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Acid Rain--A Contemporary World Problem

Conference Paper · January 2006

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Acid Rain--A Contemporary World Problem.
M. K. Kaushik, Lecturer (Civil Engineering) Deptt. of Civil Engg.,
D.A.V.I.E.T., Jalandhar, Punjab. e-mail:- mh_kaushik@yahoo.co.uk

ABSTRACT
Almost all of the electricity that powers modern life comes from burning
fossil fuels like coal, natural gas, and oil. Acid deposition is caused by two pollutants
that are released into the atmosphere, or emitted, when these fuels are burned:
sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx).Coal accounts for most of sulfur
dioxide (SO2) emissions and a large portion of NOx emissions. Sulfur is present in
coal as an impurity, and it reacts with air when the coal is burned to form SO2. In
contrast, NOx is formed when any fossil fuel is burned. "Acid rain" is a broad term
used to describe several ways that acids fall out of the atmosphere. A more precise
term is acid deposition, which has two parts: wet and dry. Wet deposition refers to
acidic rain, fog, and snow. As this acidic water flows over and through the ground, it
affects a variety of plants and animals. The strength of the effects depend on many
factors, including how acidic the water is, the chemistry and buffering capacity of
the soils involved, and the types of fish, trees, and other living things that rely on the
water. Dry deposition refers to acidic gases and particles. About half of the acidity
in the atmosphere falls back to earth through dry deposition. The wind blows these
acidic particles and gases onto buildings, cars, homes, and trees. Dry deposited gases
and particles can also be washed from trees and other surfaces by rainstorms. When
that happens, the runoff water adds those acids to the acid rain, making the
combination more acidic than the falling rain alone. Prevailing winds blow the
compounds that cause both wet and dry acid deposition across state and national
borders, and sometimes over hundreds of miles.

To solve the acid rain problem, people need to understand how acid rain causes
damage to the environment. They also need to understand what changes could be
made to the air pollution sources that cause the problem. The answers to these
questions help leaders make better decisions about how to control air pollution and
therefore how to reduce - or even eliminate - acid rain. Since there are many
solutions to the acid rain problem, leaders have a choice of which options or
combinations of options are best. However, like many environmental problems, acid
deposition is caused by the cumulative actions of millions of individual people.
Therefore, each individual can also reduce their contribution to the problem and
become part of the solution. Individuals can contribute directly by conserving
energy, since energy production causes the largest portion of the acid deposition
problem. Use energy efficient appliances and turn off lights, computers, and other
appliances when we are not using them. Buy vehicles with low NOx emissions, and
maintain all vehicles well. Carpool, use public transportation, or better yet, walk or
bicycle whenever possible and be well-informed.
ABSTRACT
Almost all of the electricity that powers modern life comes from burning
fossil fuels like coal, natural gas, and oil. Acid deposition is caused by two pollutants
that are released into the atmosphere, or emitted, when these fuels are burned:
sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx).Coal accounts for most of sulfur
dioxide (SO2) emissions and a large portion of NOx emissions. Sulfur is present in
coal as an impurity, and it reacts with air when the coal is burned to form SO2. In
contrast, NOx is formed when any fossil fuel is burned. "Acid rain" is a broad term
used to describe several ways that acids fall out of the atmosphere. A more precise
term is acid deposition, which has two parts: wet and dry. Wet deposition refers to
acidic rain, fog, and snow. As this acidic water flows over and through the ground, it
affects a variety of plants and animals. The strength of the effects depend on many
factors, including how acidic the water is, the chemistry and buffering capacity of
the soils involved, and the types of fish, trees, and other living things that rely on the
water. Dry deposition refers to acidic gases and particles. About half of the acidity
in the atmosphere falls back to earth through dry deposition. The wind blows these
acidic particles and gases onto buildings, cars, homes, and trees. Dry deposited gases
and particles can also be washed from trees and other surfaces by rainstorms. When
that happens, the runoff water adds those acids to the acid rain, making the
combination more acidic than the falling rain alone. Prevailing winds blow the
compounds that cause both wet and dry acid deposition across state and national
borders, and sometimes over hundreds of miles.

To solve the acid rain problem, people need to understand how acid rain causes
damage to the environment. They also need to understand what changes could be
made to the air pollution sources that cause the problem. The answers to these
questions help leaders make better decisions about how to control air pollution and
therefore how to reduce - or even eliminate - acid rain. Since there are many
solutions to the acid rain problem, leaders have a choice of which options or
combinations of options are best. However, like many environmental problems, acid
deposition is caused by the cumulative actions of millions of individual people.
Therefore, each individual can also reduce their contribution to the problem and
become part of the solution. Individuals can contribute directly by conserving
energy, since energy production causes the largest portion of the acid deposition
problem. Use energy efficient appliances and turn off lights, computers, and other
appliances when we are not using them. Buy vehicles with low NOx emissions, and
maintain all vehicles well. Carpool, use public transportation, or better yet, walk or
bicycle whenever possible and be well-informed.
Acid Rain--A Contemporary World Problem
Almost all of the electricity that powers modern life comes from burning fossil fuels
like coal, natural gas, and oil. Coal accounts for most of sulfur dioxide (SO2)
emissions and a large portion of NOx emissions. Sulfur is present in coal as an
impurity, and it reacts with air when the coal is burned to form SO2. In contrast,
NOx is formed when any fossil fuel is burned.
Acid rain is one of the most dangerous and widespread forms of pollution.
Sometimes called "the unseen plague," acid rain can go undetected in an area for
years. Technically, acid rain is rain that has a larger amount of acid in it than what
is normal. The acidity of rain in parts of Europe and North America has
dramatically increased over the past few decades. It is now common in many places
for rain to be ten to seventy times more acidic than unpolluted rain. Many living
and non-living systems become harmed and damaged as a result of acid rain.

