quenched and delayed domain modes
 Limited space charge accumulation mode.

23.List the type of circuit used for IMPATT diode circuits.

 Broadly tunable circuits
 Low „Q‟circuits
 High „Q‟circuits

24.What are the applications of low Q-oscillators and amplifier circuits?

 Final output stage of FM telecommunication transmitter
 Up converter pump
 CW Doppler radar transmitter
PART – B

1. Define Gunn Diode and explain about the various modes of propagation of Gunn diode.[NOV/DEC
- 2011]

48
2. What is Transferred electron effect?Explian some of the TED’s?
3. What is negative resistance in gunn diode?Desribe the operation of GUNN
diode[MAY/JUNE - 2012]
4. Explain the operation of TRAPATT diode.
5. Explain the characteristics and working of the Parametric Amplifier. [NOV/DEC - 2011] &
[MAY/JUNE - 2012]
6. Explain the characteristics and working of the Avalanche Transit time diode. [NOV/DEC - 2011]
7. Expalin about the band structures and tunneling phenomenon for Tunnel Diodes [MAY/JUNE -
2012]
8. An IMPATT diode has a drift length of 2 μ m. determine the drift time of the carriers and the
operating frequency of the IMPATT diode. [MAY/JUNE - 2012]
9. Explain the various techniques involved in fabricating the ICs.
10. Explain about the MMIC in detail.
11. Explain about the varactor diode in detail.
12. Explain the operation of BJT with its diagram.
13. Explain about the step recovery diode.
14. What are the various modes of operations of the Gunn diode. [MAY/JUNE - 2012]

UNIT – V
MICROWAVE TUBES AND MEASUREMENTS
PART – A
1) What is transit time?
The time taken by an electron to travel from the cathode to the anode plate of an electron tube is
known as transit time

2) Write the classification of microwave tubes.

They are classified into two types
 O – type microwave tube or linear beam
 M – type microwave tube

3) Name the two configuration of klystron

There are two basic configurations of Klystron tubes
 Reflex Klystron – It is used as low power microwave oscillator
 Two cavity (or) Multicavity Klystron – It is used as low power microwave amplifier.

4) What is drift space?
49
 The separation between buncher and catcher girds is called as drift space.

5) Define velocity modulation.

The variation in electron velocity in the drift space is known as velocity modulation.

6) Define bunching.
The electrons passing the first cavity gap at zeros of the gap voltage pass through with
unchanged velocity, those passing through the +ive half cycles of gap voltage undergo an increase in
velocity, those passing through the –ive half cycles of gap voltage undergo an decrease in velocity, As a
result of these, electron bunch together in drift space. This is called bunching.

7) State the power gain, power output and efficiency of two – cavity klystron amplifier.
 EFFICIENCY: about 40%
 POWER OUTPUT: Average power is up to 500KW and pulsed power is up to 30 MW at 10GHz
 POWER GAIN: about 30 dB.

8) Why the output cavity is called as catcher cavity?

The output cavity catches energy from the bunched electron beam. Therefore, it also called as
catcher cavity.

9) Mention the application of two – cavity.

a. Used in Troposphere scatter transmitters.
b. Satellite communication ground stations.
c. Used in UHF TV transmitters.
d. Rader transmitters.

10) Define electronic efficiency.

The electronic efficiency of the klystron amplifier is defined as the ratio of the output power to
the input power.
Efficiency=Pout /PIN
= b0 I2 V2 / 2I0 V0

11) Define reflex klystron.

The reflex klystron is an oscillator with a built in feedback mechanism. It uses the cavity for
bunching and for the output cavity.

12) What do you meant by apple gate diagram?

50
 The electrons passing through the buncher grids are accelerated / retarded / passed through with
unchanged initial dc velocity depending upon when they encounter the RF signal field at the buncher
cavity gap at positive / negative / zero crossing phase of the cycle, respectively, as shown by distance-
time plot. This is called the applegate diagram.

13) Mention the same characteristics of reflex klystrons.

 Frequency range: 1 to 25GHz
 Power output: It is a low-power generator of 10 to 500Mw
 Efficiency: About 20 to 3o%

14) State the applications of reflex klystrons.

1. This type is widely used in the laboratory for microwave measurements.
2. In microwave receivers as local oscillators in commercial and military applications.
3. Also plays a role in airborne Doppler radars as well as missiles.

15) Write a short note on

i. O – type tubes and
ii. M – type tubes.
O – type tubes:
Klystrons ant TWTs are liner beam tubes in which the accelerating electric field is in the same
direction as the static magnetic field used to focus the electron beam. Here the electron beam travel in a
straight line.
M – type tubes:
Magnetrons are crossed field devices where the static magnetic field is perpendicular to the
electric field. In this tube, the electrons beam travel in a curved path.
16) Define electronic efficiency.
The electronic efficiency of a reflex klystron oscillator is defined as
h=Pac / P dc

17) What is meant by microwave resonators?

Microwave resonators are tunable circuits used in microwave oscillators, amplifiers, wave
meters and filters. At the tuned frequency the circuit resonates where the average energies stored in the
electric field, We and magnetic field, Wm are equal and the circuit impedance purely real.

18) Define resonant frequency.

Resonant frequency fr, at which the energy in the cavity attains maximum value.
fr =2We or 2Wm

51
19) What are drawbacks available in klystrons?
i. Klystrons are essentially narrowband devices.
ii. In klystrons and magnetrons, the microwave circuit consists of a resonant structure
which limits the bandwidth of the tube.

20) What is TWTA?

A traveling wave tube amplifier (TWTA) circuit uses a helix slow – wave non resonant
microwave guiding structure. It is a broadband device.

21) What is the need of slow – wave structures?

Slow – wave structures are special circuits that are used in microwave tubes to reduce the wave
velocity in a certain direction so that the electron beam and the signal wave can interact.

22) Give the comparison between TWTA and klystron amplifier.

Comparison between TWTA and klystron amplifier is,
Klystron amplifier TWTA
1. Linear beam or ‘O’ type device. Linear beam or ‘O’ type device.
2. Uses cavities for input and output Circuits.
Uses non – resonant wave circuit.
3. Narrow band device due to use of Wide band device because use of
resonant cavities. non – resonant wave circuit

23) State the characteristics of TWTA.

Frequency range : 3GHz and higher
Bandwidth : about 0.8GHz
Efficiency : 20 to 40%
Power output : up to 10kW average
Power gain : up to 60dB

24) Write the applications of TWT.

Medium power satellite
Higher power satellite transponder output
Radar transmitters.

25) What are the advantages of TWT?

52
 Bandwidth is large
High reliability
High gain
Higher duty cycle

26) What is the use of attenuator in TWT?

Attenuator is used to prevent oscillations.

27) Name four types of slow wave structures.

Helical line
Folded back line
Inter digital line
Zigzag line

28) What is the need of Quality factor Q?

Quality factor Q which is a measure of the frequency selectivity of a cavity.

29) Why magnetron is called as cross field devices?

In a magnetron, the dc magnetic field and dc electric field are perpendicular to each other and
hence magnetron is called as a cross field device.

30) What are the types of magnetron?

There are three types of magnetrons:
i. Spilt anode magnetron
ii. Cyclotron – frequency magnetrons
iii.Traveling wave magnetrons.

31) Write short notes on negative resistance magnetron.

Negative – resistance magnetrons ordinarily operate at frequencies below the microwave
region. This type of magnetron uses a static negative resistance between two anode segments but has
low efficiency and is useful only at low frequencies.

32) Write the different configurations available in traveling wave magnetrons.

 Cylindrical magnetron
 Linear magnetron
53
  Coaxial magnetron
 Voltage – tunable magnetron
 Inverted coaxial magnetron
 Frequency-agile magnetron

33) Write short notes on

a) Coaxial magnetron
b) Voltage – tunable magnetron
a) Coaxial magnetron:
The coaxial magnetron is composed of an anode resonator structure surrounded by an inner –
single, high-Q cavity operating in the TE011.
b) Voltage tunable magnetron:
The voltage tunable magnetron is a broadband oscillator with frequency changed by varying the
applied voltage between the anode and sole.
34) State the characteristics of coaxial magnetron.
 Minimum peak power of 400kW at a frequency range from 8.9 to 9.6GHz.
 Its duty cycle is 0.0013.
 Nominal anode voltage is 32kV.
 Peak anode current is 32A.

35) State the power output and efficiency of magnetron.

 A magnetron can deliver a peak power output of up to 40MW with the dc voltage of 50KV at
10GHz.
 The average power output is 800KW.
 The magnetron possesses a very high efficiency ranging from 40 to 70%.
 Magnetrons are commercially available for peak power output from 3KW and higher.

36) Write the applications of magnetron.

The magnetron are widely used on,
Radar transmitters
Industrial heating
Microwave ovens.

37)What are the applications of low Q-oscillators and amplifier circuits?

 Final output stage of FM telecommunication transmitter
 Up converter pump
 CW Doppler radar transmitter
In the p - mode of operation, the successive cavities in anode have opposite phase, excitation is
maximum in the cavities.
j=p

54
38) What is the formula for cyclotron angular frequency?
wc = eB / m
Where,
e -Charge of the electron
m-Mass of the electron
B -Magnetic flux density.

39) What do you meant by slotted line?

Slotted line is a fundamental tool for microwave measurements. Slotted line consists of a
section of waveguide or coaxial line with a longitudinal slot. The slot is roughly 1mm wide and allows
an electric field probe to enter the waveguide for measurement of the relative magnitude of field at
location of the probe.

40) Name two methods to measure impedance.

Slotted line
Reflecto meter

41) Define power.

Power is defined as the quantity of energy dissipated or stored per unit time.

42) What are the methods to detect microwave power?

a. Bolometer
b. Calorimeter method

43) Define microwave sensor.

The microwave power meter consists of a power sensor, which converts the microwave power
into heat energy. The corresponding temperature rise provides a change in the electrical parameters
resulting in an output current in low frequency circuitry and indicates the power.

44) Mention the sensors used for microwave power measurements.

The sensors used for microwave power measurements are the schottky barrier diode,
bolometer and the thermocouples whose resistance changes with the applied power.

45) Define bolometer.

A bolometer is a power sensor whose resistance changes with temperature as it absorbs
55
microwave power. The types of bolometer are, the barretter and the thermistor.

46) What are drawbacks of using power meter with single bridge?
The change of resistance due to a mismatch at the microwave input port results in
incorrect reading. The thermistor is sensitive to changes in the ambient temperature resulting in false
reading.

47) What do you meant by thermocouple sensor?

A thermocouple sensor is a junction of two dissimilar metals or semiconductors. It generates an
emf when two ends are heated up differently by absorption of microwaves in a thin film tantalum –
nitride resistive load deposited on a Si substrate which forms one electrode of the thermocouple. This
emf is proportional to the incident microwave power to be measured.

48) Name the method used for high power microwave measurements.
High power microwave measurements can be conveniently done by the calorimetric method
which involves conversion of the microwave energy into heat, absorbing this heat in a fluid and then
measuring the temperature rise of the fluid.

49) What is calorimetric direct heating method?

In the calorimetric direct heating method, the rate of production of heat can be measured by
observing the rise in the temperature of the dissipating medium.

50) What is calorimetric indirect heating method?

In the calorimetric indirect heating method, heat is transferred to another medium before
measurement.

51) Mention the drawbacks in calorimeter measurements.

The main disadvantage in calorimeter measurements are the thermal inertia caused by the lag
between the application of microwave power and the parameter readings.

52) What are the classifications of power measurements?

The classifications of power measurements are
a. Low power (less than 10mW)
b. Medium power (from 10mW to 10W)
c. High power(>10W)

53) Distinguish between thermistor and barretter?

Barretter Thermistor
56
 1. Barretter has a positive temperature coefficient, i.e., resistance increases with temperature.
Thermistor has negative temperature coefficient.
2. They are less sensitive. They are more sensitive.
3. They need less bias current. Thermistors need more bias current.
4. Barretters are usually operated at 100 ohm
Thermistors are operated at 100 ohm to 200ohm.

54) Distinguish between low frequency measurements and microwave measurements.

Low frequency measurements Microwave measurements
1. At low frequency it is convenient to measure voltage and current and use them to calculate
power. At microwave frequencies the amplitudes of the voltages and current on a transmission
line are the functions of a distance and are not easily measurable.
2. At low frequency, circuits use lumped elements. At microwave frequencies, the circuit
elements are distributed.

PART - B

1. Explain in detail power detecting elements?

2. Explain the power measuring devices baretter and thermistor. [NOV/DEC - 2011]
3. How do you measure microwave frequency?
4. Explain the different types of Impedance measurement methods? [MAY/JUNE- 2012]
5. Dicuss the high frequency effects in conventional tubes?
6. Explain about magnetron oscillator.Derive the expression for the Hull cut off voltage.
[MAY/JUNE- 2012]
7. Explain about TWT amplifiers.
8. Explain about the reflex klystron.
9. Explain in detail about 2-cavity klystron amplifier. [NOV/DEC - 2011]
10. Explain about the Attenuation measurement in detail.
11. Derive the expression for the Reflex Klystron oscillator and determine the efficiency factor.
12. Explain about the VSWR measurements in detail. [NOV/DEC - 2011]
13. Explain the operation of two cavity klystron amplifier and compare it with the travelling wave
tube.[NOV/DEC - 2011]
14. Explain how low VSWR can be measured using a microwave bench. [NOV/DEC - 2012]
15. A two cavity Klystron has the following ncharacteristics. . [NOV/DEC - 2012]
V0 = 1000V, R0 = 40 kΩ, I0 = 25mA, f = 3 GHz.
Gap spacing in either cavity (d) = 1 mm.
57
Spacing between two cavitites L = 4 cm
Effective shunt imp[edance Rth = 30 kΩ
Calculate Input gap voltage, voltage gain & efficiency

CS2060 – HIGH SPEED NETWORKS

UNIT – I
HIGH SPEED NETWORKS
PART- A (2 MARKS)
1. Define frame relay.
A form of packet switching based on the use of variable-length link-layer frames. There is no
network layer, and many of the basic functions have been streamlined or eliminated to provide for
greater throughput.[NOV/DEC - 2007]
2. Define ATM.
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a method for multiplexing and switching that supports a
broad range of services. ATM is a connection-oriented packet switching technique that generalizes
the notion of a virtual connection to one that Provides quality-of-service guarantees. (Or) A form of
packet transmission using fixed size packets, called cells. ATM is the data transfer interfaces for B-
ISDN. Unlike X.25, ATM does not provide error control and flow control mechanisms.
3. Define ATM adaptation layer (AAL) [NOV/DEC - 2007]
The layer that maps information transfer protocols onto ATM.
4. Name two WAN technologies.
a) Frame relay.
b) ATM
5. Write down the advantages of packet switching.
a) Flexibility
b) Resource sharing
c) Robustness
d) Responsiveness
6. How circuit switching networks began to be used increasingly for data connections?
a). In a typical terminal-to-host data connection, much of the time the line is idle. Thus, with
data connections, a circuit-switching approach is inefficient.
b). In a circuit-switching network, the connection provides for transmission at a constant data
rate. Thus each of the two devices that are connected must transmit and receive at the same data
rate as the other. This limits the utility of the network in interconnecting a variety of host
computers and terminals.
7. Write down the advantages of packet switching network over circuit switching.

8. What are the main features of ATM?

58
 1. The service is connection-oriented, with data transfer over a virtual circuit.
2. The data is transferred in 53 byte packets called cells.
3. Cells from different VCs that occupy the same channel or link are statistically multiplexed.
4. ATM switches may treat the cell streams in different VC connections
Unequally over the same channel in order to provide different qualities of services (QOS).
9. What are the traffic parameters of connection-oriented services?
1. Peak Cell Rate (PCR)
2. Sustained Cell Rate (SCR)
3. Initial Cell Rate (ICR)
4. Cell Delay Variation Tolerance (CDVT)
5. Burst Tolerance (BT)
6. Minimum Cell Rate (MCR)
10. What are the quality service (QoS) parameters of connection-oriented services?
1. Cell Loss Ratio (CLR)
2. Cell Delay Variation (CDV)
3. Peak-to-Peak Cell Delay Variation (Peak-to-Peak CDV)
4. Maximum Cell Transfer Delay (Max CTD)
5. Mean Cell Transfer Delay (Mean CTD)
11. Types of delays encountered by cells
1. Packetization delay (PD) at the source
2. Transmission and propagation delay (TD)
3. Queuing delay (QD) at each switch
4. Affixed processing delay (FD) at each switch
5. A jitter compression or depacketization delay (DD) at the destination.
12. What do you mean by ATM addressing?
An ATM address indicates the location of an ATM interface in the network topology. This
means that ATM address is not portable. The prefix of an address is associated with a group of
interfaces with the same prefix.
13. Types of ATM network interface.
Two most important interfaces are:
1. User-network interface (UNI)
2. Network-network interface or network-node interface (NNI).
14. What do you mean by user-network interface (UNI) and network-network interface or
Network-node interface (NNI)?
UNI is the interface between an ATM end system and an ATM switch, NNI is the interface between

59
two ATM switches.
15. What are the two sub layers of AAL?[NOV/DEC - 2007]
1. Convergence Sub layer (CS)
2. Segmentation and Reassembly Sub layer (SAR).
16. What is the function of CS?
The Convergence Sublayer (CS) converts the information stream into four types of packets
streams, called AAL Type1, Type2, Type3/4, and Type5. The packet formats match the
requirements of the information stream.
17. What are the subdivisions of CS?
 Upper, service-specific or SSCS sub layer
 Lower, common part or CPCS sub layer.