Acid rain is caused by smoke and gases that are given off by factories and cars that
run on fossil fuels. When these fuels are burned to produce energy, the sulfur that is
present in the fuel combines with oxygen and becomes sulfur dioxide; some of the
nitrogen in the air becomes nitrogen oxide. These pollutants go into the atmosphere,
and become acid.

Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide are produced especially when coal is burnt for
fuel. Burning coal produces electricity, and the more electricity that people use, the
more coal is burnt. Of course, nowadays people probably couldn't live without
electricity, so coal will continue to be burnt; but electricity and energy are
constantly being overused. Think of it this way: every time you turn on a light
switch or the television set without really needing to, you're indirectly contributing
to the acid rain problem. Automobiles produce nitrogen oxides (which cause acid
rain), so every time you don't carpool when you can, you are helping to cause acid
rain. So now that we know what causes acid rain, here's a look at how acid rain can
hurt you and the world around you. . .

Acid rain is a serious environmental problem that affects large parts of the world.

What is Acid Rain and What Causes It?

"Acid rain" is a broad term used to describe several ways that acids fall out of the
atmosphere. A more precise term is acid deposition, which has two parts: wet and
dry.

Wet deposition refers to acidic rain, fog, and snow. As this acidic water flows over
and through the ground, it affects a variety of plants and animals. The strength of
the effects depend on many factors, including how acidic the water is, the chemistry
and buffering capacity of the soils involved, and the types of fish, trees, and other
living things that rely on the water.

Dry deposition refers to acidic gases and particles. About half of the acidity in the
atmosphere falls back to earth through dry deposition. The wind blows these acidic
particles and gases onto buildings, cars, homes, and trees. Dry deposited gases and
particles can also be washed from trees and other surfaces by rainstorms. When
that happens, the runoff water adds those acids to the acid rain, making the
combination more acidic than the falling rain alone.
Prevailing winds blow the compounds that cause both wet and dry acid deposition
across state and national borders, and sometimes over hundreds of miles.

Scientists discovered, and have confirmed, that sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen
oxides (NOx) are the primary causes of acid rain. In the US, About 2/3 of all SO2
and 1/4 of all NOx comes from electric power generation that relies on burning fossil
fuels like coal.

Acid rain occurs when these gases react in the atmosphere with water, oxygen, and
other chemicals to form various acidic compounds. Sunlight increases the rate of
most of these reactions. The result is a mild solution of sulfuric acid and nitric acid.

How Do We Measure Acid Rain?

Acid rain is measured using a scale called "pH." The lower a substance's pH, the
more acidic it is.
The term "acid rain" is commonly used to mean the deposition of acidic
components in rain, snow, fog, dew, or dry particles. The more accurate term is
"acid precipitation." Distilled water, which contains no carbon dioxide, has a
neutral pH of 7. Liquids with a pH less than 7 are acid, and those with a pH greater
than 7 are alkaline (or basic). "Clean" or unpolluted rain has a slightly acidic pH of
5.6, because carbon dioxide and water in the air react together to form carbonic
acid, a weak acid. Around Washington, D.C., however, the average rain pH is
between 4.2 and 4.4.

Pure water has a pH of 7.0. Normal rain is slightly acidic because carbon dioxide
dissolves into it, so it has a pH of about 5.5. As of the year 2000, the most acidic rain
falling in the US has a pH of about 4.3.

Wet and dry bucket collector, used to collect samples for measuring rainfall acidity.
Acidity in rain is measured by collecting samples of rain and measuring its pH. To
find the distribution of rain acidity, weather conditions are monitored and rain
samples are collected at sites all over the country. The areas of greatest acidity
(lowest pH values) are located in the Northeastern United States. This pattern of
high acidity is caused by the large number of cities, the dense population, and the
concentration of power and industrial plants in the Northeast. In addition, the
prevailing wind direction brings storms and pollution to the Northeast from the
Midwest, and dust from the soil and rocks in the Northeastern United States is less
likely to neutralize acidity in the rain.

A pH distribution map shows areas in the continental United States of greatest

acidity in the rain.

Acid rain's pH, and the chemicals that cause acid rain, are monitored by two
networks, both supported by EPA. The National Atmospheric Deposition Program
measures wet deposition, and its features maps of rainfall pH (follow the link to the
isopleth maps) and other important precipitation chemistry measurements.

The Clean Air Status and Trends Network (CASTNET) measures dry deposition.
Its Web site features information about the data it collects, the measuring sites, and
the kinds of equipment it uses.

What Are Acid Rain's Effects?

Acid deposition has a variety of effects, including damage to forests and soils, fish
and other living things, materials, and human health. Acid rain also reduces how far
and how clearly we can see through the air, an effect called visibility reduction.

The extra acidity in rain comes from the reaction of air pollutants, primarily sulfur
oxides and nitrogen oxides, with water in the air to form strong acids (like sulfuric
and nitric acid). The main sources of these pollutants are vehicles and industrial and
power-generating plants. In Washington, the main local sources are cars, trucks,
and buses.
When you hear or read in the media about the effects of acid rain, you are usually
told about the lakes, fish, and trees in New England and Canada. However, we are
becoming aware of an additional concern: many of our historic buildings and
monuments are located in the areas of highest acidity. In Europe, where buildings
are much older and pollution levels have been ten times greater than in the United
States, there is a growing awareness that pollution and acid rain are accelerating the
deterioration of buildings and monuments.