18. What do you mean by Type1 traffic?

Type1 traffic is a traffic generated at constant bit rate, and it is required to be delivered at the
same rate (with a fixed delay).
19. What is meant by traffic policing?
In management and control the network must monitor the data transfer to make sure that the
source also conforms to the QoS specification and to drop its cells as appropriate, is said to be a
traffic policing.
20. What are the functions of management and control?
 Fault management
 Traffic and congestion control
 Network status monitoring and configuration
 User/network signaling.

21. What are the layers of BISDN reference model?

User plane, Control plane, Layer management plane, Plane management plane.
22. What are the basic tasks required for internetworking over ATM?
Two basic tasks are:
 Encapsulation of the protocol data unit
 Routing of bridging of PDU.

23. What are the functions of user plane?

It compromise the functions required for the transmission of user information for instance, for an
internet protocol over ATM, these layers could be HTTP/TCP/IP/AAL5.
24. What are the three strategies of IP over ATM?
The three strategies are
 The classical IP model
 The short cut models
 The integrated models.
60
 25. What are the basic signaling function between the network and user?
The basic signaling function between the network and user are as follows:
 The user requests a switched virtual connection
 The network indicates whether the request is accepted or not
 The network indicates error conditions with a connection.

26. What are the two basic tasks required for internetworking over ATM?
The first is encapsulation of the protocol data units, and the second is Routing or Bridging of
these PDUs.
27. Define fast Ethernet[NOV/DEC - 2009]
Fast Ethernet refers to a set of specifications developed by the IEEE 802.3 committee to
provide a low-cost, Ethernet-compatible LAN operating at 100 Mbps.
28. Tabulate some characteristics of high speed networks?
Wireless LAN
Fast Ethernet Gigabit Ethernet Fibre channel

100 100 Mbps-3.2 Gbps 1 Mbps–54 Mbps

Data rate 1Gbps,10 Gbps
Mbps

Transmission UTP,STP, UTP, shield cable, Optical fiber, 2.4 GHz, 5-GHz
media optical fiber optical fiber coaxial cable, STP microwave

CSMA/
Access method CSMA/CD Switched CSMA/polling
CD

Fibre channel
Supporting IEEE association
IEEE 802.3 IEEE 802.11
standard 802.3

29. Define gigabit Ethernet?

Gigabit Ethernet, which has a data rate of 1000 Mbps (Or) 1 Gbps. In which collision domain is
reduced. Gigabit Ethernet is mainly designed to use optical fiber, although the protocol does not
eliminate the use of twisted pair cables.
There are four implementations have been designed for gigabit Ethernet:
 1000Base-LX
 1000Base-SX
 1000Base-CX
 1000Base-T
30.List requirements for WLAN?
 Throughput

61
  Number of nodes
 Connection to backbone LAN
 Service area
 Battery power consumption
 Transmission robustness and security
 Collocated network operation
 License-free operation
 Handoff/roaming
 Dynamic configuration

31. List out the important services of IEEE 802.11?

 Association
 Reassociation
 Disassociation
 Authentication
 Privacy

32. Mention the requirements for fibre channels?

a) Full duplex links with two fibers per link.
b) Performance from 100 Mbps TO 800 Mbps on a single line.
c) Small connectors
d) Support for distances up to 10 km.
e) High capacity utilization with distance insensitivity.
f) Broad availability.
g) Small systems
h) Interface and network protocols.
33. List out the fibre channel elements?
a) Node: The key elements of a fibre channel network are the end systems.
b) Fabric: The collection of switching elements
34. What is constant bit rate(CBR)?
CBR is used to provide circuit emulation services . The corresponding bandwidth allocated on
the peak of the traffic sources so that a virtually loss free communication service is obtained with
prescribed targets of cell transfer delay(CTD) and cell delay variation(CDV)
35. What is available bit rate(ABR)?
It is used to support data traffic sources. In this class a minimum bandwidth can be required
by the source that is guaranteed by the network. The service is supported with the guarantee of
CLR or CTD.
36. What is unspecified bit rate(UBR)?
It is used to support data sources willing to use just the capacity left available by all the other
with out any objective on CLR and CTD.
37. Define ATM adaptation layer(AAL)?
62
 A collection of standardized protocols that provide services to higher layers by adapting user
traffic to a cell format.
38. Define AAL1(AAL type 1)?
An AAL used for the transport of constant bit rate (CBR) traffic (ie. Audio and video ) and for
emulating TDM based circuits.
39. Define AAL2(AAL type2)?
An AAL used for supporting time dependent variable bit rate (VBR-RT) connection oriented
traffic(ie.packetized video and audio).
40. What is AAL3/4(AAL type 3 and 4)?
An AAL used for supporting both connectionless and connection oriented variable bit rate
(VBR) traffic.It is also used to support SMDS.
41. What is AAL5(AAL type5)?
The most common AAL type used for the transport of data packets.
42. What is meant by floating mode of multiplexing?
Pointer information allows a VC to float within it’s TU is called mode of multiplexing.
43. What are the elements present in VC?
A VC consists of a Container and the path overhead processed in the SDH multiplexer.
44 .What is path overhead?
The header needed to perform the functions at the path layer is path overhead.
45. What is SS7?
SS7 defines athe signaling network features and the protocol architecture of the common
channel signaling used in ISDN.
46.What are the data link control functions provided by LAPF? (NOV/DEC 2012)
LAPF core provides a minimal set of datalink control functions consisting of the
following
(i)Frame delimiting, alignment & transparency.
(ii)Frame multiplexing/demultiplexing using the address field.
(iii)Inspection of the frame to ensure that it consist of an integer no. of octets prior to zero bit
insertion or following zero bit extraction.
(iv)Inspection of the frame to ensure that it is neither too long nor too short.
(v)Detection of transmission errors.
(vi)Congestion control functions.
47.What are the main features of ATM?
ATM uses fixed size cells consisting of a 5-octet header & a 48-octet information field. There
are several advantage to the use of small, fixed size cells.
(i)First the use of small cells may reduce queuing delay for a high priority cell becoz it waits less
if it arrives slightly behind a lower-priority cell that gained access to a resource.
(ii)Second it appears that fixed size cells be switched more efficiently which is important for the
very high data rates of ATM.

63
 (iii)With fixed size cells it is easier to important the switching mechanism in hardware.

48.What is virtual path identifier and Virtual connection identifier?

The Virtual Path Identifier (VPI) constitutes a routing field for the network. It is 8 bits at
the user-network interface & 12 bits at the network-network interface. The latter allows support
for an expanded number of VPC’s internal to the network to include those supporting subscribers
& those required for network management.The VCI is used for routing to & from the end user.
49.List the levels of fiber channel and the functions of each level?
FC-0 PHSICAL MODE: Includes optical fiber for long distance application, co-axial for high
speeds over short distances & shielded twisted pair for lower speeds over short distance.
FC-1 TRANSMISSION POROTOCOL: Defines the signal encoding scheme.
FC-2 FRAMING PROTOCOL: Deals with defining topologies, frame format, flow & error
control & grouping of frames into logical entities called sequences & exchanges.
FC-3 COMMON SERVICES: Include multicasting.
FC-4 MAPPING: Defines the mapping of various channel & network protocol to fiber channel,
including IEEE 802, ATM, IP & the Small Computer System Interface (SCSI).
50.What is meant by SAR and CS?
The AAL layer is organized in two logical sub layers: SAR & CS
SAR: Segmentation And Reassembly sub layer is responsible for packing information at the
other end.
CS: The Convergence Sublayer provides the function needed to support specific application
using AAL.
51.What is the difference between AAL3/4 and AAL3/5?
AAL 3/4 AAL 3/5
(i)In this MID field is used to (i)In this MID field is assumed to that the
multiplex diff streams of data on the higher layer software takes care of such
same virtual ATM connection. multiplexing.
(ii)A 10 bit CRC is provided for (ii)A 32 bit CRC protects the entire cpu’s
each SAR PDU. PDU, provides strong protection against bit
errors.
(iii)In this 8 octets per AAL SDU, 4
octets per ATM cell. (iii)8 octets per AAL SDU, 0 octets per
ATM cell.

52.Give the data rates for frame relay and X.25? [NOV/DEC – 2008]
The lower bit rate for X.25 is 64 kbps. The fixed data for frame relay is 1.544mbps. The
higher data rate for frame relay is 44.376mbps.
53.Define Ethernet.
As packet switching has dominated wide area data networking, Ethernet dominates local area
networking. The original experimental Ethernet operated at 3mbps over coaxial cable. This
64
 remarkable over twisted pair & optical fiber as well as coaxial cable. It was released
commercially at 10 mbps & then was scaled up first to 100bps & none 1 & 10 gbps.
54.Compare packet switching and frame relay network.(NOV/DEC 2012)

Packet Switching Frame-Relay network

Hop by hop flow and error control End-to-end flow and error control

Multiplexing & switching done in layer 3 Multiplexing & switching operation are carried
out in layer 2

In band signaling Common channel signaling

4. Date rate-64kbps Data rate-2mbps

PART - B
1. Explains the Frame relay architecture & compare it with X.25. (16)
2. a. Explain the ATM cell with a suitable diagram and explain Generic Flow Control and Header
error control. (8) [APRIL/MAY – 2010]
b. Explain various ATM services. (8)
3. a. Discuss and compare the CPCS-PDU & SAR-PDU of AAL ¾ & AAL 5 (8)
b. Explain the architecture of AAL 1 (8)
4. Explain the architecture of 802.11 (10)
5. Explain the following:
a. Classical Ethernet (8)
b. IEEE 802.3 medium options at 10 Mbps (8)
6 Write short notes on [APRIL/MAY – 2010]
a. Fast Ethernet (8)
b. gigabit Ethernet (8)
c. Explain Fiber channel Protocol architecture. (8)
7. What are the services provided by ATM Adaptation layer? Explain the operations of various
AAL protocols? [NOV/DEC – 2007]
8. What are the major strengths of the fiber channel? Explain the various elements and protocols of
fiber channel? (16)[NOV/DEC – 2007]
9. Explain the call establishment process using virtual channels and virtual paths. Describe the
characteristics of virtual channels. (10)
10. Explain the physical layer access mechanism, MAC layer protocol and the MAC layer frame
format for wireless LAN 802.11. (10) [NOV/DEC – 2007]
11. Describe the various services categories proposed by ATM forum for ATM networks. (8)
12. Explain the significance of FECN and BECN fields in the frame format of frame relay. (6)
13. Explain the action that take place in the receiver upon receiving the HEC field in ATM
networks. (8) [NOV/DEC – 2009]
14. Explain how the GFC is used to provide the flow control at the UNI of ATM networks. (8)
[NOV/DEC – 2009]
65
15. Explain the B-ISDN reference model with a neat diagram. [8][APRIL/MAY – 2008]
16. Draw the format of an ATM cell at UNI and NNI. Explain the
purpose of each field in the header.[8] [APRIL/MAY – 2008]

66
 UNIT II
CONGESTION & TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
1. When queue will be formed in a network?
Queue will be formed, if the current demand for a particular service exceeds the Capacity of service
provider.
2. What are the characteristics of queuing process?
Characteristics of queuing process depend on:
 Arrival pattern
 Service pattern
 Number of server
 Queue discipline
 System capacity
 Number of channels
3. What is meant by traffic intensity in queuing analysis? And write Little’s formula for single
server queue?
Traffic intensity (or) utilization factor ρ = λ/μ = arrival rate / rate service
Little’s formula ρ = λ TS
r = λ Tr
w = λ Tw
4. Compare Single Server and Multi Server Queue.[NOV/DEC - 2007]
S.No Single server model Multiserver model
1 Congestion statistics for this model Congestion statistics for this model is
are: M/M/1, M/D/1, M/G/1 M/M/N.
2 Arrival rate = λ Arrival rate for each server = λ/N
5. What is meant by implicit congestion signaling?
When network congestion occurs, packets get discard and acknowledgement will be delayed. As a
result, sources understand that there is congestion implicitly. Here, users are notified about congestion
indirectly.
6. What is meant by explicit congestion signaling?
In this method, congestion is indicated directly by a notification. The notification may be in backward
or forward direction.
7. Define committed burst size (BC)
It is defined as the maximum number of bits in a predefined period of time that the network is
committed to transfer without discarding any frames.

67
8. Define committed information rate (CIR)[NOV/DEC – 2009]
CIR is a rate in bps that a network agrees to support for a particular frame mode connection. Any data
transmitted in excess of CIR is vulnerable to discard in event of congestion. CIR <
Access rate

9. Define excess burst size (Be)

It is defined as the maximum number of bits in excess of BC that a user can send during a predefined
period of time. The network is committed to transfer these bits if there is no congestion. Frames with Be
have lower probability to transfer than frames with BC.
10. Define access rate.
For every connection in frame relay network, an access rate (bps) is defined. The access rate actually
depends on bandwidth of channel connecting user to network.
12. Write Little’s formula.[NOV/DEC – 2007]
Little’s formula is defined as the product of item arrive at a rate of λ, and Served time of items Tr (or)
product of item arrive at a rate of λ and waiting time of an items Tw.
It is given as, r = λ Tr (or) w = λ Tw
14. List out the model characteristics of queuing models.[APRIL/MAY – 2010]
 Item population.
 Queue size
 Dispatching discipline

15. List out the fundamental task of a queuing analysis.

Queuing analysis as the following as a input information.
 Arrival rate
 Service rate
 Number of servers

Provide as output information concerning:

 Items waiting
 Waiting time
 Items queued
 Residence time

16. State Kendall’s notation.

Kendall’s notation is X/Y/N, where X refers to the distribution of the interarrival times, Y refers to
the distribution of service times, and N refers to the number of servers.
The most common distributions are denoted as follows:
G = General distribution of interarrival times or service times
GI = General distribution of interarrival times with the restriction that
Interarrival times are independent.
M = Negative exponential distribution
68
 D = Deterministic arrivals or fixed-length service.
Thus, M/M/1 refers to a single-server queuing model with Poisson arrivals (Exponential
interarrival times) and exponential service times.

17. List out the assumptions for single server queues.[NOV/DEC – 2009]
 Poisson arrival rate.
 Dispatching discipline does not give preference to items based on service times
 Formulas for standard deviation assume first-in, first-out dispatching.
 No items are discarded from the queue.

18. List out the assumptions for Multiserver queues.

 Poisson arrival rate.
 Exponential service times
 All servers equally loaded.
 All servers have same mean service time.
 First-in, first-out dispatching.
 No items are discarded from the queue.

19. State Jackson’s theorem.

Jackson’s theorem can be used to analyse a network of queues. The theorem is based on three
assumptions:
1. The queuing network consists of m nodes, each of which provides an independent exponential
service.
2. Items arriving from outside the system to any one of the nodes arrive with a Poisson rate.
3. Once served at a node, an item goes (immediately) to one of the other nodes with a fixed
probability, or out of the system.
20. Define Arrival rate and service rate.
Arrival Rate: The rate at which data enters into a queuing system i.e., inter arrival rate. It is
indicated as λ.
Service Rate: The rate at which data leaves the queuing system i.e., service rate.
It is indicated as μ.
21. What is meant by congestion avoidance and congestion recovery technique?
Congestion Avoidance: It is the procedure used at beginning stage of congestion to minimize its
effort. This procedure initiated prior to or at point A. This procedure prevent congestion from
progressing to point B.
Congestion Recovery: This procedure operates around at point B and within region of severe
congestion to prevent network collapse. Here dropped frames are reported to higher layer and further
packet delivery is stopped to recover from congestion.
22. What is the role of de in frame relay?
This bit it indicates frame priority. The DE can taken value of 0 or 1. DE=0 means frame network
element; it can be discard the frame during periods of congestion. DE=1, for generally considered as
high priority frames.

69
23. How does frame relay report congestion?
When the particular portion of the network is heavily congestion. It is
Desirable to route packets around rather than through the area of congestion.

23. Define Qos.

Refers to the properties of a network that contribute to the degree of satisfaction that user perceive,
relative to the network performance four service categories are typically under this term capacity, data
rate, latency, delay & traffic losses.
24. Define committed burst size
The max. amount data that the network agrees to transfer under normal Condition over a
measurement interval T, these data may or may not be contiguous.
24. Define excess burst size
The max amount of data in excess of BC that the network will attempt to transfer under normal
condition over a measurement interval T. these data are uncommitted
25.Define switch?
A switch is simply a box with some number of ports that different devices such as workstations, routers
and other switches attach to.
26.What are the techniques available to accomplish switch path control?
1.address learning 2. spanning tree 3. broadcast and discover 4.link state routing 5. explicit signaling.
27.Define VLAN?
VLAN is a broadcast domain whose members use LAN switching to communicate as if they shared
the same physical segment.
28.What are the uses of VLAN?
VLAN are useful for administrative, security and broadcast control.
29.What are the two internal forwarding techniques used in LAN switch?
1. cut through 2. store and forward
30.What is cut through forwarding?
A switch beging to forward the packet as soon as the destination address is examined and verified.
The forwarding of the first path of the packet can begin even as the remainder of the packet is being read
into the input port switch buffers
31. What are the advantages of using twisted pair star LAN?
 Two wire system is susceptible to crosstalk and noise
 A twisted pair can pass relatively wide range of frequencies.
 Attenuation is in the range of 20db/mile at 500 khz
 transmission is not affected by interference.
32.What are the properties of VC connections?
Each VC is identified by a VC identifier. Cells belonging to the single message follow the same VC.
Cells remain in the original order till they reach the destination.
33.What are the advantages of VLAN?
1. Configuration 2.Security 3.Network efficiency 4.Broadcast containment
70
 34.How the Broadcast containment is possible in VLAN?
A properly configured and operational VLAN should prevent or minimize broadcast leakage from
one VLAN to another.
35.What is meant by tag control information (TCI)?
The TCI consists of a three bit user priority field that is used to indicate the frames priority as it is
forwarded through swithes supporting the IEEE 802.1P specification.
36. What is the need for the canonical format indicator(CFI)?
The one bit CFI indicates if the MAC address information is in canonical format.
37. Why switching is so popular?
Switching technologies offer much greater performance and capacity at much lower price. Advances
in silicon are placing more networks processing on expensive chips which prices down and boosts
performance by orders of magnitude over older software based processing.
38.What is meant by LAN switching?
LAN switching is used to move data packets between workstations on the same or different segments.
39. What is meant by VAN switching?
VAN switching takes the form of a virtual connection that is provisioned between two end points
such as a pair of routers.
40. What are the properties of switching?
1. Operate at layer2 and below of any protocol stack 2. Performed in hardware
41. Define switch forwarding?
The information available in the data packet and maintained in the switch enables the switch to
rapidly move data packets from an input port to an output port.
42.What is the need for broadcast and discover technique?
It is commonly used in LAN switching and bridging to locate switched path through the network.
43. Define spanning tree explorer (STE)?
If the spanning tree is in place the explorer packet may be opt to follow the spanning tree path to the
destination is called as STE.
44. What is the need for the connection identifier (CI)?
CI contained in the packet is used to determine the output port .CI is also called as label.
45. Define all routers explorer (ARE)?
If the explorer packet is flooded through out the entire network is called as ARE.
PART – B
1. Explain the single- server and multi server queuing models. (16)
2. At an ATM machine in a supermarket, the average length of a transaction is 2 minutes, and on
average, customers arrive to use the machine once every 5 minutes, how long is the average time that a
person must spend waiting and using the machine? What is the 90th percentile of residence time? On
average, how many people are waiting to use the machine? Assume M/M/1. (16)

71
3. What in Kendall’s notation? State the equations of single server that follows the M/G/I model? (8)
4. Explain the congestion control mechanism used in packet switching networks and frame relay?
(16)[NOV/DEC – 2008]
5. Explain the need for queuing analysis? (6)[APRIL/MAY – 2010]
6. Discuss the various issues related to congestion control in a network? (8)
7. What is the fundamental task of a queuing analysis? What are the different ways of developing a

queuing model? Explain how analysis is done for various models? (8)
8. Explain M/M/I and M/D/I queuing model and derive expression for[NOV/DEC – 2008]
i) Waiting time in the queue.
ii) Waiting time in the system.
iii)Number of customers in the queue.
9. Messages arrive at a switching center for a particular outgoing communications line in a Poisson
manner with a mean arrival rate of 180 messages per hour. Message length is distributed exponentially
with a mean length of 14,400 characters. Line speed is 9600 bps. a. What is the mean waiting time in
the switching center? (6)
b. How many messages will be waiting in the switching center for transmission on the average? (10)
10. a. Explain the effects of congestion. (8) [NOV/DEC – 2009]
b. Explain the congestion control mechanisms in networks. (8)
11. Write a note on Traffic management. (8)
12. Explain how frame relay takes care of traffic rate management. (16)
13. What is Kendall’s notation. State the equations single server that follows the M/G/1
model.[NOV/DEC – 2007]
14. Explain any 4 congestion control mechanisms used in packet switching network. [NOV/DEC –
2007]
UNIT III
TCP AND ATM CONGESTION CONTROL
1. Define congestion.
Excessive network or internetwork traffic causing a general degradation of service.
2. Define congestion control.[NOV/DEC 2009]
A method to limit the total amount of data entering the network, to amount of data that network can
carry.
3. List out the TCP implementation policy option.
 Send policy
 Deliver policy
 Accept policy
 Retransmit policy
 Acknowledge policy
4. List out the three retransmit strategies in TCP traffic control?
 First-only
 Batch
 Individual

72
 5. Explain about the congestion control in a TCP/IP based internet implementation task.
[NOV/DEC 2009]
 IP is connectionless, stateless protocol that includes no provision for detecting, much
less controlling congestion.
 TCP provides only end-to-end flow control and deduce the presence of congestion.
 There is no cooperative, distributed algorithm to bind together the various TCP entities.
6. list out retransmission timer management techniques
 RTT variance estimation.
 Exponential RTO back off
 Karn’s algorithm.
7. Write down the window management techniques. [NOV/DEC 2007]
 Slow start.
 Dynamic window sizing on congestion.
 Fast retransmit
 Fast recovery
 Limited transmit.
8. Define binary exponential back off.
A simple technique for implementing RTO backoff is to multiply the RTO for a segment by a
constant value for each retransmission.
RTO = q * RTO
The equation causes RTO a grow exponentially with each retransmission. The most commonly used
value of q is 2.
8. State the condition that must be met for a cell to conform.
In case of ATM, the information flow on each logical connection is organized into fixed-size packets
called cells.
Cells should arrive with in theoretical arrive time but with in CDVT (limitation) cell is
conformed.
10.What are the mechanisms used in ATM traffic control to avoid congestion
condition?[APRIL/MAY – 2010]
 a). Resource management.
 b). Connection admission control
 c). Usage parameter control
 d). Traffic shaping

11.How is times useful to control congestion in TCP?

The value of RTO (Retransmission time out) have a critical effect on TCP’s reaction to congestion.
Hence by calculating RTO effectively congestion can be controlled.

73
12.What is the difference between flow control and congestion control? [NOV/DEC 2008]
Flow control: The transmitter should not overwhelm the receiver so flow control is
performed.
Congestion control: It aim to limit the total amount of data entering the network, to amount of data that
network can carry.
13. What is reactive congestion control and preventive congestion control.
Reactive congestion control: Whenever a packet discard, occur due to severe congestion, some
control mechanism is needed to recover from network collapse these mechanism is reactive congestion
control.
Preventive congestion control: Mechanism to avoid congestion before it occurs.
14. Why congestion control is difficult to implement in TCP?
The end system is expected to exercise flow control upon the source end system at a higher layer.
Thus it is difficult to implement in TCP.
15. What are the accept policies used in TCP traffic control?
Accept policy: a). In-order policy b). In –window policy.
16. What is meant by silly window syndrome?
If frequently data’s are send as small segment, the response will be speed in sender side but it cause
degradation in performance. This degradation is called silly window syndrome.
17. What is meant by cell insertion time?
Cell insertion time is the time taken to insert a single cell on to the network.
18. What are the mechanisms used in TCP to control congestion?
TCP congestion control mechanism:
 a). RTO timer management
 b). window management

19. What is meant by open loop and closed loop control in ABR mechanism? [NOV/DEC 2008]
Open loop control: If there is no feedback to the source concerning congestion, this approach is called
open loop control.
Closed loop control: ABR has feedback to the source concerning congestion; this approach is called
closed loop control.
20. What is meant by allowed cell rate (ACR)?
Allowed cell rate: The current rate at which source is permitted to send or transmit cell in ABR
mechanism is called allowed cell rate.
21. Define Behavior Class Selector (BCS)
Behaviour Class Selector (BCS): BCS enables an ATM network to provide different service levels
among UBR connections by associating each connection with one of a set of behaviour class.
22. What is cell delay variation?
In ATM cell network voice & video signals can be digitized & transmitted as a system of
cells. A key requirement especially for voice is that the delay across the network be short. ATM is

74
designed to minimize the processing & transmission overhead to the networks. So that very fast cell
switching & routing is possible.
23. Why retransmission policy essential in TCP?
TCP maintains a queue of segments that have been sent but not yet acknowledged. The TCP
specification states that TCP will retransmit a segment. If it fails to receive an acknowledge within a
given time. A TCP implement may employ one of three retransmission strategies: (i) First only (ii)
Batch (iii) Individual
24. Why congestion control in a tcp/ip internet is complex?
The task is difficult one becoz of the following factor
(i)IP is a connectionless stateless protocol that includes no provision for detecting much less
controlling congestion.
(ii)TCP provides only end-to-end flow control.
(iii)There is no co-operative distributed algorithm.
25. Write relationship b/w throughput & TCP window size ‘W’.
S= 1 for W> RD/4
4W /RD for W< RD/4
Where W  TCP window size (octets)
R  Data rate at TCP source available to a given TCP connection.
D  Propagation delay b/w TCP source & destination over a given TCP
Connection.
26. Define ABR
ABR is the available bit rate. ABR specifies a Peak Cell Rate (PCR) that it requires. The
network allocates resources so that all ABR applications receive at least their MCR capacity. The ABR
mechanism uses explicit feedback to sources to assure that capacity is facility allocated.
27. Define CBR (Constant Bit Rate)[APRIL/MAY – 2008]
The CBR service is perhaps the simplest to define. It is used by applications that require a fixed
data rate that is continuously available during the connection lifetime & a relatively tight upper bound on
transfer delay. CBR is commonly used for uncompressed audio & video information.
28. Write the examples for CBR.
 Video conferencing
 Interactive audio
 Audio/video distribution
 Audio/video retrieval

29. Define non blocking?

If an input output connection between an arbitrary idle inlet and outlet can be established by the
network independent of the network state at setup time is called as non blocking.
30. Define blocking?
If atleast one I/O connection between an arbitrary idle inlet and outlet cannot be established by the
network owing to internal congestion due to the already established I/O connections is called as
blocking.
31. What are the types of non blocking network?
1. Strict sense non-blocking. 2. Wide sense non-blocking 3. Rearrangeable nonblocking.
32. What is the cost index of a cross bar network?
The cost index that is the number of cross points for a cross bar network is C=N^2.

75
33. What is meant by full connection?
If each matrix in stage i(i=1,2,………s-1) is connected to all the matrices in stages i-1and i+1 is
called as full connection.
34. What is meant by partial connection?
If each matrix in stage i(i=1,2……….s-1) is not connected to all the matrices in stages i-1 and i+1 is
called as partial connections.
35. When two network are said to be isotropic?
Two network are said to be isotropic, if after relabelling the inlets,outlets and the matrices of the first
network with the respective labels of the second network, first network can be made identical to the
second network by moving it’s matrices and correspondingly it’s attached links.
36. When the two networks are said to be topologically equivalent?
Two networks are topologically equivalent if an isomorphism holds between the underlying graphs of
the two networks.
37. Define packet self routing property?
Each switching element (SE) is capable of routing autonomously the received packets to their
destinations. Such feature is known as self routing property.
38. What are the four types of network permutations in banyan network?
1. h-shuffle 2. h-unshuffle 3.butterfly permutation 4.identity permutation.
39. What is h-shuffle permutation?
The h-shuffle permutation consist in a circular left shift by one bit position of the h+1 least significant
bit of the inlet address.
40. What is h-unshuffle permutation?
The h-unshuffle permutation consist in a circular right shift by one bit position of the h+1 least
significant bit of the inlet address.
41. What are the two banyan network properties?
1. Buddy property 2.constrained reachablity property.
42. What are the two algorithms to build merging networks?
1. Odd-even merging 2.Bitonic merging
43. Define Circular Bitonic Sequence?
Circular Bitonic Sequence is a sequence obtained shifting circularly the elements of a bitonic
sequence by an arbitrary number of positions K.
44. What is slepian-Duguid theorem?
A three stage network is rearrangable if and only if r2>max (n, m).
45. Define partially self routing?
If packet self routing takes place only in the position of the network then it is called as partially self
routing.
46. What are the four basic technique available for a partial connection multistage network?
 Vertical replication (VR)

76
  Vertical replication coupled with horizontal replication
 Link dilation
 EGS network.
47. What is the need for call processing?
Call processing whose task is to receive from the input port controller(IPC)
the virtual call request and to apply the appropriate algorithm to decide whether to accept or refuse
the call.
48. Distinguish between blocking and non blocking network?
If an I/O connection between an arbitrary idle inlet and the outlet can be established by the network
independent of the network state at set up time is called as non blocking.
If at least one I/O connection between an arbitrary idle inlet and the outlet cannot be established by the
network owing to internal congestion due to the already established I/O connection is called as blocking.

PART - B
1 a. Explain TCP flow & congestion control. (10) [NOV/DEC 2009]
b. Explain the Retransmissions Timer management techniques. (6)

2. Explain the window management techniques. (16)

3a. Explain the congestion control mechanism in ATM networks carrying TCP traffic. (10) [NOV/DEC
2007]
b. Explain the ATM traffic control (6)
4a. what are the requirements for ATM traffic and congestion control? (10)
b. Explain the ATM traffic – related attributes. (6)
5 a. Explain in detail the ABR traffic management. (8)
b. Explain in detail GFR traffic management. (8)
6. Explain the TCP retransmission timer management techniques in detail. (16)
7. Describe the TCP implementation policy details. (8)
8. Write a detailed note on Traffic Control. (16)
9. Explain the Leaky Bucket algorithm and compare with traffic shaping. (8) [NOV/DEC 2009]
10. Explain the performance of TCP over ATM. (8)
11. If the TCP Round Trip Time is currently 30 msec and the following acks come in after 26, 32 and 24
msec, respectively, what is the new RTT estimate using the Jacobson’s algorithm? Use α=0.9. (8)
12. Explain KARN’S Algorithms.[APRIL/MAY – 2010]
13. What are the ATM traffic parameters and QOS parameters defined by ATM forum? Explain. (8)
[NOV/DEC 2008]

UNIT IV
INTEGRATED AND DIFFERENTIATED SERVICES
1. Write down the two different, complementary IETF Standards traffic management
Frameworks? [NOV/DEC 2008]
 a). Integrated services
 b). Differentiated services

77
2. Write down the current traffic demand viewed by the IS provider?
a). Limits the demand that is satisfied to that which can be handled by the current capacity of the
network.
b). Reserves resources within the domain to provide a particular QoS to particular portions of the
satisfied demand.
3. Explain about differentiated services?
A DS framework does not attempt to view the total traffic demand in any overall or integrated sense,
nor does it attempt to reserve network capacity in advance. In DS framework, traffic is classified into a
number of traffic groups. Each groups is labeled appropriately, and the service provided by network
elements depends on group membership, with packets belonging to different groups being handled
differently.
4. What are the requirements for inelastic traffic?
 Throughput
 Delay
 Jitter
 Packet loss

5. Give some applications that come under elastic traffic.

a) E-Mail (SMTP) – Quite insensitive to changes in delay.
b) File transfer (FTP) – The delay to be proportional to the file size and sensitive to changes in
throughput.
c). Network management (SNMP) – To get through with minimum delay
increases with increased congestion.
d) Remote Logon and Web Access (TELNET and HTTP) – These are called as Interactive
applications are quite sensitive to delay.
6. State the drawbacks of FIFO queering discipline? [NOV/DEC 2009]
a) No special treatment is given to packets from flows that are of higher priority (or) are more delay
sensitive. If a number of packets from different flows are ready to forward, they are handled strictly
in FIFO order.
b) If a number of smaller packets are queued behind a long packet, then FIFO Queuing results in a
larger average delay per packet than if the shorter packets were transmitted before the longer packet.
In general, flows of larger packets get better service.
c) A greedy TCP connection can crowd out more altruistic connections.
d) If congestion occurs and one TCP connection fails to back off, other
Connections along the same path segment must back off.
7. Distinguish between inelastic and elastic traffic?