Stone weathers (deteriorates) as part of the normal geologic cycle through natural
chemical, physical, and biological processes when it is exposed to the environment.
This weathering process, over hundreds of millions of years, turned the
Appalachian Mountains from towering peaks as high as the Rockies to the rounded
knobs we see today. Our concern is that air pollution, particularly in urban areas,
may be accelerating the normal, natural rate of stone deterioration, so that we may
prematurely lose buildings and sculptures of historic or cultural value.

How Acid Rain Affects the Environment

Acid rain is an extremely destructive form of pollution, and the environment suffers
from its effects. Forests, trees, lakes, animals, and plants suffer from acid rain.

Trees are an extremely important natural resource. They provide timber,

regulate local climate, and forests are homes to wildlife. Acid rain can make trees
lose their leaves or needles. The needles and leaves of the trees turn brown and fall
off. Trees can also suffer from stunted growth; and have damaged bark and leaves,
which makes them vulnerable to weather, disease, and insects. All of this happens
partly because of direct contact between trees and acid rain, but it also happens
when trees absorb soil that has come into contact with acid rain. The soil poisons the
tree with toxic substances that the rain has deposited into it.

Effects of Acid Rain: Lakes & Streams

Lakes are also damaged by acid rain. A lake polluted by acid rain will support
only the hardiest species. Fish die off, and that removes the main source of food
for birds. Also, birds can die from eating "toxic" fish and insects. Just as birds can
be killed from eating toxic fish, fish can die from eating animals that are toxic. Acid
rain can even kill fish before they are born. Acid rain hits the lakes mostly in the
springtime, when fish lay their eggs. The eggs come into contact with the acid, and
the entire generation can be killed. Fish usually die only when the acid level of a lake
is high; when the acid level is lower, they can become sick, suffer stunted growth, or
lose their ability to reproduce.

The ecological effects of acid rain are most clearly seen in the aquatic, or water,
environments. Acid rain flows to streams, lakes, and marshes after falling on forests,
fields, buildings, and roads. Acid rain also falls directly on aquatic habitats. Most
lakes and streams have a pH between 6 and 8, although some lakes are naturally
acidic even without the effects of acid rain. Acid rain primarily affects sensitive
bodies of water, which are located in watersheds whose soils have a limited ability to
neutralize acidic compounds (called "buffering capacity"). Lakes and streams
become acidic (pH value goes down) when the water itself and its surrounding soil
cannot buffer the acid rain enough to neutralize it. In areas where buffering
capacity is low, acid rain also releases aluminum from soils into lakes and streams;
aluminum is highly toxic to many species of aquatic organisms.

Where Does Acid Rain Affect Lakes and Streams?

How Does Acid Rain Affect Fish and Other Aquatic Organisms?

How Does Acid Rain Affect Ecosystems?

What is the Role of Nitrogen in Acid Rain and other Environmental Problems?

How is the Acid Rain Program Addressing These Issues?

Where Does Acid Rain Affect Lakes and Streams?

Many lakes and streams examined in a National Surface Water Survey (NSWS)
suffer from chronic acidity, a condition in which water has a constant low pH level.
The survey investigated the effects of acidic deposition in over 1,000 lakes larger
than 10 acres and in thousands of miles of streams believed to be sensitive to
acidification. Of the lakes and streams surveyed, acid rain caused acidity in 75
percent of the acidic lakes and about 50 percent of the acidic streams. Several
regions in the U.S. were identified as containing many of the surface waters sensitive
to acidification. They include the Adirondacks and Catskill Mountains in New York
state, the mid-Appalachian highlands along the east coast, the upper Midwest, and
mountainous areas of the Western United States. In areas like the Northeastern
United States, where soil buffering capacity is poor, some lakes now have a pH value
of less than 5. One of the most acidic lakes reported is Little Echo Pond in Franklin,
New York. Little Echo Pond has a pH of 4.2.

Streams flowing over soil with low buffering capacity are as susceptible to damage
from acid rain as lakes. Approximately 580 of the streams in the Mid-Atlantic
Coastal Plain are acidic primarily due to acidic deposition. In the New Jersey Pine
Barrens, for example, over 90 percent of the streams are acidic, which is the highest
rate of acidic streams in the nation. Over 1,350 of the streams in the Mid-Atlantic
Highlands (mid-Appalachia) are acidic, primarily due to acidic deposition.

The acidification problem in both the United States and Canada grows in
magnitude if "episodic acidification" is taken into account. Episodic acidification
refers to brief periods during which pH levels decrease due to runoff from melting
snow or heavy downpours. Lakes and streams in many areas throughout the United
States are sensitive to episodic acidification. In the Mid-Appalachians, the Mid-
Atlantic Coastal Plain, and the Adirondack Mountains, many additional lakes and
streams become temporarily acidic during storms and spring snowmelt. For
example, approximately 70 percent of sensitive lakes in the Adirondacks are at risk
of episodic acidification. This amount is over three times the amount of chronically
acidic lakes. In the mid-Appalachians, approximately 30 percent of sensitive streams
are likely to become acidic during an episode. This level is seven times the number
of chronically acidic streams in that area. Episodic acidification can cause "fish
kills."