Elastic traffic Inelastic traffic

S.No

1 Elastic traffic is that which Inelastic traffic does not

can adjust , over wide ranges, to easily adapt, if at all, to changes

78
 changes in delay and throughput in delay and throughput across
across an internet and still meet an internet.
the needs of its applications
Example is electronic Prime examples is real-time
mail(SMTP),file transfer(FTP), traffic
2 Web access(HTTP),Network (Voice chat, Tele
management(SNMP) conferencing)
8. Define the format of DS field?
Packets are labeled for service handling by means of the DS field, which is placed in the type
of service field of an IPv4 header or the traffic class field of the IPv6 header.
RFC 2474 defines the DS field as having the following format: the leftmost 6 bits form a DS code
point and the rightmost 2 bits are currently unused. The DS code point is the DS label used to classify
packets for differentiated services.
9. Define DS code point.
A specified value of 6 bit DS code point portion of the 8 bit DS field in the IP header which
indicate to which class packets belongs and its drop precedence.
10. What is meant by traffic conditioning agreement?
It is an agreement that specify rules that are to apply for packets selected by the classifier.
Control functions performed in TCA are metering, marking, shaping and dropping.
11. Define DS boundary node.
A DS node that connects one DS domain to the node in another domain is called DS boundary
node.
12. Define DS interior node.
A node in DS domain, which is not the boundary node is called DS interior node.
13. Define DS node.
A router that supports DS policies is called as DS node. A host system that uses DS for
application is also called as DS node.
14. Write down the two routing mechanism use in ISA.
a). Routing algorithm- Decreases local congestion, reduces delay.
b). Packet discard- Most recent packet is discarded, sending TCP entity back off, Reduces load.
15. List out the ISA components?
a). Reservation protocol.
b). Admission control
c). Management agent.
d). Routing protocol
16. List out the two principal functionality areas that accomplish forwarding packets in the router.
a). Classifier and route selection.
b). Packet scheduler.

79
 17. Define TSpec.
ISA service for a flow of packets is defined on two levels.
a) A number of general categories of service are provided, each of which provides a certain general type
of service guarantees.
b) Within each category, the service for a particular flow is specified by the values of certain parameters.
Together, these values are referred to as a traffic specification (TSpec)
18. List out the categories of service in ISA. [NOV/DEC 2009]
a). Guaranteed service
b). Controlled load service
c). Best effort service
19. List out the advantages of ISA.
a). Many traffic sources can easily and accurately be defined by a token bucket scheme.
b). The token bucket scheme provides a concise description of the load to be imposed by a flow,
enabling the service to determine easily the resource requirement.
c). The token bucket scheme provides the input parameters to a policing function.
20. Define delay jitter.
The delay jitter is the maximum variation in delay experienced by packets in a single session.
21. What is meant by best effort service?
Flows that are not reserving resources are provided with best effort service. The network will put
best effort to deliver the packet but if congestion occurs severely it will discard the packet.
22. What is meant by guaranteed service?
Flows that are reserving resources are provided with guaranteed service. The service provides assured
capacity levels.
23. Define global synchronization.
Due to packet discard during congestion, many TCP connections entered slow start at the same
time. As a result, the network is unnecessarily underutilized for some time. The TCP connections
which entered into slow start will come out of slow start at about same time causing congestion again.
This phenomenon is called global synchronization.
24. What are the design goals of RED algorithm?
a). Congestion avoidance
b). Global synchronization avoidance
c). Round on average queue length.
25. Define behavior aggregate in per hop behavior.
A set of packets with the same DS code point crossing a link in a particular direction is called
behavior aggregate.
26. What is meant by differentiated service?
a). It does not attempt to view the total traffic demand in integrated sense.

80
 b). It does not reserve network capacity in advance.
c). It provides different level of QoS to different traffic flows.
27. What is meant by integrated service?
The IS provider
a). Views the totally of current traffic demand.
b). Limits the demand with respect to the current capacity handled by the network.
c). Reserve resources within the domain to provide a particular QOS guaranteed.
28. What are the types of Queuing?
1. Input Queuing 2.Output Queuing 3.Shared Queuing
29. What are the three parameters used to describe the switching fabric performance?

1. Switch throughput 2.Average packet delay 3.Packet loss probability

30. Define switch throughput?
It is defined as the probability that a packet received on an input link is successfully switched and
transmitted by the addressed switch output.
31. What is maximum throughput?[APRIL/MAY – 2008]
The maximum throughput also referred as the switch capacity indicates the load carried by the switch
for an offered load _=1. 75. What is average packet delay? The average number of slots it takes for a
packet received at a switch inlet to cross the network and thus to be transmitted downstream by the
addressed switch outlet (T=1).
32. What is packet loss probability?
Probability that a packet received at a switch input is lost due to buffer overflow (0<p<=1).
33. What are the internal protocols available to enable the downstream transmission of packets?
 Backpressure
 Queue loss
34. What is back pressure?
Signals are exchanged between switching elements in adjacent stages so that the generic SE can grant
a packet transmission to its upstream SE’s only within the current idle buffer capacity.
35. What are the types of back pressure?
 Gobal back pressure
 Local back pressure
36. Define local back pressure?
The number of buffer places that can be filled in the generic SE in stage i at slot t by upstream SE’s is
simply given by the number of idle positions at the end of slot t-1.
37. Define global back pressure?
The number of buffer places that can be filled in the generic SE in stage i at
slot t by upstream SE’s is simply given by the number of idle positions at the end of slot t-1 increased by
the number of packets that are going to be transmitted by the SE in the slot.

81
 38. Define input queuing?
Cells addressing different switch outlets are stored at the switch input interface as long as there
conflict-free switching through the inter connection network is possible.
39. Define output queuing?
Multiple cells addressing the same switch outlet are first switched through the interconnection
network and then stored in the switch output while waiting to be transmitted down stream.
40. What is shared queuing?
The queuing capability shared by all switch input and output interfaces is available for all cells that
cannot be switched immediately to the desired switch outlet.
41. What are the blocks involved in an N×M ATM switch?
 N input port controller
 Non blocking interconnection network
 M output port controller
42. What are the assumptions made in an input queuing?

Bi>0, Bo=Bs=0 and K=1

47. What are the algorithms involved for an input queuing?
 Three phase algorithm
 Ring reservation algorithm
48. What are the phases present in three phase switch?

 probe phase
 Acknowledgement phase
 data phase
49. What is signal latency in a network?

The number of bit times it takes for a signal to cross the network is called signal latency.
50. Why combined input and output queuing is necessary?[APRIL/MAY 2010]
The combined architecture adopts a k-non blocking self routing multistage structure where the shared
queue is removed. The virtual queue, input and output queue are mutually independent discrete time
systems. In this queuing technique the number of cells entering the virtual queues in a slot approaches
infinity and the queue joined by each cell is randomly and independently selected.
51. What is the assumption made in an output queuing?

Bo>0, Bi=Bs=0 and Output speed up K>1

52. What is cross bar tree switch?

Cross bar tree switch consists of a set of N planes each inter connecting a switch inlet to all the N output
concentrators.

82
 53. What is the assumption made in a shared queuing?

Bs>0, Bi=Bo=0 and K=1.

54. What is the need for an delay network in the starlite switch?

The recirculation or delay network of size P×P acts as a distributed shared

buffer and feeds back to the routing network up to P=N Bs packets that could not be switched in the
preceding slot.
55. What are the blocks involved in a trap network? [NOV/DEC 2009]
 Marker
 Running adder winner
 Running adder loser
 Concentrator.
PART – B

1. Explain with neat diagram, the significance, components, services and the architecture of Integrated
Services. (16)[APRIL/MAY – 2008]

2. a. Explain the services offered by ISA (8) [NOV/DEC 2009]

b.Define Differentiated services. (8)

3. Explain the various queuing disciplines in ISA. (16)

4. Explain the RED algorithm. (16)

5. Explain the various types of Traffic. (16) [NOV/DEC 2008]

6. Explain the different types of PHB? (8)

7. Explain the bit-round fair queuing (BRF) discipline and compare with PS? (8)

8. Explain fair queuing and waited fair queuing using an example? (8)

9. Explain how Early detection is used to control congestion in networks. (16)

10. Compare Integrated and differentiated services with examples. (8)[APRIL/MAY 2010]

11. Discuss the architecture and functional components of Differentiated Services Network.(16)

12. Explain the random early detection method of congestion management in detail.(8) [NOV/DEC
2007]

83
 UNIT V
PROTOCOLS FOR QOS SUPPORT

1. What is meant by soft state in RSVP?

RSVP use connectionless approach, each intermediate router maintain state information about nature
of flow, that will be refreshed by end system at predetermined amount of time.
This is called soft state.
2. Why receiver is responsible to initiate reservation in RSVP?
Each member (destination) in multicast may require different resources to be reserved depending on
QOS it needs. So it is therefore better for receiver to make resource reservation.
3. Define session in RSVP? [NOV/DEC 2007]
Once a reservation is made at a router by a particular destination, the router considers this as a session
and allocates resources for the life of that session.
Session is defined by
Session: Destination IP address
IP protocol identifier
Destination port
4. Define flow specification in RSVP?
The flow specification of RSVP specifies a desired QOS and is used to set parameters in a node’s
packet scheduler.
Flow spec is defined by
Flow spec: Service class
R Spec
T Spec
R Spec is Reserve Specification
T Spec is Traffic Specification
5. Define filter specification in RSVP?
Filter Spec in RSVP defines the set of packets or flow, for which a reservation is requested.
Filter Spec is defined by
Filter spec: Source address
UDP/TCP source port
6. What are the types of reservation style used in RSVP?
a). Wild card filter reservation style.
b). Fixed filter reservation style
c). Shared explicit reservation style

84
7. What is meant by label merging and frame merging?
Label merging: The replacement of multiple incoming labels for a particular forward
equivalent class with single outgoing label is called label merging
Frame merging: Label merging, when it is applied to operation over frame based media, then it is
called as frame merging.
8. Define label switched swapping in MPLS.
The basic operation of looking up an incoming label to determine the outgoing label and forwarding
is called Label Swapping.
9. Define label switched hop in MPLS.
The hop between two MPLS nodes on which forwarding is done using labels is called Label Switched
Hop.
10. What is meant by ingress edge & egress edge in MPLS domain?
Ingress Edge: label switched router through which packets from internet router enters into MPLS
domain is called ingress edge.
Egress edge LSR: LSR through which packets leaves the MPLS domain.
11. Define Label switched router in MPLS.
An MPLS network consists of a set of nodes called label switched router (LSR) capable of switching
and routing packets on the basis of which a label has been added to each packets.
12. What is purpose of time to live field in label format?
The value of this field is decremented at each router and the packet is dropped if the count falls to zero.
13. What is meant by integrated layer processing in RTP?
In TCP/IP each layer processed sequentially, whereas in integrated layer
processing, adjacent layers are tightly coupled and they function parallel.
14. What is the function of RTP relays and give its types?
A relay operating at a given protocol layer is an intermediate system that acts as both a destination
and a source in a data transfer.
15. What is the function of mixer and translator in RTP? [NOV/DEC 2009]
Mixer: It is source of synchronization. It receives stream of RTP packets from one or more sources.
Combines these streams and forwards a new RTP packet stream to one or more destinations.
Translator: It produces one or more outgoing RTP packets for each incoming packets. It change the
format of the data that suite to transfer from one domain to another.
16. Define MPLS?
Multi Protocol Label Switching is to standardize a label switching paradigm that integrates layer 2
switching with layer 3 routing. The device that integrates routing and switching functions is called a
Label Switching Router (LSR).
17. Mention the main features of label switching?[APRIL/MAY – 2008]
1. Low cost hardware implementation
2. Scalability to very high speeds

85
 3. Flexibility in the management of traffic flows
18. State the disadvantages of overlay model?
Overlay model of IP over ATM has the disadvantage that two network infrastructures need to be
managed, each with its own addressing, routing and management constraints.
19. What do you mean by a Label Switched Path (LSP)?
A sequence of Label Switching Routers (LSR) that is to be followed by a
packet is called LSP.
20. What are the resources used by an integrated service model?
Integrated service model requires resources such as bandwidth and buffers to be explicitly reserved
for a given dataflow to ensure that the application receives its requested QoS
21. What do you mean by guaranteed service?[APRIL/MAY – 2010]
The guaranteed service in the internet can be used for applications that require real time service
delivery. For this application data that is delivered to the application after a certain time is generally
considered worthless. Thus guaranteed service has been designed to provide a frame bound on the end to
end packet delay for a flow.
22. What do you mean by controlled-load service?
The controlled-load service is intended for adaptive applications that can tolerate some delay but that
are sensitive to traffic overload conditions. These applications typically perform satisfactorily when the
network is lightly loaded but degrade significantly when the network is heavily loaded.
23. Define RSVP?
Resource Reservation Protocol was designed as an IP signaling protocol for the integrated services
model. RSVP can be used by a host to request a specific QoS resource for a particular flow and by a
router to provide the requested QoS along the paths by setting up appropriate states.
24. What are the features of RSVP? [NOV/DEC 2008]
1. Performs resource reservations for unicast and multicast applications
2. Requests resource in one direction from a sender to a receiver
3. Requires the receiver to initiate and maintain the resource reservation.
4. Maintains soft state at each intermediate router
5. Does not require each router to be RSVP capable
6. Supports both IPv4 and IPv6
25. What is the information’s present in the path message?
1. Phop
2. Sender template
3. Sender Tspec
4. Adspec
26. Define soft state
When a state is not refreshed within a certain timeout, the state is deleted. The type of state that is
maintained by a timer is called a soft state.
86
27. Define SLA?
Service Level Agreement is a service contract between a customer and a Service provider that
specifies the forwarding service that the customer will receive. An SLA includes a Traffic Conditioning
Agreement (TCA) that gives detailed service parameters such as service level, traffic profile, marking
and shaping. SLA can be static or dynamic.
28. What does RTCP provide to the sources?
RTCP provides:
 Quality of service and congestion control
 Identification
 Session size estimation
 Session control
29. What is the advantage of label switching?
It improves the performance and provides different QOS to different users. It also speed up IP
packet forwarding process and therefore reduce delay and improve overall throughput of internet.
30. List out the characteristics of MPLS. [NOV/DEC 2007]
MPLS characteristics that ensure its popularity are:
 Connection-oriented QOS support
 Traffic engineering
 Virtual private network(VPN) support
 Multi protocol support
31. What are the reservation & styles in RSVP?
Reservation
(i)Shared
(ii)Distinct
Styles in RSVP
(i)Write card filter reservation style
(ii)Fixed filter reservation style
(iii)Shared explicit reservation style
32. Define forwarding equivalent class (fec) [NOV/DEC 2009]
The FEC for a packet can be determined by using parameter like
(i)Source/destination IP address
(ii) Source/destination port number
(iii)IP protocol id
(iv)Differentiated services code point
(v)IPV4 flow label
Through the network known as Label Switched Path (LSP) must be defined.
Forwarding is achieved by doing a simple took u in a prided table that maps label values to next lop
address.

87
 33. Define MPLS Label Format in RSVP
MPLS is a mechanism used to speed up IP packet forwarding process & therefore reduce delay &
improve overall throughput of internet.
Label value Exp S Time to live

34. Compare Hop-By-Hop Routing & Explicit Routing[APRIL/MAY – 2008]

HOP-By-HOP EXPLICIT
(i)Each LSR independently choose the (i)Ingress LSR specifies all of the LSR’s
next hop for each FEC. on an LSP.
(ii)It provides traffic engineering & policy
(ii)It does not support traffic engineering
routing.
or policy routing.

35. Define the Format of RTP Leader

S
V P X CC M PLT QNO
TIME STAMP
SYNCHRONIZATION SOURCE IDENTIFIERS
(SSRC)
CONTRIBUTING SOURCE IDENTIFIER (CSRC)
.
.
.
.
CSRC IDENTIFIER
V  Version (2 bit)
P  padding (1 bit)
X  Extension (1 bit)
CC  CSRC count (4 bit)
M  Marker (1 bit)
PLT  Payload type (7 bit)
SQNO sequence no. (16 bit)
Time Stamp  (32 bit)

PART - B

1. a. Explain the characteristics of RSVP and the types of data flow. (8)
b. Explain the RSVP operation and protocol mechanisms. (8) [NOV/DEC 2007]
2. Explain the operation of multi protocol label switching. (16)

3 a. Explain the RTP protocol architecture and its features. (8)

b. Explain the RTP data transfer protocol. (8)[APRIL/MAY – 2008]
4. Explain the MPLS characteristics, advantages and operations. (16)

88
 5. Explain the functions and working of RTCP in detail. (16)
6. Explain in detail about Resource Reservation Protocol operation by giving its goals and
characteristics. (16) [NOV/DEC 2009]
7. What are the rules for processing TTL field in MPLS label? (8) [NOV/DEC 2009]
8. Explain why TCP is not suitable for real time applications. Also explain the need for RTP?
[NOV/DEC 2008]
9. Draw the RTP header and explain its various fields. (8)
10. Explain how RTCP function like an adjunct protocol of RTP. (8)[APRL/MAY – 2010]
11. Explain the reservation style of wild card filter in RSVP. (8)

EC 2402 - OPTICAL COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

QUESTION BANK
UNIT I
1.Define a fiber-optic system?
Fiber optic system is nothing but a fiber optic cable is essentially light pipe that is used to carry a
light beam from one place to another.
2. What is the relationship between information capacity and bandwidth?
Information capacity is directly proportional to bandwidth.
3. Contrast glass and plastic fiber cables?
Fiber optic cables are made from glass and plastic. Glass has lowest loss but it is brittle. Plastic is
cheaper but more flexible, but has high attenuation.
4. Define wavelengths.
It is the length that one cycle of an electromagnetic wave occupies in space.
5. For a low power optical signal which type of photo diode can be used? Why?
Avalanche phoito diode is used since it has a greater sensitivity owing to internal gain mechanism.
6. Define wavefront.
For plane waves some constant phase points from a surface which is referred as wavefront.
7. What is meant by refractive index of a material?
The refractive index n is defined as the ratio of the velocity of light in a vaccum to the velocity of
light in the medium.
8. What is external reflection?
When light is travelling in a certain medium is reflected off an optical denser material (one with a
higher refractive index), the process is referred to as external reflection.
9. What is intetnal reflection?
When light is travelling in a certain medium is reflected off an less optical dense material the process
is referred to as internal reflection.

10. Explain guided mode.

Guided mode is a pattern of electric and magnet field distributions that is repeated along the fiber at
equal intervals.
11. What is the purpose of cladding?
Cladding provides mechanical strength, reduces scattering loss resulting from dielectric
discontinuities at the core surface, and protects the core from absorbing surface contaminants with which it
could come into contact.
12. What types of fibers are used commonly?
i) Based on refractive index profile:
a) step Index
b). Graded index
ii). Based on Propogation
a). Mono-mode or single mode.
b). Multi mode.

89
13. What is a step index fiber? (NOV/DEC 2011)
The refractive index of the core n1 is constant and a cladding of lower refractive index n2 is known as
step index fiber.
14. What is a Graded index fiber?
The core refractive index decreases continuously with increasing radial distance r from the center of
the fiber, but in generally constant in the cladding.
15. What is order of a mode?
It is equal to the number of field zeros across the guide.
16. What is law of refraction? (NOV/DEC 2011)
The law of inciodence says that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of refraction.
17. What is meridional rays?
The ray has an angle of incidence ф at the interface which is greater than the critical angle and is
refklected at the same angle to the normal.
18. Define Numerial aperture.(MAY/JUNE 2012)
Numerical Aperture is defined as,
NA= no sin θa = (n12 – n22)1/2
For air no = 1
19. What is skew ray?
Skew rays are not transmirtted through the fiber axis. They follow the helical path through the fiber.
20. What are leaky modes in optical fibers?
In leaky modes the fields are confined partially in the fiber core and attenuated as they propogate
along the fiber length due to radiation and tunnel effect.
21. Define lower order Lpmode.
The mode having lowest cut off frequency is known as lower order mode.
22. Define acceptance angle.
It is the maximum angle to the axis at which light may enter the fiber in order to be propogated..
23. Define critical angle.
The angle of refraction is always greater than the angle of incidence. Under this condition the
refraction and angle of incidence is knowa as critical angle.
24. What is an index profile?
The index profile of an optical fiber is a graphical representation of the magnitude of the refractive
index across the fiber.
25. Write the advantages of optical communication.
i. Small size and weight.
ii. Immunity to interference and crosstalk.
iii. High signal security.
iv.Low transmission loss.
v. System reliability and ease of maintenance.
vi. Wideband width and greater information capacity.
26. Define refraction.
Refraction is the bending of a light ray that occurs when the light rats pass from medium to another.
27. Write the advantages and disadvantages of single mode fiber.
Advantages:
i. No intermodel dispersion.
ii. Information capacity is large.

Disadvantages.
i. Launching of light into single mode fiber and joining of two fibers are very difficult.
ii. Fabrication is difficult and so costly.
90
28. Write the advantages and disadvantages of multi mode fiber. (APRIL/ MAY 2011)
Advantages:
i. Larger core radius make it easier to launch optical power into the fiber.
ii. Connection is easy.
iii. LEDs can be used to launch light.
iv. LEDs are less expensive, less complex circuitry and have longer life time.

29. What is the energy of a single photon of the light whose λ=1550nm, in ev? (NOV,DEC 2011)
30.Assume that there is a glass rod of refractive index 1.5 surrounded by air. Find the critiocal angle.
(NOV,DEC 2011)
31. Calculate the culoff wavelength of a singl mode fiber with core radius of 4um and A=0.003
32. The refractive index difference of the fiber is 1% Determine the critical angle at the core cladding
interface if the refractive index is 1.46.
33. A step index fiber has a normalised frequency (V) of 26.6 at 1300nm,If the core radius is 25um,
find the numerical aperture.

PART B
1. Draw the schematic diagram of optical fiber communication system. Explain the function of each
block.
2. Give the ray theory of fibers and obtain expressions for cutoff wavelengths v number of modes?
3. Define the following terms with respect to optical laws.
Reflection.
Refraction.
Refractive index.
Snell’s law.
Critical angle.
Total internal reflection.
Acceptance angle.
Numerical aperture.
4. Write short notes on th following,. (NOV/DEC 2011)
Single mode step index fiber.
Multimode step index fiber.
Multimode graded index fiber.
5. Explain the concept of electromagnetic modes in relation in relation to a plane optical waveguides.
6. Briefly discuss. (NOV/DEC 2011)
a. The evanescent field(U) mode coupling.
b. Goos Haen the shift.
7. Describe the optical propagation in a cylindrical fiber.
8. Explain the difference between meridional and skew ray paths in step index fibers.
9. Why single mode step index fibers are most widely used in telecommunication? Discuss about the
effective refractive index of the single mode fiber.
10. Give a brief note on linearly polarized modes of an optical fiber. (APRIL/ MAY 2011)
11. Give an overview of the guided , radiation and leaky modes of optical fibers. (APRIL/ MAY 2011)
12. Calculate the number of modes supported by a graded index fiber having a core radius of 25um and
operating at 820 nm. The fiber has refractive index of 1.48 at the core and a cladding of 1.46. Assume
a parabolic index profile. (APRIL/ MAY 2011)

91
13. Describe the ray theory behind the optical fiber communication by total internal reflection.
(NOV/DEC 2012)
14. Derive the expression for wave equation of an electromagnetic wave propagating through optical
fibers. (NOV/DEC 2012)
15. Derive the expression for the linearly polarized modes in optical fibers and obtain the equation for V
number. (NOV/DEC 2012)
16. What is numerical aperture of an optical fiber? Deduce an expression for the same. (NOV/DEC 2011)

17. Calculate NA of silica fiber with its core refractive index (ni) of 1.48 and cladding refractive index of
1.46. what should be the new value of ‘ni’in order to change the NA to 0.23(NOV/DEC 2011)

18. Explain the phenomenon of total internal reflection using Snell’s law with figures and calculations.
(NOV/DEC 2011)

19. Distinguish step-index from graded index fibers. (NOV/DEC 2011)

UNIT II
1. What are the losses (or) signal attenuation mechanism in a fiber?
i. Absorption.
ii. Scattering.
iii. Radiative losses.
2. Define signal attenuation of fiber. (NOV/DEC 2011)
It is defined as the ratio of the input optical power pi into a fiber to the output optical
power po from the fiber.
10 𝑃
αdB= 𝐿 log10 𝑃 𝑖
𝑜
where L is the fiber length.
3. Name three mechanisms caused by absorption.
i. Absorption by atomic defects in the glass composition.
ii. Extrinsic absorption by impurity atoms in the glass material.
iii. Intrinsic absorption by the basic constituent atoms of the fiber material.
4. Write Urach’s rule.
𝛼𝑢𝑣 = 𝐶𝑒 𝐸⁄𝐸𝑜
Where C and Eo are empirical constant.
E is the photon energy.
5. How will scattering losses arises?
Scattering losses in glass arise from
i. Microscopic variations in the material density.
ii. Compositional fluctuations
iii. Structural inhomo densities or structural defects due to fiber fabrications.
6. Define fictive temperature.
It is defined as the temperature at which the glass can reach a state of thermal equilibrium and
closely related to the anneal temperature.
7. What are types of scattering losses?
a). Linear scattering Loss – Rayleigh scattering,
Mie scattering.
b). Non-Linear Scattering- Stimulated Brillouin Scattering.

92
 8. What are types of bending losses?(NOV/DEC 2012)
a). Macroscopic bending losses.
b). Operating at the shortest wavelength possible.
9. Mention the way to reduce macrobending losses? (NOV/DEC 2011)
a). Designing fibers with large relative refractive index difference.
b). Operating at the shortest wavelength possible.
10. Define dispersion in optical fiber.
Dispersion of the transmitted optical signal causes distortion or both digital and analog
transmission along optical fibers, term ‘dispersion’ refers to spreading of lightt pulse as it propogates through
fiber.
11. What are the types of dispersion?
Material dispersion.
Waveguide dispersion.
Group velocity dispersion.(or) modal dispersion.
12. What is meant by material dispersion?
It arises from the variation of the refractive index of the core material as a function of wavelength.
This causes a wavwlength dependence of the group velocity of any given mode.
Pulse apreading occurs even when different wavelengths follow the same path.
13. Define Group Velocity Dispersion.
Intramodel dispersion is pulse spreading that occurs within a single mode. The spreading arises from the
finite spectral emission width of an optical source. This phenomenon is known as Group Velocity
Dispersion.
14. What is meant by Intermiodel dispersion?(NOV / DEC 2011)
The intermodel dispersion arises due to the variation in the group delay for each individual mode at a
single frequency.When the group velocity of different mode varies.
15. What is meant by model noise?
This is the 3rd effect of the transmitted signals on the optical channel. The speckle patterns observed
in multimode fiber as fluctuations which have characteristic times longer that the resolution time of the
detector and is known as modal (or) speckle noise.
16. Define polarization?
Polarization refers to the electric field orientation of a light siginal which can vary significantly along
the lenghth of the fiber.
17. Define Snell’s law.(MAY / JUNE 2012)
Snell’s law of refraction at the core cladding interface.
𝑛
Sin ф𝑐 = 𝑛2 = cos 𝜃
1
18. Define Birefrigence.
The polarization modes propogate with different phase velocities and the difference between their effective
refractive indices is called birefringence.
Bf ~ ny - nx
19. What is meant by crosstalk?
The extinction ratio at the fiber output between the unwanted mode and the launch mode.
20. What are the types of joints? (NOV/DEC 2011)
a). Fiber splices – semipermanent joints.
b). Demountable fiber connectors (or) simple connctors- Removable pointers.
21. Define Fresnel reflection. (NOV/DEC 2011)
When the two joined fiber ends are smooth and perpendicular to the fiber axis, and the two fiber axis
are perfectely aligned, a small proportion of the light may be reflected back into the transmitting fiber
causing attenuation at joint. This is known as fresnel reflection.
22. What are the types of misalignment?
a) Lateral/radial/ axial misalignment
b) Longitudinal misalignment.
93
 c). Elastic tube splice.
23. State the drawbacks of fusion splicing.
a). Heat necessary to fuse the fibers.
b). With careful handling the tensile strength of the fused may be as low as 30% of the uncoated fiber
before fusion.
24. What arethe types of fiber couplers?
a. Three or four port coupler.
b. Star coupler.
c. Wavelength division multiplying devices.
25. Listout the various loss parameters with four port couples?
a. Excess loss.
b. Insertion loss.
c. Cross talk.
d. Split ratio.
26. Define attenuation cioefficient of a fiber.
27. What factors causes Rayleigh scattering in optical fibers?
28.What are two reasins for chromatic dispersion?
29. What are the most important non linear effects in optical fiber commnication?

PART B
1. Discuss absorption losses in optical fibers, comparing the intrinsic an extrinsic absorption
mechanisms.
2. Briefly discuss the linear scattering losses in optical fibers.
Rayleigh scattering.
Mie scattering.
3. Describe the phenomenon of modal noise in optical fibers andsuggest hoe it may be avoided?
4. Describe dispersion mechanism for signal mode fibers with dominating effects and describe how intra
modal dispersion may be minimized within the single mode region.
5. Explain in detail the modal birefringence and the best length in single mode fibers.
6. Give the theory of material dispersion and find an expression for material dispersion.
7. Explain the fiber bend losses with neat diagram.
8. Discuss the different misalignment losses and their magnitudes. (APRIL/ MAY 2011)
9. Give an account on different types of splices and their merits and demerits.
10. Discuss the principles of operation of the two major categories of demountable optical fiber
connectors.
11. With suitable diagram explain fiber couplers.
12. Indicate the distinction between fiber star and tree coupler.
13. Discuss scattering and bending losses in optical fibers. (APRIL/ MAY 2011)
14. Explain Non linear scattering losses and fiber bend loss.and material dispersion in optical fiber.
(MAY / JUNE 2012)
15. Explain mechanical splices with neat diagram . (MAY / JUNE 2012)
16. Write aa brief note on fiber alignment and joint loss. (MAY / JUNE 2012)
17. Draw and explain various fiber alignment and joint losses. (NOV/DEC 2012)
18. Write notes on fiber splices and connectors. (NOV/DEC 2012)
19. What do you mean by pulse broadening? Explain its effect on information carrying capacity of a
fiber. (NOV/DEC 2011)

94
 20. An LED operating at 850 nm has a spectral width of 45 nm. What is the pulse spreading in ns/km due
to material dispersion? What is the pulse spreading when a laser diode having a 2 nm spectral width
is used? The material dispersion is 90 ps / nm km. (NOV/DEC 2011)

21. What is meant by ‘fiber splicing’? Explain fusion splicing of optical fibers.
Explain expanded beam fiber connector with a neat schematic. (NOV/DEC 2011)

UNIT III
1. What are the principal light sources used for fiber optic communication? (NOV/DEC-2010)
They are heterojunction structured semiconductor laser diodes (Injection laser diodes )
and Light Emitting Diodes(LEDs).
2. What is heterojunction?

It consists of two adjoint semioconductor materials with different band gap energies.
These devices are suitable for wide range of applications in fiber transmission systems.
3. What is active or recombination region? (APRIL/ MAY 2012)

When pn junction is forward biased, electrons and holes are injected into p an n region respectively.
Theses injected minority carriers are recomibne either radiatively or non raditvely. The recombination energy
is dissipated in the form of heat. This pn junction is known as the active or recombination region.
4. Write down the differences between LED and Laser Diodes. (NOV/DEC 2011)

S.NO LED Laser Diode

1. Optical output is in coherent. Optical output is coherent.
2. No optical resonant cavity. Optical energy from optical resonant
cavity.
3. Output has broad spectral width. Highly monochromatic.
4. No spatial and temporal coherence It has spatial and temporal coherence.