Emissions from U.S. sources also contribute to acidic deposition in eastern Canada,
where the soil is very similar to the soil of the Adirondack Mountains, and the lakes
are consequently extremely vulnerable to chronic acidification problems. The
Canadian government has estimated that 14,000 lakes in eastern Canada are acidic.

How Does Acid Rain Affect Fish and Other Aquatic Organisms?
The most dramatic reports of acid rain damages in the early 70s, were those of
Ontario lakes having irreversible fish losses. Dead fish were washing up along the
beaches, and the term "wet desert" was being used to describe the clear, blue,
fishless lakes. Ontario now has over 100 fishless acidified lakes. Species such as lake
trout (see top), wall-eye, burbot and smallmouth bass have disappeared from most
of these lakes. Starting in 1981, 202 lakes were monitored in Ontario, Quebec and
the Atlantic Provinces, and in 1994, 33% showed some improvement in acidity while
11% were worse. The remaining 56% had stable acidity levels.

Ontario lakes are especially sensitive to acid rain because of the hard bedrock of the
Canadian Shield (an ancient sheet of Precambrian granite) and the poor soil cover
which has poor buffering ability. It was first believed that the fish deaths were
caused by the acids themselves, however, research has since shown that the high
levels of aluminum (a toxic heavy metal) that were leached from the soil, was the
real cause of the deaths. Aluminum can be acutely toxic to fish at pH levels that are
not normally considered toxic to humans. A concentration as low as 6.2mg/L is
known to kill fish.

There are two ways in which aluminum kills fish. Firstly, it is able to reduce the ion
exchange through the gills and subsequently causes a salt depletion. Aluminum also
precipitates in the gills and interferes with the transport of oxygen and other ions, so
that the fish literally dies of suffocation. Secondly, the fish will exude mucus to
combat the aluminum in their gills. This mucus builds up and clogs the gills so that
oxygen and salt transport is inhibited. Research has shown that dead fish had low
levels of Na+ and Cl- in the blood. This means that they were unable to regulate
their body salts.

Summarized effects of pH on Aquatic Life

pH Effect

 toxic to most fish

 some plants and invertebrates can survive such as the

3.5 - 3.0 waterbug (Hemiptera and Heteroptera), water boatmen
(Corixidae) and white mosses (Sphagnum)
* salmonids are fish that belong in the Family Salmonidae.
They include trouts, whitfish, salmon and smelts.

4.0 - 3.5  lethal to salmonids

 harmful to salmonids, tench, bream, roach, goldfish and

the common carp
4.0 -4.5
 all stock of fish disappear because embryos fail to mature
at this level

 harmful to salmonid eggs, fry and the common carp

5.0 - 4.5  the lake is usually considered dead and a "wet desert"

 it is unable to support a variety of life

 critical pH level, when the ecology of the lake changes

greatly

 the number and variety of species begin to change

 salmon, roach and minnow begin to become less diverse

6.0 - 5.0
 less diversity in algae, zooplankton, aquatic insects, insect
larvae

 rainbow trout do not occur and molluscs become rare

 there is a great decline in salmonid fishing

  usually there is a high concentration of aluminum present

 the fungi and bacteria that are important in organic

matter decomposition are not tolerant so the organic matter
degrades more slowly and valuable nutrients are trapped at
the bed and are not released back into the ecosystem

 most of the green algae and diatoms (siliceous

phytoplankton) that are normally present disappear.. The
reduction in green plants allows light to penetrate further so
acid lakes seem crystal clear and blue

 snails and phytoplankton disappear

9.0 - 6.5  harmless to most fish

9.5 - 9.0  harmful to salmonids, harmful to perch if persistent

10.0 - 9.5  slowly lethal to salmonids

11.0 - 10.5  lethal to salmonids*, carp, tench, goldfish and pike

11.5 - 11.0  lethal to all fish

Other organisms are also affected by acidic water. Low pH often stunts the growth
of frogs, toads and salamanders. However, some acid-tolerant species like the
smooth newt (Triturus vulgaris) can tolerate the acidity and can occupy and
outcompete toad and frog niches. The acid rain not only kills off species, but also
alters and decreases the food supply for higher fauna. For example, a decline in
benthos (bottom-dwelling organisms) can lead to a decline in the number of species
of flies, mosquitoes, craneflies, midges and mayflies. This puts a stress on aquatic
carnivores (such as insect-eating fish). Predatory birds like flycatchers can eat the
fish and end up with high concentrations of aluminum. The birds will then produce
eggs with soft shells and the young rarely survive.

Another devastation to the ecosystem may occur in changes in the chemistry of the
water. For example, phosphates can be complexed (attached) to the mobilized
aluminum and will reduce the primary production of the aquatic plants. Phosphate
is a limiting nutrient for plants. The decrease in plant food will thereby limit the
populations higher in the food chain.

So, acid rain causes a cascade of effects that harm or kill individual fish, reduce fish
population numbers, completely eliminate fish species from a waterbody, and
decrease biodiversity. As acid rain flows through soils in a watershed, aluminum is
released from soils into the lakes and streams located in that watershed. So, as pH in
a lake or stream decreases, aluminum levels increase. Both low pH and increased
aluminum levels are directly toxic to fish. In addition, low pH and increased
aluminum levels cause chronic stress that may not kill individual fish, but leads to
lower body weight and smaller size and makes fish less able to compete for food and
habitat.