5. What is phonon? (NOV/DEC-2012)

Phonon is a quantum of energy in the lattioce vibrations of a crystal.
6. What is radiance or brightness? (APRIL/ MAY 2012)
Radiance is a measure in watts of the optical power radiated into a unit solid angle per
unit area of the emitting surface.
7. What is a lambertian pattern?
In surface emitteer LED, the emission pattern is essentially isotropic with 1200 half
power bandwidth. The isotropic pattern from a surface emitter is called lambertian pattern. In this pattern the
source is equally bright when viewed from any direction. This radiation pattern decides the coupling
efficiency of LED.
8. What is emission response?

Emission response time delay is the delay between the application of the current pulse and on set of
optical emission.
9. Mention the LED configurations used in optical fiber links. (NOV/DEC 2011)
Two basic configurations
Surface Emitter LED.
Edge Emitter LED.

95
10. Define external quantum efficiency.
It is defined as the ratio of photons emitted from LED from the number of photon generated
internally.
11. Define Internal quantum efficiency.
It is defined as the ratio of radiative recombination rate to the total recombination rate.
12. What is gain guided laser? (NOV/DEC-2012)
The injection of electrons and holes into the device alters the refractive index of the active
layer. The profile of theses injected carriers creates a weak complex waveguide that confines
the light laterally. This type of device is called as gain guided laser.
13. Mention the advantages of quantum well lasers over DH lasers.
a. Allow high gain at low carrier density.
b. Narrow linewidths.
c. Higher modulation speeds.
d. Lower frequency chrips.
e. Less temperature dependence.
14. Define quantum efficiency.

It is defined as the number of electron hole pairs generated per incident photon of energy,.
15. Define responsivity?
The responsivity is a useful parameter as it gives the transfer characteristic of the detector. It
is defined as the ratio of output photo current to the incident optical power.
16. What is avalanche effect? (NOV/DEC-2012)
a. Due to impact ionization effect new carriers are generated. The newly generated carriers also
accelerated by high electric field, thus gaining enough energy to cause further impact
ionization, this phenomenon is known as avalanche effect.
17. What is transit time of the photo carriers?
The transit time of the photo carriers in the depletion region is the ratio between carrier drift
velocities and the depletion layer width.
18. Why silicon is not used to fabriacte LED and Lase Diode?
19. What are the advantages of LED? (NOV/DEC 2011)
20. Compare and contrast between surface and edge emittimng LED.

PART B
1. Describe the construction and working of Light Emitting Diodes(LED)?
2. Explain the structure of surface emitting and edge emitting LEDs?
3. Derive the expression at internal efficiency. (NOV/DEC-2012)
4. Discuss about the injection laser diode structures. (APRIL/ MAY 2011)
5. Define quantum well Laser. Explain its geometry and features.
6. With suitable diagram explain the structure of PIN diode. (NOV/DEC-2012)
7. Explain the structure and principle of working of Avalanche Photodiode (APD).
8. Compare the performance of PIN and APD. (NOV/DEC 2011)
9. Briefly explain the detector response time.
10. Discuss various noise sources in photo detectors.
11. Explain the different splicing techniques with neat diagram. (APRIL/ MAY 2011)

96
 12. Explain different issues and considerations involved in coupling the optical sopuces to optical
fibers. (APRIL/ MAY 2011)
13. Draw and explain surface and edge emitting LEDs. (MAY / JUNE 2012)
14. Explain any two injection laser structure with neat diagram. (MAY / JUNE 2012)
15. Explain the operation of APD. (MAY / JUNE 2012) (NOV/DEC 2012)
16. Draw and explain the structure of Fabry perot resonator cavity for a laser diode. Derive laser
diode rate equation. (NOV/DEC 2012)
17. Compare LED with a laser diode. (NOV/DEC 2011)

18. With the help of a neat diagram explain the construction and working of a surface emitting LED.
(NOV/DEC 2011)

19. Explain the structure and working of a silicon APD. (NOV/DEC 2011)

20. Define S/N ratio of a photo detector. What conditions should be met to achieve a high SNR?
(NOV/DEC 2011)

UNIT IV
1. What is bit rate?
The transmitted signal is two level binary data stream consisting of either 0 or 1 in a time slot of
duration T. This time slot is referred to a bit period.

2. Define Bit error rate (BER)? (NOV/DEC 2011)

To divide the number of errors (Ne) occurring over a certain time interval t by the number of pulses
(Nt) transmitted during this interval. This is called either the error rate or bit error rate (BER).
BER = Ne = Ne
Nt Bt

3. What is P+πpn+ reach through structure? (NOV/DEC-2012)

In the P+ (heavy doped – p type) substrate, high resistivity P – type material is deposited followed by
the construction of an n+ (heavily doped n- type) layer. The π layer is an intrinsic layer but has some
P doping because of imperfect purification.

4. Define quantum limit?

To find the minimum received optical power required for a specific bit error rate performance in a
digital system. This minimum received power level is known as the quantum limit.

5. How does dark current arise? (NOV/DEC-2012)

The bulk dark current arises from electrons and / or holes which are thermally generated in the pn
junction of the photo diode.
Mean square value (i2 DB) = 2qID BM2 F (M)
Where ID is the primary (unmultified) detector bulk dark current.

6. How does surface-leakage current arise? (NOV/DEC 2011)

Surface-leakage current arise due to surface defects, cleanliness, bias voltage and surface area.
Mean square value (i2 DS) = 2qIL B Where IL is the surface leakage current.
7. How is internal noise caused?
Internal noise is caused by the spontaneous fluctuations of current or voltage in electric circuits.

97
8. What is intersymbol interference (ISI)? (MAY/JUNE 2011)
ISI occurs from pulse spreading in the optical fiber when a pulse is transmitted in a given time slot,
most of the pulse energy will arrive in the corresponding time slot at receiver.

9. Define Extinction ratio (ε)?

It is defined as the ratio of the optical power in a 0 pulse to the power in a 1 pulse. Its effects is a
power penalty in receiver sensitivity.

10. Mention types of preamplifier? (MAY/JUNE 2012)

(a) Low impedance preamplifiers (Lz)
(b) High impedance preamplifier (Hz)
(c) Transimpedance preamplifier.

11. What are the advantages of preamplifier? (MAY/JUNE 2011)

They are:
(a) Low noise level.
(b) High bandwidth.
(c) High dynamic range.
(d) High sensitivity.
(e) High gain.

12. What are the standard measurement techniques? (NOV/DEC-2011)

(a) Reference test methods (RTMs),
(b) Alternative test methods (ATMs).

13. Mention the different techniques used for measurement of fiber refractive profile?
(a) Interferometric Method,
(b) Near Field Scanning Method,
(c) Refracted Near Field Method (RNF).

14. Define effective cutoff wavelength? (MAY/JUNE 2012)

The effective cutoff wavelength is defined as ‘wavelength greater’ than the ratio between the total
power, to the launched higher order-modes and fundamental mode power.

15. Define bend attenuation? (NOV/DEC-2011)

The bend attenuation is measure between the total power and the fundamental power.
ab (λ) = 10 log 10 ps(λ)
pb(λ)
where ab (λ) is bend attenuation,
ps(λ)is total power,
pb(λ)is the fundamental mode power.

16. Mention the techniques used for determination of fiber numerical aperture.
These techniques are:
(a) farfield angle from fiber using a scanning photo detector and a rotating stage,
(b) farfield pattern by trigonometric fiber,
(c) farfield pattern of NA measurement using a rotating stage.
98
17. List out the advantages of outer diameter measurement. (NOV/DEC-2010)
(a) Speed is large,
(b) More accuracy,
(c) Faster diameter measurements,
(d) Good accuracy.

18. What is meant by group delay per unit length τg(λ)? (NOV/DEC-2010)
When ∆T (λ) is the delay difference for the length difference L1 – L2, then the group delay per unit
length τg(λ) is
τg(λ) = ∆T (λ)
L1 – L2

19. Define the 3-dB optical bandwidth? (NOV/DEC-2010)

When the launched optical pulses and the fiber impulse response are Gaussian then the 3 dB optical
bandwidth for the fiber Bopt may be
Bopt x τ(3 dB) = 0.44 GHz ns.

20. What are the major mechanisms to produce dispersion in optical fiber?
They are: (a) material dispersion,
(b) waveguide dispersion
(c) intermodal dispersion.
PART B
1. What is the role of preamplifier in opticval receiver? Explain ion briefly typews of preamplifiers.
(NOV / DEC 2012)
2.Describe the different error sources affecting the optical fiber.(MAY/JUNE 2012)
2. What is the probability of error in the digital receiver? Derive an expression for it.
3. Define quantum limit in digital and analog receiver. Explain.(MAY/JUNE 2012)
4. Discuss the cut back technique for the measurement of the total measurement of absorption loss in
optical fibers. (NOV/DEC-2010)
5. Discuss the measurement of fiber scattering loss by describing the use of two common scattering
cells. (NOV/DEC 2011)
6. Briefly explain the principle behind the calometric methods used for the measurement of
absorption loss in optical fiber. (MAY / JUNE 2012)
7. Discuss the measurement of dispersion in optical fibers using time and frequency domain
measurement techniques. (NOV/DEC-2010)
8. Discuss in detail (NOV/DEC 2011)
a. Interferometric methods.
b. Near field scanning method.
c. Refracted near field method.
9. Compare the two simple techniques used for the measurement of the numerical aperture of optical
fibers.
10. Describe with a suitable diagram the shadow method used for the on-line measurement of the
outer diameter of an optical fiber.
11. Explain the operation of PIN photo detector with neat diagram . (APRIL/ MAY 2011)
99
 12. Describe the different types of noises affecting the performance of photo detector and derive an
expression for the SNR. (APRIL/ MAY 2011)
13. Explain the working of a high impedance preamplifier using FET. Compare its performance with
a hiogh impedance preamplifier using BJT. (APRIL/ MAY 2011)
14. Discuss the noise and disturbances affecting the optical detection systems. (MAY / JUNE 2012)
15. Draw and explain the operation of high impedance FET and BJT preamplifiers. (MAY / JUNE
2012)
16. Explain attenuation measurement using cut back technique. (MAY / JUNE 2012)
17. Explain frequency domain measurement of fiber dispersion. (MAY / JUNE 2012)
18. Explain fiber refractive index profile measurements. (NOV/DEC 2012)
19. Explain fiber cutoff wavelength measurements. (NOV/DEC 2012)
20. Draw the front end optical amplifiers and explain. (NOV/DEC 2012)
21. Explain the fiber optic receiver operation using a simple model and its equivalent circuit.
(NOV/DEC 2011)
22. Explain the operation of a pre-amplifier built using a FET. (NOV/DEC 2011)
23. Explain the measurement technique used in the case of (NOV/DEC 2011)

(i) Numerical aperture

(ii) Refractive index profile
(iii) Fiber cut-off wavelength
(iv) Fiber diameter.

UNIT V
1. Define network? NOV/DEC-2010
Network is defined as to establish connections between these stations, one interconnects them by
transmission paths to form a network.

2. What is meant by topology? (MAY/JUNE 2011)

The topology is the logical manner in which nodes are linked together by information – transmission
channels to form a network.

3. What are the types of network topology?

Three common topologies are:
(a) Bus topology,
(b) Ring topology,
(c) Star toplogy.

4. State tap loss? (MAY/JUNE 2011)

The power extracted from the bus is called a tap loss and is given by
Ltap = - 10 log CT
Where CT is the symmetric coupler.

100
5. Define the term simplex and full duplex?
Simplex – the term simplex means that in this configuration, information flows only from left to
right.
Full Duplex – In full duplex communications, in which stations can communicate in either direction,
but simultaneous transmission on both directions.

6. What is SONET? NOV/DEC-2010

Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) is a standard developed by ANSI for fiber optic networks.
SONET defines a synchronous frame structure for transmitting TDM signals in the optical fiber
networks. It encodes bit streams into optical signals that are propagated over optical fiber.

7. What is SDH? MAY / JUNE2012

SDH is Synchronous Digital hierarchy. It is a standard developed by ITU – T for fiber optic
networks. It is used in North America and the SDH is the international version of SONET.

8. What is DWDM?
Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) is an optical technology used to increased
bandwidth over existing fiber-optic backbones. It works by combining and transmitting multiple
signals simultaneously at different wavelengths on the same fibers.

9. What are the types of broadcast and select network? MAY / JUNE2012
(i) Single-hop networks,
(ii) Multi-hop networks.

10. What is meant by power penalty?

When nonlinear effects contribute to signal impairment, an additional amount of power will be
needed at the receiver to maintain the same BER. This additional power (dB) is known as the power
penalty.

11. Define Kerr effect.

Nonlinearity produces a carrier-induced phase modulation of the propagating signal, which is called
Kerr effect.

12. What is meant by cross-phase modulation (XPM)? MAY/JUNE-2010

Cross-phase modulation, which converts power fluctuations in a particular wavelength channel to
phase fluctuations in the copropating channels.

13. State Link Bandwidth?MAY/JUNE-2010

If the N transmitters in a WDM link operate at bit rates of B1 through BN. The total bandwidth is
N
B = ∑ Bi.
i =1

14. Define crosstalk?

Crosstalk is defined as the feed through of one channels signal into another channel.

101
15. Mention the types of crosstalk?
There are two types of crosstalk.
(a) Intrachannel crosstalk,
(b) Interchannel crosstalk.

16. How intrachannel crosstalk arises?

It arises when interfering signal is at the same wavelength as the desired signal. This effect is more
severe than interchannel crosstalk.

17. What is solitons? NOV/DEC 2012

A solitons are pulses that travel along the fiber without change in shape or amplitude or velocity.

18. How the speckle pattern can form?MAY/JUNE 2011

The speckle patterns are formed by the interference of the modes from a coherent source when the
coherence time of the source is greater than the intermodal dispersion time δT within the fiber.

19. Define fundamental solitons?

The family of pulses that do not change in shape are called fundamental solitons.

20. What is called higher-order solitons? MAY/JUNE-2011

The family of pulses that undergo periodic shape changes are higher-order solitons.

21. Define full-width half-maximum (FWHM)?

The FWHM is a pulse is defined as the full width of the pulse at its half-maximum power level.

22. What is meant by Dispersion Length (Ldisp). NOV/DEC 2012

The normalized distance parameters are called as dispersion length, Ldisp. It is a characteristic length
for the effects of the dispersion term.
Ldisp = 2πc T20
λ2D
where C is the speed of light,
λ is the wavelength in vacuum,
D is the dispersion of the fiber,
Ldisp is measured in km.

23. Give the important features of time-slotted optical TDM network?

(i) To provide backbone to interconnect high speed networks,

(ii) To transfer quickly very large data blocks,
(iii) To switch large aggregations of traffic,
(iv) To provide both high-rate.

PART B
1.Explain the general features of solitan based optical fiber communication.
2. Explain about EDFA. (APRIL/ MAY 2011)
3. Discuss about SONET and SDH. (MAY/JUNE 2012)
4. Explain in detail about wavelength routed networks?
102
5. Discuss with suitable diagram, broadcast and select WDM networks. (NOV/DEC 2011)
6. Explain the network topologies with neat diagram.
7. How the performance of transmission path is passive linear bus is evaluated? Explain./
8. Write short note on
a. Self phase modulation
b. Cross Phase modulation
c. Four wire mixim=ng.

9. Explain the different types of stimulated scattering mechanisms.

10. Explain the performance of WDM + EDFA systems. (MAY / JUNE2012
11. Explain the rise time budget for an optical digital transmission link. (APRIL/ MAY 2011)
12. Explain the Sonet frame structures and SONET rings with neat diagrams. (APRIL/ MAY 2011)
(NOV/DEC 2011)
13. Discuss the role of WDM and Solitons in achieving high speed and High bandwidth optical
services. (APRIL/ MAY 2011) (MAY / JUNE 2012)
14. Explain Wavelength routed networks and optical CDMA. (MAY / JUNE2012(NOV/DEC 2012)
15. Explain non linear effects. (NOV/DEC 2012).
16. Explain the concepts of Media access Control Protocols in broadcast and select networks.
(NOV/DEC 2012)
17. Explain the architecture of SONET and discuss nonlinear effects on network performance.
(NOV/DEC 2011)

18. Write short notes on (NOV/DEC 2011)

(i) Wavelength routed networks
(ii) Optical CDMA.