Some types of plants and animals are able to tolerate acidic waters. Others,
however, are acid-sensitive and will be lost as the pH declines. Generally, the young
of most species are more sensitive to environmental conditions than adults. At pH 5,
most fish eggs cannot hatch. At lower pH levels, some adult fish die. Some acid lakes
have no fish. The chart below shows that not all fish, shellfish, or the insects that
they eat can tolerate the same amount of acid; for example, frogs can tolerate water
that is more acidic (has lower pH) than trout.

How Does Acid Rain Affect Ecosystems?

Together, biological organisms and the environment in which they live are called an
ecosystem. The plants and animals living within an ecosystem are highly
interdependent. For example, frogs may tolerate relatively high levels of acidity, but
if they eat insects like the mayfly, they may be affected because part of their food
supply may disappear. Because of the connections between the many fish, plants,
and other organisms living in an aquatic ecosystem, changes in pH or aluminum
levels affect biodiversity as well. Thus, as lakes and streams become more acidic, the
numbers and types of fish and other aquatic plants and animals that live in these
waters decrease.
What is the Role of Nitrogen in Acid Rain and other Environmental
Problems?
The impact of nitrogen on surface waters is also critical. Nitrogen plays a significant
role in episodic acidification and new research recognizes the importance of
nitrogen in long-term chronic acidification as well. Furthermore, the adverse impact
of atmospheric nitrogen deposition on estuaries and near-coastal water bodies is
significant. Scientists estimate that from 10-45 percent of the nitrogen produced by
various human activities that reaches estuaries and coastal ecosystems is
transported and deposited via the atmosphere. For example, about 30 percent of the
nitrogen in the Chesapeake Bay comes from atmospheric deposition. Nitrogen is an
important factor in causing eutrophication (oxygen depletion) of water bodies. The
symptoms of eutrophication include blooms of algae (both toxic and non-toxic),
declines in the health of fish and shellfish, loss of seagrass beds and coral reefs, and
ecological changes in food webs. According to the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, these conditions are common in many of our nation's
coastal ecosystems. These ecological changes impact human populations by
changing the availability of seafood and creating a risk of consuming contaminated
fish or shellfish, reducing our ability to use and enjoy our coastal ecosystems, and
causing economic impact on people who rely on healthy coastal ecosystems, such as
fishermen and those who cater to tourists.

How is the Acid Rain Program Addressing These Issues?

Acid rain control will produce significant benefits in terms of lowered surface water
acidity. If acidic deposition levels were to remain constant over the next 50 years
(the time frame used for projection models), the acidification rate of lakes in the
Adirondack Mountains that are larger than 10 acres would rise by 50 percent or
more. Scientists predict, however, that the decrease in SO2 emissions required by
the Acid Rain Program will significantly reduce acidification due to atmospheric
sulfur. Without the reductions in SO2 emissions, the proportions of acidic aquatic
ecosystems would remain high or dramatically worsen

Effects of Acid Rain: Forests

Over the years, scientists, foresters, and others have watched some forests grow
more slowly without knowing why. The trees in these forests do not grow as quickly
at a healthy pace. Leaves and needles turn brown and fall off when they should be
green and healthy. In extreme cases, individual trees or entire areas of the forest
simply die off without an obvious reason.

Researchers now know that acid rain causes slower growth, injury, or death of
forests. Acid rain has been implicated in forest and soil degradation in many areas
of the eastern United States, particularly high elevation forests of the Appalachian
Mountains from Maine to Georgia that include areas such as the Shenandoah and
Great Smoky Mountain National Parks. Of course, acid rain is not the only cause of
such conditions. Other things that add stress, such as air pollutants, insects, disease,
drought, or very cold weather also harm trees and plants. In most cases, in fact, the
impacts of acid rain on trees occur due to the combined effects of acid rain and these
other environmental stressors. After many years of collecting information on the
chemistry and biology of forests, researchers are beginning to understand how acid
rain works on the forest soil, trees, and other plants.

Acid Rain on the Forest Floor

A spring shower in the forest washes leaves and falls through the trees to the forest
floor below. Some trickles over the ground and runs into a stream, river, or lake,
and some of the water soaks into the soil. That soil may neutralize some or all of the
acidity of the acid rainwater. This ability is called buffering capacity, and without it,
soils become more acidic. Differences in soil buffering capacity are an important
reason why some areas that receive acid rain show a lot of damage, while other
areas that receive about the same amount of acid rain do not appear to be harmed
at all. The ability of forest soils to resist, or buffer, acidity depends on the thickness
and composition of the soil, as well as the type of bedrock beneath the forest floor.
Midwestern states like Nebraska and Indiana have soils that are well buffered.
Places in the mountainous northeast, like New York's Adirondack and Catskill
Mountains, have thin soils with low buffering capacity.

How Acid Rain Harms Trees

Acid rain does not usually kill trees directly. Instead, it is more likely to weaken
trees by damaging their leaves, limiting the nutrients available to them, or exposing
them to toxic substances slowly released from the soil. Quite often, injury or death
of trees is a result of these effects of acid rain in combination with one or more
additional threats.

Scientists know that acidic water dissolves the nutrients and helpful minerals in the
soil and then washes them away before trees and other plants can use them to grow.
At the same time, acid rain causes the release of substances that are toxic to trees
and plants, such as aluminum, into the soil. Scientists believe that this combination
of loss of soil nutrients and increase of toxic aluminum may be one way that acid
rain harms trees. Such substances also wash away in the runoff and are carried into
streams, rivers, and lakes. More of these substances are released from the soil when
the rainfall is more acidic.

However, trees can be damaged by acid rain even if the soil is well buffered. Forests
in high mountain regions often are exposed to greater amounts of acid than other
forests because they tend to be surrounded by acidic clouds and fog that are more
acidic than rainfall. Scientists believe that when leaves are frequently bathed in this
acid fog, essential nutrients in their leaves and needles are stripped away. This loss
of nutrients in their foliage makes trees more susceptible to damage by other
environmental factors, particularly cold winter weather.

How Acid Rain Affects Other Plants

Acid rain can harm other plants in the same way it harms trees. Although damaged
by other air pollutants such as ground level ozone, food crops are not usually
seriously affected because farmers frequently add fertilizers to the soil to replace
nutrients that have washed away. They may also add crushed limestone to the soil.
Limestone is an alkaline material and increases the ability of the soil to act as a
buffer against acidity.

The Effects of Acid Rain on Automotive Coatings

Over the past two decades, there have been numerous reports of damage to
automotive paints and other coatings. The reported damage typically occurs on
horizontal surfaces and appears as irregularly shaped, permanently etched areas.
The damage can best be detected under fluorescent lamps, can be most easily
observed on dark colored vehicles, and appears to occur after evaporation of a
moisture droplet. In addition, some evidence suggests damage occurs most
frequently on freshly painted vehicles. Usually the damage is permanent; once it has
occurred, the only solution is to repaint.

The general consensus within the auto industry is that the damage is caused by some
form of environmental fallout. "Environmental fallout," a term widely used in the
auto and coatings industries, refers to damage caused by air pollution (e.g., acid
rain), decaying insects, bird droppings, pollen, and tree sap. The results of
laboratory experiments and at least one field study have demonstrated that acid
rain can scar automotive coatings. Furthermore, chemical analyses of the damaged
areas of some exposed test panels showed elevated levels of sulfate, implicating acid
rain.

The popular term "acid rain" refers to both wet and dry deposition of acidic
pollutants that may damage material surfaces, including auto finishes. These
pollutants, which are released when coal and other fossil fuels are burned, react
with water vapor and oxidants in the atmosphere and are chemically transformed
into sulfuric and nitric acids. The acidic compounds then may fall to earth as rain,
snow, fog, or may join dry particles and fall as dry deposition. Automotive coatings
may be damaged by all forms of acid rain, including dry deposition, especially when
dry acidic deposition is mixed with dew or rain. However, it has been difficult to
quantify the specific contribution of acid rain to paint finish damage relative to
damage caused by other forms of environmental fallout, by the improper
application of paint or by deficient paint formulations. According to coating experts,
trained specialists can differentiate between the various forms of damage, but the
best way of determining the cause of chemically induced damage is to conduct a
detailed, chemical analysis of the damaged area.
Because evaporation of acidic moisture appears to be a key element in the damage,
any steps taken to eliminate its occurrence on freshly painted vehicles may alleviate
the problem. The steps include frequent washing followed by hand drying, covering
the vehicle during precipitation events, and use of one of the protective coatings
currently on the market that claim to protect the original finish. (However, data on
the performance of these coatings are not yet sufficient.)

The auto and coatings industries are fully aware of the potential damage and are
actively pursuing the development of coatings that are more resistant to
environmental fallout, including acid rain. The problem is not a universal one-- it
does not affect all coatings or all vehicles even in geographic areas known to be
subject to acid rain-- which suggests that technology exists to protect against this
damage. Until that technology is implemented to protect all vehicles or until acid
deposition is adequately reduced, frequent washing and drying and covering the
vehicle appear to be the best methods for consume

Effects of Acid Rain: Materials

Acid rain and the dry deposition of acidic particles contribute to the corrosion of
metals (such as bronze) and the deterioration of paint and stone (such as marble
and limestone). These effects seriously reduce the value to society of buildings,
bridges, cultural objects (such as statues, monuments, and tombstones), and cars.

Architecture and artwork can be destroyed by acid rain. Acid particles can land on
buildings, causing corrosion. When sulfur pollutants fall of the sufaces of buildings
(especially those made out of sandstone or limestone), they react with the minerals
in the stone to form a powdery substance that can be washed away by rain. This
powdery substance is called gypsum. Acid rain can damage buildings, stained glass,
railroad lines, airplanes, cars, steel bridges, and underground pipes.

Currently, both the railway industry and the airplane industry are having to spend
a lot of money to repair the corrosive damage done by acid rain. Also, bridges have
collapsed in the past due to acid rain corrosion.

Acid precipitation affects stone primarily in two ways: dissolution and alteration.
It can be especially damaging to buildings made of limestone and marble.
Limestone and marble are primarily composed of the mineral calcite (calcium
carbonate, CaCO3), which dissolves readily in weak sulfurous, sulfuric, and nitric
acids. In exposed areas of buildings and statues, we see roughened surfaces,
removal of material, and loss of carved details. Stone surface material may be lost
all over or only in spots that are more reactive. On one hand, some soils that
contain the calcium carbonate, have a natural ability to neutralize acids, the H + is
removed due to the reaction:

CaCO3 + 2H+ Ca2+ +CO2 + H2O

Also when soil-dust particles that contain CaCO3 collide in the air with acidified
raindrops, that reaction takes place. Unfortunately, the same process is partly
responsible for the erosion of monuments and buildings made of marble or
limestone. When water containing sulfuric acid coats a calcite surface, the
hydrogen ion H+ dissolves the calcite, as described above, and the sulfate ion reacts
with the calcium ions and forms a clear-to-white gypsum crust over the marble or
limestone:

Ca2+ +SO42- + 2H2O CaSO4 * 2H2O

Rain over time removes some of the gypsum crust, creating tiny crevices and
causing erosion. Another reaction concerns nitric acid which dissociates the
calcium carbonate:

CaCO3 + 2HNO3(aq) -> Ca2+(aq) + 2NO-3(aq) + H2O + CO2

Even though acid rain has been reduced in recent years in many regions, buildings
are still showing signs of damage. This is because the acid rain has permanently
changed the stones from which the building is made. Even metals get corroded by
acid rains. Other vulnerable materials include carbon-steel, nickel, zinc, copper,
paint, some plastics, leather and textiles. Stainless steel and aluminium are more
resistant materials.