103
 GE2021-PROFESSIONAL ETHICS IN ENGINEERING
TWO & SIXTEEN MARKS QUESTIONS-ANSWERS
UNIT – I
ENGINEERING ETHICS
PART-A
1. Define Ethics?
* Study of right or wrong.
* Good and evil.
* Obligations & rights.
* Justice.
* Social & Political deals.

2. Define Engineering Ethics?

* Study of the moral issues and decisions confronting individuals and organizations
Engaged in engineering / profession.
* Study of related questions about the moral ideals, character, policies and
Relationships of people and corporations involved in technological activity.
* Moral standards / values and system of morals.

3. What is the need to study Ethics?

* To responsibly confront moral issues raised by technological activity.
* To recognize and resolve moral dilemma.
* To achieve moral autonomy.

4. Differentiate Moral and Ethics?

MORAL:
Refers only to personal behavior.
Refers to any aspect of human action.
Social conventions about right or wrong conduct.
ETHICS:
Involves defining, analyzing, evaluating and resolving moral problems and
developing moral criteria to guide human behavior.
Critical reflection on what one does and why one does it.
Refers only to professional behavior.

5. What is the method used to solve an Ethical problem?

Recognizing a problem or its need.
Gathering information and defining the problem to be solved or goal to be
achieved.
Generating alternative solutions or methods to achieve the goal.
Evaluate benefits and costs of alternate solutions.
Decision making & optimization.
Implementing the best solution.

6. What are the Senses of Engineering Ethics?

o An activity and area of inquiry.
o Ethical problems, issues and controversies.
o Particular set of beliefs, attitudes and habits.
o Morally correct.
104
7. Differentiate Micro-ethics and Macro-ethics?
Micro-ethics : Deals about some typical and everyday problems which play an important
role in the field of engineering and in the profession of an engineer.
Macro-ethics : Deals with all the societal problems which are unknown and suddenly
burst out on a regional or national level.

8. What are the three types of Inquiry?

Normative Inquiry – Based on values.
Conceptual Inquiry – Based on meaning.
Factual Inquiry – Based in facts.

9. What are the sorts of complexity and murkiness that may be involved in moral situations?
Vagueness
Conflicting reasons
Disagreement

10. What are the steps in confronting Moral Dilemmas?

Identify the relevant moral factors and reasons.
Gather all available facts that are pertinent to the moral factors involved.
Rank the moral considerations in order of importance as they apply to the situation.
Consider alternative courses of actions as ways of resolving dilemma, tracing the full
implications of each.
Get suggestions and alternative perspectives on the dilemma.
By weighing all the relevant moral factors and reasons in light of the facts, produce a
reasoned judgment.

11. Define Moral Autonomy?

Self-determining
Independent
Personal Involvement
Exercised based on the moral concern for other people and
recognition of good moral reasons

12. Give the importance of Lawrence Kohlberg’s and Carol Gilligan’s theory?
Kohlberg gives greater emphasis to recognizing rights and abstract universal rules.
Gilligan stresses the importance of maintaining personal relationships based on mutual
caring.

13. Give the need for Authority?

Authority provides the framework in which learning can take place.

14. What are the criteria required for a Profession?

o Knowledge
o Organization
o Public Good

15. Give the general criteria to become a Professional engineer?

Attaining standards of achievement in education, job performance or
creativity in engineering that distinguish engineers from engineering
technicians and technologists.

105
 Accepting as part of their professional obligations as least the most basic
moral responsibilities to the public as well as to their employers, clients,
colleagues and subordinates.

16. Define Integrity?

Integrity is the bridge between responsibility in private and professional life.

17. Define Compromise?

In a negative sense it means to undetermined integrity by violating one’s fundamental
moral principles.
In a positive sense, however, it means to settle differences by mutual concessions or to
reconcile conflicts through adjustments in attitude and conduct.

18. Give the two aspects of Honesty?

o Truthfulness – meeting responsibilities concerning truth-telling.
o Trustworthiness – Meeting responsibilities concerning trust.

19. Differentiate Self-respect and Self-esteem?

Self-respect: It is a moral concept; refers to the virtue properly valuing oneself.
Self-esteem: It is a psychological concept; means having a positive attitude toward oneself, even
if the attitude is excessive or otherwise unwarranted.

20. What are the two forms of Self-respect?

a. Recognition self-respect
b. Appraisal self-respect

21. What are the senses of Responsibility?

a. a virtue
b. obligations
c. general moral capacities of people
d. liabilities and accountability for actions
e. blameworthiness or praiseworthiness

22. When will you tell an Act as an involuntary one?

* Act done in ignorance
* Act performed under compulsion

23. What are the types of Theories about Morality?

o Virtue ethics – Virtues and vices
o Utilitarianism – Most good for the most people
o Duty ethics – Duties to respect people
o Rights ethics – Human rights

24. Differentiate Hypothetical imperatives and Moral imperatives?

Hypothetical imperatives are based on some conditions whereas Moral
imperatives wont based on some condition.

25. State Rawl’s principles?

(1) Each person is entitled to the most extensive amount of liberty compatible with an
equal amount for others.
(2) Differences in social power and economic benefits are justified only when they are likely to

106
benefit everyone, including members of the most disadvantaged groups.

26. Give the various tests required to evaluate the Ethical Theories?
o Theory must be clear, and formulated with concepts that are coherent and
applicable.
o It must be internally consistent in that none of its tenets contradicts any other.
o Neither the theory nor its defense can rely upon false information.
o It must be sufficiently comprehensive to provide guidance in specific situations of
interests to us.
o It must be compatible with our most carefully considered moral convictions about
concrete situations.

27. Give the drawbacks of Utilitarianism?

o Sometimes what is best for the community as a whole is bad for certain
individuals in the community.
o It is often impossible to know in advance which decision will lead to the most
good.

28. Give the drawback of Duty Ethics?

Duty ethics does not always lead to a solution which maximizes the public
good.

29. Give the drawbacks of Rights Ethics?

How do we prioritize the rights of different individuals?
It often promotes the rights of individuals at the expense of large
groups / society.

30. Differentiate Ethical Relativism and Ethical Egoism?

Ethical egoism – the view that right action consist in producing one’s own good.
Ethical relativism – the view that right action is merely what the law and customs of one’s
society require.

31. Define Ethical Pluralism?

Ethical pluralism is the view that there may be alternative moral perspectives that are
reasonable, but no one of which must be accepted completely by all rational and morally
concerned persons.

32. Define Religion?

A religion is any set of articles of faith together with the observances, attitudes,
obligations and feelings tied up therewith, which, in so far as it is influential in a person, tends to
perform two functions, one social and the other personal.

33. Give the uses of Ethical Theories?

o In understanding moral dilemmas
o Justifying professional obligations and ideals
o Relating ordinary and professional morality
UNIT – II
ENGINEERING AS SOCIAL EXPERIMENTATION
34. What are the conditions required to define a valid consent?
The consent was given voluntarily.
The consent was based on the information that rational person would

107
want, together with any other information requested, presented to them in
understandable form.
The consenter was competent to process the information and make rational
decisions.

35.What are the two main elements which are included to understand informed consent?
Informed Consent is understood as including two main elements:
i. Knowledge [Subjects should be given not only the information they request, but all the
information needed to make a reasonable decision].
ii. Voluntariness [Subjects must enter into the experiment without being subjected to
force, fraud, or deception].

36. What are the general features of morally responsible engineers?

a. Conscientiousness.
b. Comprehensive perspective.
c. Autonomy.
d. Accountability.

37. What is the purpose of various types of standards?

a. Accuracy in measurement, interchangeability, ease of handling.
b. Prevention of injury, death and loss of income or property.
c. Fair value of price.
d. Competence in carrying out tasks.
e. Sound design, ease of communications.
f. Freedom from interference.

38. Define Code?

Code is a set of standards and laws.

39. Enumerate the roles of codes?

Inspiration and Guidance
Support
Deterrence and Discipline
Education and Mutual Understanding
Contributing to the Profession’s Public Image
Protecting the Status Quo
Promoting Business Interests

40. Give the limitations of codes?

Codes are restricted to general and vague wording.
Codes can’t give a solution or method for solving the internal
conflicts.
Codes cannot serve as the final moral authority for professional
conduct.
Codes can be reproduced in a very rapid manner.

41. What are the problems with the law in engineering?

a. Minimal compliance
b. Many laws are without enforceable sanctions.

108
42. What is the need to view engineering projects as experiments?
i. Any project is carried out in partial ignorance.
ii. The final outcomes of engineering projects, like those of experiments, are generally
uncertain.
iii. Effective engineering relies upon knowledge gained about products before and after
they leave the factory – knowledge needed for improving current products and creating better
ones.

43. Differentiate scientific experiments and engineering projects?

Scientific experiments are conducted to gain new knowledge, while “engineering projects
are experiments that are not necessarily designed to produce very much knowledge”.

44. What are the uncertainties occur in the model designs?

a. Model used for the design calculations.
b. Exact characteristics of the materials purchased.
c. Constancies of materials used for processing and fabrication.
d. Nature of the pressure, the finished product will encounter.
UNIT – III
ENGINEER’S RESPONSIBILITY FOR SAFETY
45. Define Risk?
A risk is the potential that something unwanted and harmful may occur.
Risk = Probability X Consequences.

46. Define a Disaster?

A DISASTER = A seriously disruptive event + A state of unpreparedness.

47. Give the criteria which helps to ensure a safety design?

The minimum requirement is that a design must comply with the applicable laws.
An acceptable design must meet the standard of “accepted engineering practice.”
Alternative designs that are potentially safer must be explored.
Engineer must attempt to foresee potential misuses of the product by the consumer and
must design to avoid these problems.
Once the product is designed, both the prototypes and finished devices must be rigorously
tested.

48. What are the factors for safety and risk?

Voluntary and Involuntary risk
Short-term and Long-term risk
Expected probability
Reversible effects
Threshold levels to risk
Delayed or Immediate risk etc

49. What are the drawbacks in the definition of Lawrence?

Underestimation of risks
Overestimation of risks
No estimation of risks

109
50. Give the categories of Risk?
Low consequence, Low probability (which can be ignored)
Low consequence, High probability
High consequence, Low probability
High consequence, High probability

51. What are the factors that affect Risk Acceptability?

Voluntarism and control
Effect of information on risk assessment
Job related pressures
Magnitude and proximity of the people facing risk

52. What is the knowledge required to assess the risk?

Data in design
Uncertainties in design
Testing for safety
Analytical testing
Risk-benefit analysis

53. What are the analytical methods?

o Scenario analysis
o Failure modes & effect analysis
o Fault tree analysis
o Event tree analysis etc.

54. What are the three conditions referred as safe exit?

Assure when a product fails it will fail safely.
Assure that the product can be abandoned safely.
Assure that the user can safely escape the product.

55. How will an engineer assess the safety?

The risks connected to a project or product must be identified.
The purposes of the project or product must be identified and
ranked in importance.
Costs of reducing risks must be estimated.
The costs must be weighed against both organizational goals and
degrees of acceptability of risks to clients and the public.
The project or product must be tested and then either carried out or
manufactured.

56. What are the reasons for Risk-Benefit Analysis?

i. Risk-benefit analysis is concerned with the advisability of undertaking a project.
ii. It helps in deciding which design has greater advantages.
iii. It assists the engineers to identify a particular design scores higher with that of the another
one.

57. Are the engineers responsible to educate the public for safe operation of the equipment?
How?
Yes, as per the engineers are concerned with they should have their duty as to protect for
the safety and well being of the general public. Analyzing the risk and safety aspects of their

110
designs can do this.

58. Define Safety?

In the definition stated by William W. Lawrence safety is defined, as a thing is safe if its
risks are acceptable. A thing is safe with respect to a given person or group, at a given time, if its
risk is fully known, if those risks would be judged acceptable, in light of settled value principles.
In the view of objective, safety is a matter of how people would find risks acceptable or
unacceptable.

59. What is the definition of risks?

A risk is the potential that something unwanted and harmful may occur. Risk is the possibility of
suffering harm or loss. It is also defined as the probability of a specified
level of hazardous consequences, being realized. Hence Risk (R) is the product of
Probability (P) and consequence(C) (i.e)
R=P*C

60. Define Acceptability of risks?

A risk is acceptable when those affected are generally no longer apprehensive about it.
Doubtfulness depends mainly on how the people take the risk or how people perceive it.

61. What are the safety measures an engineer must know before assessing a risk of any product?
The factors are:
a. Does the engineer have the right data?
b. Is he satisfied with the present design?
c. How does he test the safety of a product?
d. How does he measure and weigh the risks with benefits for a product.

62. What is the use of knowledge of risk acceptance to engineers?

Though past experience and historical data give better information about safety of
products designing there are still inadequate. The reasons are
a. The information is not freely shared among industries
b. There also new applications of old technologies that provides available data, which are
less useful.
c. So, in order to access the risk of a product, the engineers must share their knowledge
and information with others in a free manner.

63. What is meant by Disaster? Give an example.

A disaster does not take place until a seriously disruptive event coincides with a state of
insufficient preparation. Example: The Titanic collision with an iceberg constituted an
emergency, which turned into a disaster because there were too few lifeboats.

64. What are the positive uncertainties in determining risks?

There are three positive uncertainties. They are:
a. Purpose of designing
b. Application of the product
c. Materials and the skill used for producing the product.

65. What is the use of Risk-Analysis? What are the three factors involved here?
Risk Analysis is used for the assessment of the hazardous associated with an industrial or
commercial activity. It involves identifying the causes of unwanted hazardous events and

111
estimating the consequences and likelihood of these events. Three factors involved in this are:
a.Hazard Identification
b. Consequences analysis
c. Probability estimation.

66. Define Risk-Benefit Analysis?

Risk benefit analysis is a method that helps the engineers to analyze the risk in a project
and to determine whether a project should be implemented or not. In risk benefit analysis, the
risks and benefits of a product are allotted to money amounts, and the most benefit able ratio
between risks and benefits is calculated.

67. Explain the two types of Risk?

i. Personal Risk:
An individual, who is given sufficient information, will be in a position to decide
whether to take part in a risky activity or not. They are more ready to take on
voluntary risks than involuntary risks.
ii. Public Risks:
Risks and benefits to the public are more easily determined than to individuals, as
larger number of people is taken into account. Involuntary risks are found here.

68. What does Strict Liability mean?

Strict liability means if the sold product is defective; the manufacturer concerned is liable for any harm that
results to users. Negligible is not at
all an issue based.

69. Give the reasons for the Three Mile Island disaster?
i. Inadequate training to the operators.
ii. Use of B & W reactors.

70. What is the main barrier to educational attempts?

An important barrier to educational attempt is that people belief change slow and are extraordinarily resistant
to new information.

71. What happens to the products that are not safe?

Products that are not safe incur secondary costs to the manufacturer beyond the primary
costs that must also be taken into account costs associated with warranty expenses, loss of
customer will and even loss of customers and so.

72. What does Open-mindedness refer to?

Open-mindedness refers once again not allowing a preoccupation with rules to prevent close examination of
safety problems that may not be
covered by rules.

73. What was the problem in the Chernobyl reactor?

The problem was that,
The output was maintained to satisfy an unexpected demand.
The control device was not properly reprogrammed to maintain power at the
required level.
Instead of leaving fifteen control rods as required, the operators raised almost all
control rods because at the low power level, the fuel had become poisoned.

112
 UNIT – IV
RESPONSIBILITIES AND RIGHTS
74. Define Collegiality?
Collegiality is a kind of connectedness grounded in respect for professional expertise and
in a commitment to the goals and values of the profession and collegiality includes a disposition
to support and cooperate with one’s colleagues.

75. What are the central elements of collegiality?

i. Respect
ii. Commitment
iii. Connectedness
iv. Cooperation
76. What are the two senses of Loyalty?
i. Agency Loyalty – Acting to fulfill one’s contractual duties to an employer. It’s a matter
of actions, whatever its motives.
ii. Identification Loyalty – Has as much as to do with attitudes, emotions, and a sense of
personal identity as it does with actions.

77. When may an Identification Loyalty be said as obligatory?

i. Employees must see some of their own important goals as met by and through a group
in which they participate.
ii. Employees must be treated fairly, each receiving his or her share of benefits and
burdens.

78. What is the relationship between the Loyalty to the company and Professional responsibility to the
public?
i. Acting on professional commitments to the public can be a more effective way to serve
a company than a mere willingness to follow company orders.
ii. Loyalty to companies or their current owners should not be equated with merely
obeying one’s immediate supervisor.
iii. An engineer might have professional obligations to both an employer and to the
public that reinforce rather than contradict each other.