The restoration of monuments and buildings is costly. For example, Westminister

Abby in London, England faced up to ten million pounds worth of repairs due to
acid rain before the early 1990s. However, although the economic losses can be
calculated, the aesthetical aspects of the world's cultural treasures cannot be price-
tagged. The Taj Mahal in India, the Acropolis and even newer buildings Canada's
Parliament Building and the U.S. Capitol Building are seeing the effects of acid
rain.
Dry deposition of acidic compounds can also dirty buildings and other structures,
leading to increased maintenance costs. To reduce damage to automotive paint
caused by acid rain and acidic dry deposition, some manufacturers use acid-
resistant paints, at an average cost of $5 for each new vehicle.

To observe the effects of acid rain on marble and limestone, two building materials
commonly used in monuments, ancient buildings, and in many modern structures:

Place a piece of chalk in a bowl with white vinegar.

Place another piece in a bowl of tap water.

Leave the dishes overnight.

The next day, see if you can tell which piece of chalk is more worn away.

This experiment with chalk allows you to see the effect of acid rain on marble and
limestone because chalk is made of calcium carbonate, a compound occurring in
rocks, such as marble and limestone, and in animal bones, shells, and teeth.
Effects of Acid Rain: Human Health
Acid rain looks, feels, and tastes just like clean rain. The harm to people from acid
rain is not direct. Walking in acid rain, or even swimming in an acid lake, is no more
dangerous than walking or swimming in clean water. However, the pollutants that
cause acid rain (sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx)) also damage human
health. These gases interact in the atmosphere to form fine sulfate and nitrate
particles that can be transported long distances by winds and inhaled deep into
people's lungs. Fine particles can also penetrate indoors. Many scientific studies have
identified a relationship between elevated levels of fine particles and increased illness
and premature death from heart and lung disorders, such as asthma and bronchitis.

Humans can become seriously ill, and can even die from the effects of acid rain. One
of the major problems that acid rain can cause in a human being is respiratory
problems. Many can find it difficult to breathe, especially people who have asthma.
Asthma, along with dry coughs, headaches, and throat irritations can be caused by
the sulfur dioxides and nitrogen oxides from acid rain.

Acid rain can be absorbed by both plants (through soil and/or direct contact) and
animals (from things they eat and/or direct contact). When humans eat these plants or
animals, the toxins inside of their meals can affect them. Brain damage, kidney
problems, and Alzheimer's disease has been linked to people eating "toxic"
animals/plants.

Based on health concerns, SO2 and NOx have historically been regulated under the
Clean Air Act, including the Acid Rain Program. In the eastern United States, sulfate
aerosols make up about 25 percent of fine particles.By lowering SO2 and NOx
emissions from power generation, the Acid Rain Program will reduce the levels of fine
sulfate and nitrate particles and so reduce the incidence and the severity of these
health problems (asthma and bronchitis).

Decreases in nitrogen oxide emissions are also expected to have a beneficial impact on
human health by reducing the nitrogen oxides available to react with volatile organic
compounds and form ozone. Ozone impacts on human health include a number of
morbidity and mortality risks associated with lung inflammation, including asthma
and emphysema.

Effects of Acid Rain: Visibility Reduction

Sulfates and nitrates that form in the atmosphere from sulfur dioxide (SO2) and
nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions contribute to visibility impairment, meaning we
can't see as far or as clearly through the air. Sulfate particles account for 50 to 70
percent of the visibility reduction in the eastern part of the United States.

Solutions to the Acid Rain Problem

Acid rain is a big problem, but it is not unstoppable. If the amount of sulfur dioxides
and nitrogen oxides in the air is reduced, then acid rain will be reduced. There are
many helpful things that "normal" people (people who aren't part of a power
company or the government) can do. First of all, conserve energy and pollute less!
Use less electricity; and carpool, use public transportation, or walk when you can.
This will help more than one might think. When less energy is used, less coal is
burnt, and as a result, there is less acid rain. Experts say that if energy was used
more carefully, we could cut the amount of fuel burned in half!

Also, if coal was cleaned before it was burnt, the dangerous pollutants that cause
acid rain would be cleaned away. If coal is crushed and washed in water, the sulfur
washes out. However, this is a very costly method, and many power companies and
governments do not want to spend their money cleaning coal. It is also costly to
burn low-sulfur coal (low-sulfur coal gives off less sulfur in the air as opposed to
high-sulfur coal).

What Society Can Do About Acid Deposition

There are several ways to reduce acid deposition, more properly called acid
deposition, ranging from societal changes to individual action.

Understand acid deposition's causes and effects

Clean up smokestacks and exhaust pipes

Use alternative energy sources

Restore a damaged environment

Look to the future

Take action as individuals

Understand acid deposition's causes and effects

To understand acid deposition's causes and effects and track changes in the
environment, scientists processes as they collect air and water samples and measure
them for various characteristics like pH and chemical composition,. and they
research the effects of acid deposition on human-made materials such as marble and
bronze. Finally, scientists work to understand the effects of sulfur dioxide (SO 2) and
nitrogen oxides (NOx) - the pollutants that cause acid deposition and fine particles -
on human health.

To solve the acid rain problem, people need to understand how acid rain causes
damage to the environment. They also need to understand what changes could be
made to the air pollution sources that cause the problem. The answers to these
questions help leaders make better decisions about how to control air pollution and
therefore how to reduce - or even eliminate - acid rain. Since there are many
solutions to the acid rain problem, leaders have a choice of which options or
combination of options are best.

Clean up smokestacks and exhaust pipes

Almost all of the electricity that powers modern life comes from burning fossil fuels
like coal, natural gas, and oil. Acid deposition is caused by two pollutants that are
released into the atmosphere, or emitted, when these fuels are burned: sulfur
dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx).

There are several options for reducing SO2 emissions, including using coal
containing less sulfur, washing the coal, and using devices called scrubbers to
chemically remove the SO2 from the gases leaving the smokestack. Power plants can
also switch fuels; for example burning natural gas creates much less SO2 than
burning coal. Certain approaches will also have additional benefits of reducing
other pollutants such as mercury and carbon dioxide. Understanding these "co-
benefits" has become important in seeking cost-effective air pollution reduction
strategies. Finally, power plants can use technologies that don't burn fossil fuels.
Each of these options has its own costs and benefits, however; there is no single
universal solution.

Similar to scrubbers on power plants, catalytic converters reduce NOx emissions

from cars. These devices have been required for over twenty years in the US, and it
is important to keep them working properly and tailpipe restrictions have been
tightened recently. EPA has also made, and continues to make, changes to gasoline
that allows it to burn cleaner.

Use alternative energy sources

There are other sources of electricity besides fossil fuels. They include: nuclear
power, hydropower, wind energy, geothermal energy, and solar energy. Of these,
nuclear and hydropower are used most widely; wind, solar, and geothermal energy
have not yet been harnessed on a large scale in this country.

There are also alternative energies available to power automobiles, including

natural gas powered vehicles, battery-powered cars, fuel cells, and combinations of
alternative and gasoline powered vehicles.

All sources of energy have environmental costs as well as benefits. Some types of
energy are more expensive to produce than others, which means that not all
Americans can afford all types of energy. Nuclear power, hydropower, and coal are
the cheapest forms today, but changes in technologies and environmental
regulations may shift that in the future. All of these factors must be weighed when
deciding which energy source to use today and which to invest in for tomorrow.

Restore a damaged environment

Acid deposition penetrates deeply into the fabric of an ecosystem, changing the
chemistry of the soil as well as the chemistry of the streams and narrowing,
sometimes to nothing, the space where certain plants and animals can survive.
Because there are so many changes, it takes many years for ecosystems to recover
from acid deposition, even after emissions are reduced and the rain becomes normal
again. For example, while the visibility might improve within days, and small or
episodic chemical changes in streams improve within months, chronically acidified
lakes, streams, forests, and soils can take years to decades or even centuries (in the
case of soils) to heal.

However, there are some things that people do to bring back lakes and streams
more quickly. Limestone or lime (a naturally-occurring basic compound) can be
added to acidic lakes to "cancel out" the acidity. This process, called liming, has
been used extensively in Norway and Sweden but is not used very often in the
United States. Liming tends to be expensive, has to be done repeatedly to keep the
water from returning to its acidic condition, and is considered a short-term remedy
in only specific areas rather than an effort to reduce or prevent pollution.
Furthermore, it does not solve the broader problems of changes in soil chemistry
and forest health in the watershed, and does nothing to address visibility reductions,
materials damage, and risk to human health. However, liming does often permit fish
to remain in a lake, so it allows the native population to survive in place until
emissions reductions reduce the amount of acid deposition in the area.

Look to the future

As emissions from the largest known sources of acid deposition - power plants and
automobiles-are reduced, scientists and their colleagues must assess the reductions
to make sure they are achieving the results. If these assessments show that acid
deposition is still harming the environment, Congress may begin to consider
additional ways to reduce emissions that cause acid deposition. They may consider
additional emissions reductions from sources that have already been controlled, or
methods to reduce emissions from other sources. They may also invest in energy
efficiency and alternative energy. The cutting edge of protecting the environment
from acid deposition will continue to develop and implement cost-effective
mechanisms to cut emissions and reduce their impact on the environment.

Take action as individuals

It may seem like there is not much that one individual can do to stop acid
deposition. However, like many environmental problems, acid deposition is caused
by the cumulative actions of millions of individual people. Therefore, each
individual can also reduce their contribution to the problem and become part of the
solution. One of the first steps is to understand the problem and its solutions.

Individuals can contribute directly by conserving energy, since energy production

causes the largest portion of the acid deposition problem. For example, you can:

Turn off lights, computers, and other appliances when you're not using them

Use energy efficient appliances: lighting, air conditioners, heaters, refrigerators,

washing machines, etc.

Only use electric appliances when you need them.

Insulate your home as best you can.

Carpool, use public transportation, or better yet, walk or bicycle whenever possible

Buy vehicles with low NOx emissions, and maintain all vehicles well.

Be well-informed.
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