79. Define Institutional Authority?

Institutional Authority is acquired, exercised and defined within organizations. It may be
defined as the institutional right given to a person to exercise power based on the resources of the
institution.

80. Define Expert Authority?

Expert authority is the possession of special knowledge, skill or competence to perform
task or give sound advice.

81. What is the basic moral task of salaried engineers?

The basic moral task of salaried engineers is to be aware of their obligations to obey
employers on one hand and to protect and serve the public and clients of the other.

82. What are the guidelines to reach an agreement?

i. Attack problem and not people.
ii. Build trust.

113
iii. Start with a discussion and analysis of interests, concerns, needs. It begin with
interests, not positions or solutions.
iv. Listen.
v. Brainstorm; suggesting an idea does not mean one aggress with it. Develop multiple
options.
vi. Use objective criteria whenever possible. Agree on how something will be measured.

83. Define confidential information?

Confidential information is information deemed desirable to keep secret.

84. What are the criteria for identifying that information is “labeled” confidential at the
workplace?
* Engineers shall treat information coming to them in the course of their as confidential.
* Identify any information which if it became known would cause harm to the
corporation or client.
* Confidential information is any information that the employer or client would like to
have kept secret in order to compete effectively against business rivals.

85. What are the terms associated with Confidentiality?

i. Privileged Information
ii. Proprietary Information
iii. Patents
iv. Trade secrets

86. How will you justify the obligation of confidentiality?

The obligation of confidentiality can be justified at two levels.
FIRST Level : Moral Considerations
Respect for autonomy
Respect for promises
Regard for public well-being
SECOND Level : Major Ethical Theories
Rights Ethicists
Duty Ethicists
Rule-utilitarians
Act-utilitarians

87. Define Conflicts of Interest?

Conflict of interests is a situation in which two or more interests are not simultaneously
realizable. It is the disagreement between public obligation and self-interest of an official.

88. Why does a conflict of interests arise?

a. Financial Investments
b. Insider Trading
c. Bribe
d. Gifts
e. Kickbacks

89. What is a Bribe?

A Bribe is a substantial amount of money or goods offered beyond a stated business

114
contract with the aim of winning an advantage in gaining or keeping the contract.

90. What is a Gift?

Gifts are not bribes as long as they are small gratuities offered in the normal conduct of
business.

91. What is called Kickbacks?

Prearranged payments made by contractors to companies or their representatives in
exchange for contracts actually granted are called kickbacks.

92. What are the types of Conflicts of interest?

i. Actual conflict of interest
ii. Potential conflict of interest
iii. Apparent conflict of interest

93. What are the forms of Conflicts of interest?

i. Interest in other companies
ii. Moonlighting
iii. Insider information

94. How will you solve the Conflict problems?

i. Finding the creative middle way.
ii. Employing Lower-level considerations.
iii. Making the hard choice.

95. What is called ‘White-collar crime’?

Occupational crimes are illegal acts made possible through one’s lawful employment. It
is the secret violation of laws regulating work activities. When committed by office workers of
professionals, occupational crime is called ‘white-collar crime’.

96. What are the essential elements of IPR?

i. Patents
ii. Copyrights
iii. Trademarks
iv. Trade secrets

97. What are the requirements of Patents?

a) Problem of invention
b) Current report of the problems to address
c) Solution or procedure to the problem
d) Extent of novelty or inventive
e) Application or uses
f) Details of the inventor
g) Resources of funds

98. What are the types of Patents?

a. Utility patents
b. Design patents
c. Plant patents

115
99. What is the need for Protection to IPR?
a) Prevent plagiarism.
b) Prevent others using it.
c) Prevent using it for financial gain.
d) Fulfill as an obligation to funding agency.
e) Support income generation strategy.

100. What is the Importance of IPR?

a. Give the inventors exclusive rights of dealing.
b. Permit avoiding pf competitors and raise entry barriers.
c. Permit entry to a technical market.
d. Generate steady income by issuing license.

101. What is a Trade secret?

A trade secret is a secret formula, pattern, or device that is used in a business and
provides a commercial advantage.

102. Define Whistle Blowing?

Whistle-blowing is alerting relevant persons to some moral or legal corruption, where
“relevant persons” are those in a position to act in response, if only by registering protest. i.e. the
employee disclosure of an employer’s illegal or illegitimate practices to persons or organizations
that may be able to take corrective actions. The conditions to be met for whistle-blowing are
a. Need
b. Proximity
c. Capability
d. Last resort

103. What are the main features of Whistle Blowing?

a. Act of disclosure
b. Topic
c. Agent
d. Recipient

104. Differentiate External Whistle Blowing and Internal Whistle Blowing?

External Whistle Blowing – Information is passed outside the organization.
Internal Whistle Blowing – Information is conveyed to someone within the organization.

105. Differentiate Open Whistle Blowing and Anonymous Whistle Blowing?

Open Whistle Blowing – Individuals openly reveal their identity as they convey the
information.
Anonymous Whistle Blowing – Involves concealing one’s identity.

106. When are Whistle Blowing morally permitted and morally obligated?
Whistle blowing is morally permitted when
i. If the harm that will be done by the product to the public is serious and considerable.
ii. If they make their concerns known to their superiors.
iii. If getting no satisfaction from their immediate supervisors, they exhaust the channels
available within the corporation, including going to the board of directors.
Whistle is morally obligated when
i. He or she must have documented evidence that would convince a reasonable,

116
impartial observer that his [or her] view of the situation is correct and the company
policy wrong.
ii. There must be strong evidence that making the information public will in fact prevent
the threatened serious harm.

107. What are the two general ways to apply ethical theories to justify the basic right of
professional conscience
i. Proceed piecemeal by reiterating the justifications given for the specific
professional duties.
ii. Justify the right of professional conscience, which involves grounding it more directly
in the ethical theories.

108. Define Employee Rights?

Employee rights are rights, moral or legal, that involve the status of being an employee.
They include some professional rights that apply to the employer-employee relationship.

109. Define Sexual Harassment?

Sexual Harassment means continuous annoying and attacks on men or women on the
basis of sexual considerations. It also covers the harassment by female superiors on the male
employees and sexual harassment of employees by superiors of the same sex.
It includes physical and psychological attacks, coercion, misuse of authority and a variety
of undesirable and indecent actions.

110. Define Discrimination?

Discrimination means morally unjustified treatment of people on arbitrary or irrelevant
grounds.

111. What are the general procedures for implementing the right to due process?
i. Written explanations should be established that is available to all employees who
believe their rights have been violated.
ii. An appeals procedure should be established that is available to all employees who
believe their rights have been violated.

112. Differentiate Human Rights and Professional Rights?

Human Rights – Possessed by virtue of being people or moral agents.
Professional Rights – Possessed by virtue of being professional having spcial moral
responsibilities.

113. Differentiate Weak Preferential Treatment and Strong Preferential Treatment?

Weak preferential treatment involves giving an advantage to members of traditionally
discriminated-against groups over equally qualified applicants who are members of other groups.
Strong preferential treatment involves giving preference to minority applicants or women
over better qualified applicants from other groups.
UNIT – V
GLOBAL ISSUES
114. What are the three versions of Relativism?
i. Ethical Relativism
ii. Descriptive Relativism
iii. Moral Relativism

117
115. What are the moral dimensions of an Engineer manager?
a. Information rights and obligation
b. Property rights
c. Accountability and control
d. System quality
e. Quality of life

116. Give any ten International rights suggested by Donaldson?

I. The right to freedom of physical movement.
II. The right to ownership of property.
III. The right to freedom from torture.
IV. The right to a fair trial.
V. The right to nondiscriminatory treatment.
VI. The right to physical security.
VII. The right to freedom of speech and association.
VIII. The right to minimal education.
IX. The right to political participation.
X. The right to subsistence.

117. What are the reasons for the disaster at Bhopal?

1. The tanks used to store Methyl Iso-cyanate were overloaded to a tune of
75%.
2. The emergency plant was also filled with a large amount of chemicals.
3. The entire refrigeration unit had been shutdown as a measure to reduce the
cost and this led to increase of temperatures to a higher level.
4. One of the disappointed workers unscrewed a pressure gauge on a tank
and inserted a hosepipe into it, knowing that it would cause damage, but
not to this extent.
5. Scrubber has also been shut down.
6. Flare tower was also not in an operating condition.
7. Unfortunately there were no emergency drills or evacuation plants
available.

118. Give some of the Environmental issues of concern to engineers?

a. Releasing harmful substance into air and water.
b. Using toxic substance in food processing.
c. Disturbing land and water balances.

119. What are the issues in Computer ethics?

Power Relationship
Job Elimination
Customer Relations
Biased Software
Stock Trading
Unrealistic Expectations
Political Power
Military Weapons
Property
Embezzlement
Data and Software

118
Privacy
Cyber crimes
Computer Virus
Techno stress
Cyber Scams and Frauds
Internet Defamation
Software Piracy
Cyber Squatting
Inappropriate Access
Data Bank Errors
Hackers
Legal Responses
Professional Issues
Computer Failures
Computer Implementation
Health conditions

120. What are the problems of Defense industry?

a) Problem of waste and huge cost in implementing and maintaining a weapons
system.
b) Problem of Technology creep.
c) Problems in maintaining secrecy.
d) Every country allocates large amount of its resources to defense sector [India
spent ¼ of its resource for defense]

121. What are ways to promote an Ethical climate?

a. Ethical values in their full complexity are widely acknowledged and
appreciated by managers and employees alike.
b. The sincere use of ethical language has to be recognized as a legitimate
part of corporate dialogue.
c. The top level management must establish a moral tone in words, in
policies, by personal example etc.
d. The management has to establish some procedures for resolving conflicts.

122. What are the important forms of Conflicts?

o Conflicts based on schedules
o Conflicts which arises in evolving the importance of projects and the department.
o Conflicts based on the availability of personal for a project.
o Conflicts over technical matters.
o Conflicts arise due to administrative procedure.
o Conflicts of personality.
o Conflicts over cost or expenditure or money.

123. What are the Principles of Conflicts of interest?

o Separate people from the problem.
o Focus on interest and not on positions.
o Generate a variety of possibilities before deciding what to do.
o Insist that the result be based on some objective standard.

124. What are the normative models to be used to avoid conflicts?

Hired Guns

119
Value-neutral Analysts
Value-guided Advocates

125. What are the characteristics of an engineer as expert advisers in public planning and policy
making?
Honesty
Competence
Diligence
Loyalty

126. How can Deceptive advertising be done?

o By outright lies.
o By half-truths.
o Through exaggeration.
o By making false innuendos, suggestions or implications.
o Through obfuscation created by ambiguity, vagueness or incoherence.
o Through subliminal manipulation of the unconscious.

127. Give the usage of the code of conduct?

The code of conduct will help the engineers to have a set of standards of behavior. They
act as guidelines for their behavior. It helps to create workplaces where employees are
encouraged to make ethical implications.

128. Give the IEEE Code of Ethics?

The members of the IEEE, in recognition of the importance of their technologies
affecting the quality of life throughout the world, and in accepting a personal obligation to their
profession, its members and the communities they serve, do hereby commit themselves to the
highest ethical and professional conduct and agree…
i. To accept responsibility in making engineering decisions consistent with the safety,
health and welfare of the public, and to disclose promptly factors that might endanger the
public or the environment.
ii. To avoid real or perceived conflicts of interest whenever possible and to disclose them to
the affected parties when they do exist.
iii. To be honest and realistic in stating claims or estimates based on available data.
iv. To reject bribery in all its forms.
v. To improve the understanding of technology, its appropriate application, and potential
consequences.
vi. To maintain and improve their technical competence and to undertake technological tasks
for others only if qualified by training or experience, or after full disclosure of pertinent
limitations.
vii. To seek, accept and offer honest criticism of technical work, to acknowledge and correct
errors, and to credit properly the contributions of others.
viii. To treat fairly all persons regardless of such factors such as religion, gender, disability,
age or national origin.
ix. To avoid injuring others, their property, reputation or employment by false or malicious
action.
x. To assist colleagues and co-workers in their professional development and to support
them in following this code of ethics.

129. Enumerate the code of ethics of engineers?

Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public in the

120
performance of their professional duties.
Engineers shall perform services only in the areas of their competence.
Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner.
Engineers shall act in professional matters for each employer or client as faithful
agents or trustees, and shall avoid conflicts of interest.
Engineers shall build their professional reputation on the merit of their services
and shall not compete unfairly with others.
Engineers shall act in such a manner as to uphold and enhance the honor, integrity
and dignity of the profession.
Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout their careers
and shall provide opportunities for the professional development of those
engineers under their supervision.

PART-B

UNIT-I
1. What are the ethical theories? How can you classify them?
2. What is meant by virtues? Do engineers need virtues?
3. what is meant by professional responsibility? Also discuss the theories about virtues.
4. Explain the various types of virtues.
5. Illustrate the interconnectedness among the virtues of integrity and self respect.
6. Explain Gilligan’s theory of moral development
7. Expalin Kohlberg’s model of moral development
8. Give the steps in confronting moral dilemmas.
9. Explain the skills needed to handle problems about issues in engineering ethics
10. Discuss the different model of professional roles.
11. What is the different ethical theory available for right action, self interest, and duty ethics.
12. Explain how Gilligan view the three levels of moral development initiated by Kohlberg. What is moral
autonomy?
13. Explain the skill needed to handle problems about moral issues in engineering ethics
14. Explain the scope of engineering ethics
15. Discuss the importance of duty ethics and virtue in engineering profession
16. Explain the ethical theories and how these theories are useful in justifying moral obligation to engineers
UNIT-II

1. Explain in detail the challenger accident. What are the ethical problem involved in this?
2. How can engineer become a responsible experimenter?
3. Highlight the code of ethics for Engineers.
4. What is the important code of ethics? give brief account on ‘4’canons of codes of ethics quoted by
international standard or association.
5. State the similarities to view engineering projects as experiments.
6. How engineering project differs from standard experimentation
7. Discuss on the roles played by the codes of ethics set by professional societies
8. Give justification on how the challenger disaster could have been avoided by engineers.
9. Compare and contrast engineering experiments with standard experiments.
10.Explain with help of examples of that engineers would learn not only from their earlier design and
operating results, but also from those of those of engineers of other engineers.

121
 UNIT-III
1. Explain in detail about the effect of information on risk assessments.
2. How to account publicly for benefits and risks?
3. Give a detailed discussion on safety and risk.
4. Discuss on safety. Explain what safety measures are to be taken to establish a nuclear power plant in a
country.
5. Write short notes on a)personal risk b)public risk
6. Describe the concept of risk benefit analysis
7. Give any four examples of improved safety and explain.
8. Discuss on safety. Explain what safety measures to be taken by an engineer working in deep ground mine
9. Explain various measures for assessing and reducing risk
10. Discuss the concept of safety exists in the Chernobyl case studies
11. A nuclear accident anywhere is a nuclear accident everywhere’. Explain this with respect to Three Mile
Island case study
12. What is risk-benefit analysis? Explain the different analytical methods used when testing is
inappropriate.

UNIT- IV

1. Define Collegiality. State and explain the elements of collegiality. Why collegiality a virtue? What are its
negative aspects?
2. What is meant by Loyalty? Explain Sense of Loyalty? Is loyalty Obligatory? What are the relationship
between responsibility and loyalty to employees?
3. Describe the Various occupational crimes among the professional
4. Write a note on Intellectual Property Rights
5. Explain in detail conflict of interest with examples
6. Explain the meaning of Professional Rights
7. Define collective bargaining. Explain the role of collective bargaining in work place rights and
responsibilities.
8. How will you apply confidentiality for avoiding harmful conflicts of interest in work place?
9. What are the procedures to be followed in whistle blowing? How he risks
Avoided?

UNIT- V
1. Explain the issues related to computer ethics and internet with personal experience.
2. Discuss on the Professional Societies?
3. Describe the concept of environmental ethics with a case study.
4. What are the professional issues that are related with computer ethics?
5. Describe how the sample code of ethics serves as a model guide for professional conduct.
6. Discuss on Engineers involved in weapon development and analyze the problems faced by Defence
industry
7. Write briefly a)Engineer as expert witness b)Engineer as good manager’s c)Engineers as consulting
engineers’ d)Engineer as advisor
8. Discuss on the pros and cons of multinational companies from the point of
view of ethics.

122